Lecture SlidesGive Me Liberty! AN AMERICAN HISTORYFIFTH ED.docx

Lecture Slides
Give Me Liberty!
AN AMERICAN HISTORY
FIFTH EDITION
By Eric Foner
1
Chapter 22: Fighting for the Four Freedoms: World War II,
1941 to 1945
The most popular works of art in World War II were paintings
of the Four Freedoms by Norman Rockwell. In his State of the
Union address before Congress in January 1941, President
Roosevelt spoke of a future world order based on “essential
human freedoms”: freedom of speech, freedom of worship,
freedom from want, and freedom from fear. During the war,
Roosevelt emphasized these freedoms as the Allies’ war aims,
and he compared them to the Ten Commandments, the Magna
Carta, and the Emancipation Proclamation. In his paintings,
created in 1943, Rockwell portrayed ordinary Americans
exercising these freedoms: a citizen speaking at a town meeting,
members of different religious groups at prayer, a family
enjoying a Thanksgiving dinner, and a mother and father
standing over a sleeping child.
Though Rockwell presented images of small-town American

life, the United States changed dramatically in the course of the
war. Many postwar trends and social movements had wartime
origins. As with World War I, but on a far greater scale,
wartime mobilization expanded the size and reach of
government and stimulated the economy. Industrial output
skyrocketed and unemployment disappeared as war production
finally ended the Depression. Demands for labor drew millions
of women into the workforce and lured millions of migrants
from rural America to industrial cities of the North and West,
permanently changing the nation’s social geography.
The war also gave the United States a new and lasting
international role and reinforced the idea that America’s
security required the global dominance of American values and
power. Government military spending unleashed rapid economic
development in the South and West, laying the basis for the
modern Sunbelt. The war created a close alliance between big
business and a militarized federal government—what President
Dwight D. Eisenhower later called the “military-industrial
complex.”
And the war reshaped the boundaries of American nationality.
The government recognized the contributions of America’s
ethnic groups as loyal Americans. Black Americans’ second-
class status attracted national attention. But toleration went
only so far. The United States, at war with Japan, forced more
than 100,000 Japanese-Americans, including citizens, into
internment camps.
The Four Freedoms thus produced a national unity that obscured
divisions within America: divisions over whether free enterprise
or the freedom of a global New Deal would dominate after the
war, whether civil rights or white supremacy would define race
relations, and whether women would return to traditional roles
in the household or enter the labor market. The emphasis on
freedom as an element of private life would become more and

more prominent in postwar America.
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World War II Posters
Give Me Liberty!: An American History, 5th Edition
Copyright © 2017 W. W. Norton & Company
3
Part of a sheet of fifty miniature reproductions of World War II
poster.
Lecture Preview
Fighting World War II
The Home Front
Visions of Postwar Freedom
The American Dilemma
The End of the War
The subtopics for this lecture are listed on the screen above.
4
Focus Question: Fighting World War II
Focus Question:
What steps led to American participation in World War II?
5
The purpose of the focus questions is to help students find
larger themes and structures to bring the historical evidence,
events, and examples together for a connected thematic purpose.

As we go through each portion of this lecture, you may want to
keep in mind how the information relates to this larger thematic
question. Here are some suggestions: write the focus question in
the left or right margin on your notes and as we go through,
either mark areas of your notes for you to come back to later
and think about the connection, OR as you review your notes
later (to fill in anything else you remember from the lecture or
your thoughts during the lecture or additional information from
the readings), write small phrases from the lecture and readings
that connect that information to each focus question AND/OR
are examples that work together to answer the focus question.
FDR’s Foreign Policy
Good Neighbors
The Road to War
With the country facing economic crisis in the 1930s,
international affairs garnered little public attention. But FDR
innovated in foreign and domestic policy. In 1933, trying to
encourage trade, he recognized the Soviet Union. Roosevelt also
repudiated the right to intervene with military force in the
internal affairs of Latin American nations, called the Good
Neighbor policy. The United States withdrew troops from Haiti
and Nicaragua and accepted Cuba’s repeal of the Platt
Amendment, which had authorized U.S. intervention in that
nation. But Roosevelt, like previous presidents, recognized
undemocratic governments like that of Somoza in Nicaragua,
Trujillo in the Dominican Republic, and Batista in Cuba.
However, the United States also took steps to counteract
German influence in Latin America by expanding trade and
promoting American culture.
Events in Asia and Europe quickly took center stage as
international order and the rule of law seemed to disintegrate. In
1931, seeking to expand its power in Asia, Japan invaded

Manchuria, a northern province in China. In 1937, it pushed
further, committing a massacre of 300,000 Chinese prisoners of
war and civilians at Nanjing. In Europe, Hitler, after
consolidating his rule within Germany, launched a campaign to
dominate the continent. He violated the Versailles Treaty by
pursuing a massive rearmament and, in 1936, by sending troops
into the Rhineland, a demilitarized zone between France and
Germany. The failure of Britain, France, and the United States
to oppose Hitler’s aggression convinced him that these
democracies would not resist his aggressions. Benito Mussolini,
the father of fascism in Italy, invaded and conquered Ethiopia.
When General Francisco Franco in 1936 mounted a rebellion
against the democratically elected government of Spain, Hitler
and Mussolini sent men and arms to support him. In 1939,
Franco won and established another fascist government in
Europe. Hitler annexed Austria and the Sudetenland, a German
area of Czechoslovakia, and soon thereafter invaded and
annexed all of that nation too.
Roosevelt became more and more alarmed by Hitler’s actions in
Germany and Europe, but in 1937 he called only for a
quarantine of aggressors. Roosevelt had little choice but to
follow the “appeasement” policy of France and Britain, who
hoped that agreeing to Hitler’s demands could prevent war. In
1938, British prime minister Neville Chamberlain returned from
the Munich conference of 1938, which awarded the Sudetenland
to Hitler, promising “peace in our time.”
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The Four Freedoms

7
The immensely popular Office of War Information poster
reproducing Norman Rockwell’s painting of The Four Freedoms
American Neutrality
Isolationism
War in Europe
The threat posed by Germany and Japan seemed distant to most
Americans, and, in fact, Hitler had many admirers in America,
from those who praised his anticommunism to businessmen who
profited from business with the Nazis, such as Henry Ford.
Trade also continued with Japan, including shipments of
American trucks, aircraft, and oil, which amounted to 80
percent of Japan’s oil supply. Many Americans now believed
that American involvement in World War I had been a mistake
and had benefited only international bankers and arms
producers. Pacifism attracted supporters across America, from
small towns to college campuses. Americans of German and
Italian descent also sympathized with fascist governments in
their homelands, and Irish-Americans remained staunchly anti-
British. Isolationism dominated Congress, which in 1935 started
enacting a series of Neutrality Acts banning travel on
belligerent ships and arms shipments to warring nations. These
were intended to prevent the United States from becoming
embroiled in these conflicts by demanding freedom of the seas,
just as it had in World War I. Even though the Spanish Civil
War was a conflict between a democratic republic and a fascist
dictator, the United States and other governments imposed an
arms embargo on both sides, effectively allowing Germany and
Italy to help Franco overwhelm Spanish government forces.
At Munich in 1938, Britain and France capitulated to Hitler’s

aggression. In 1939, the Soviet Union proposed an international
agreement to oppose further German demands for territory, but
Britain and France, distrusting Stalin and seeing Germany as a
fortress that would check communist power in Europe, declined.
Stalin soon signed a nonaggression pact with Hitler, his former
enemy. Hitler immediately invaded Poland. Britain and France,
allied with Poland, now declared war on Germany. Within a
year, the Nazi blitzkrieg (lightning war) overran Poland and
much of Scandinavia, Belgium, and the Netherlands. By June
1940, German troops occupied Paris. Hitler now dominated
Europe and North Africa, and in September 1940, Germany,
Italy, and Japan formally created a military alliance known as
the Axis.
For one year, Britain, led by a resolute prime minister, Winston
Churchill, alone resisted Germany, heroically defending its
skies from German planes and bombers in the Battle of Britain.
The Germans’ bombs devastated London and other cities, but
the German air campaign was eventually repelled. Churchill
pointedly called on the New World to rescue the Old.
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A European War
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In a 1940 cartoon, war clouds engulf Europe.
Spring 1940 Newsreel

10
A newsreel theater in New York’s Times Square announces
Hitler’s blitzkrieg.
Nearing War
Toward Intervention
Pearl Harbor
Though Roosevelt considered Hitler a direct threat to the United
States, most Americans simply wanted to avoid war. After
fierce debate, Congress in 1940 approved plans for military
rearmament and agreed to sell arms to Britain on a “cash and
carry” basis—Britain would pay in cash for arms and transport
them in British ships. But Roosevelt, mindful of the presidential
election, went no further. Opponents of American intervention
mobilized; they included such prominent individuals as Henry
Ford, Father Coughlin, and Charles A. Lindbergh. In that 1940
election, Roosevelt broke precedent by running for a third
presidential term. The Republican candidate was Wendell
Willkie, a Wall Street businessman, lawyer, and amateur
politician. Little differentiated the two, as both supported the
first peacetime draft law, passed in September 1940, and New
Deal social legislation. FDR won the election by a decisive
margin.
In 1941, the United States became closer to the nations fighting
Germany and Japan, and Roosevelt declared that America would
be a “great arsenal of democracy.” With Britain close to
bankruptcy, Roosevelt had Congress pass the Lend-Lease Act,
allowing military aid to countries who promised to repay it after

the war. Under Lend-Lease, the United States funneled billions
of dollars’ worth of arms to China and the Soviet Union. Some
Americans, called interventionists, actively campaigned for
American involvement in the war forming societies demanding
declarations of war against Germany.
On December 7, 1941, Japanese planes launched a surprise
attack from aircraft carriers, bombing the U.S. naval base at
Pearl Harbor in Hawaii. The assault killed more than 2,000
American soldiers and destroyed much of the base and the U.S.
Pacific Fleet—except for crucial U.S. aircraft carriers, which
helped win critical subsequent victories. Roosevelt, calling
December 7 a “date which will live in infamy,” asked Congress
to declare war on Japan, which it did nearly unanimously. The
next day Germany, in turn, declared war on America and the
United States had finally entered the largest war in history.
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West Virginia and Tennessee
12
This photograph shows the battleships West Virginia and
Tennessee burning in Pearl Harbor.
Forced Surrender

13
This photograph shows 13,000 Americans forced to surrender to
the Japanese in May 1942.
Military Engagement
The War in the Pacific
The War in Europe
Although in retrospect it seems that America’s robust industrial
capacity assured its victory over the Axis, success was not
sudden. The United States initially experienced a series of
military disasters and watched Japan take more territory in
Southeast Asia and the Pacific, including Guam, the Philippines
(capturing tens of thousands of U.S. troops, thousands of whom
died on the way to and within prisoner camps), and other
Pacific islands. The largest American surrender in American
history, 78,000 American and Filipino troops, occurred in the
Philippines. But the tide of the war changed in the late spring of
1942, with American naval victories at Midway Island and in
the Coral Sea. These successes allowed the United States to
begin a step-by-step “island-hopping” campaign to reclaim vital
and strategic territories in the Pacific.
The “Grand Alliance” led by American Franklin Roosevelt,
English Winston Churchill, and Soviet Joseph Stalin, banded
together to stop Hitler at any cost. Each leader had different
goals in mind, but Churchill’s plan to invade North Africa won
out over other strategic considerations and Churchill maintained
that the Allies needed to attack the “soft underbelly” of the
Axis. In November 1942, British and American forces invaded
North Africa and, by May 1943, forced the surrender of German
forces there. By this time, the Allies had also gained an
advantage in the fight in the Atlantic Ocean against German

submarines. While Roosevelt wanted to liberate Europe, most
American troops stayed in the Pacific. In July 1943, American
and British forces invaded Sicily and began the liberation of
Italy, whose government, led by Mussolini, was overthrown by
popular revolt. Fighting continued against German forces there
throughout 1944.
America’s fight in Europe began on June 6, 1944—D-Day. On
this date, nearly 200,000 American, British, and Canadian
soldiers led by General Dwight D. Eisenhower invaded
Normandy in northern France. More than a million troops soon
followed them, in the largest sea-land operation in history. The
Germans resisted but retreated, and by August, Paris had been
liberated. The most significant clashes, however, took place on
the eastern front, where millions of Germans and Soviet troops
faced each other in very costly battles, particularly at
Stalingrad, where a German siege ended in a German surrender
to the Soviets, a decisive defeat for Hitler. Other Russian
victories marked the end of Hitler’s advance and the beginning
of the end of the Nazi empire in eastern Europe. A full 10
million of Germany’s nearly 14 million casualties were inflicted
on the eastern front, and millions of Poles and Russians, many
of them civilians, perished.
Moreover, after 1941, Hitler embarked on his “final solution” to
eliminate people and groups he deemed undesirable including
Slavs, “gypsies,” homosexuals, and above all, Jews. By 1945, 6
million Jewish individuals had died in Nazi camps in the
culmination of horrifying Nazi ideology known as the
Holocaust.
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World War II in the Pacific 1941 to 1945
Map 22.1 World War II in the Pacific, 1941 to 1945

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Map 22.1 World War II in the Pacific, 1941–1945
World War II in Europe, 1942 to 1945
Map 22.2 World War II in Europe, 1942 to 1945
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Map 22.2 World War II in Europe, 1942–1945
Island Hopping
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Members of the U.S. Marine Corps, Navy, and Coast Guard
taking part in an amphibious assault while “island hopping” in
the Pacific theater.

German Prisoners of War
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German prisoners of war guarded by an American soldier, June
1944
Liberated Prisoners
19
This photograph shows prisoners of a German concentration
camp liberated by Allied troops in 1945.
Focus Question: The Home Front
Focus Question:
How did the United States mobilize economic resources and
promote popular support for the war effort?
20

Transforming the Federal Government
Mobilizing for War
By the end of World War II, some 50 million men had
registered for the draft and 10 million had been inducted into
the military. Military service united Americans from every walk
of life, bringing the children of immigrants into contact with
other Americans from a variety of racial and geographical
backgrounds. Further, the draft ensured that the burden of
military engagement was widely shared throughout American
society.
Within the United States, the war transformed the role of the
federal government. Roosevelt established new wartime
agencies such as the War Production Board, War Manpower
Commission, and Office of Price Administration to control
labor distribution, shipping, manufacturing quotas, and fix
wages, prices, and rents. The number of federal workers rose
from 1 million to 4 million, and unemployment, at a rate of 14
percent in 1940, virtually disappeared by 1943. The government
built housing for war workers and forced civilian companies to
produce material for the war effort. Auto plants now made
trucks, tanks, and jeeps for the army. The gross national product
more than doubled to $214 billion during the war, and federal

wartime spending equaled twice the amount spent in all of the
previous 150 years. The government sold millions in war bonds,
hiked taxes, and starting taking income tax from Americans’
paychecks.
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Shipyard Workers
22
This 1942 photograph shows workers waiting to be paid at a
Maryland shipyard. War-related production essentially ended
the Great Depression.
Business and Labor
Business and the War
Labor in Wartime
Ties between corporations and the federal government grew
much closer during World War II. With business executives
taking key positions in federal agencies supervising war
industries, Roosevelt gave incentives to increase production.
Most federal spending went to the largest companies, which
sped up a long-term trend toward economic concentration, and
by the war’s end, the 200 biggest industrial firms represented
nearly half of all corporate assets in the nation. Wartime
production was gargantuan in scale and shocking in its
intensity, not only making military equipment by the millions
but leading to inventions such as radar, jet engines, and early
computers. The war helped restore the reputation of big

business that the Depression had tarnished. Federal funds
restored old manufacturing areas and fostered new ones—on the
West Coast in places like southern California, home to steel and
aircraft production, and in the South, where out-migration and
military-related factories and shipyards shifted employment
from agriculture to industry. This raised the South’s incomes
but did not end its deep poverty, sparse urbanization, or
undeveloped economy, which still depended on agriculture,
extractive industries (mining, lumber, oil), or manufacturing
linked to agriculture, such as cotton textiles.
Organized labor saw the war as a struggle for freedom that
would expand economic and political democracy at home and
secure its influence in politics and industry. During the war,
unions were part of a three-sided arrangement with government
and business that allowed union membership to rise to
unprecedented numbers. To win industrial peace and stabilize
war production, the federal government forced resistant
employers to recognize unions. In turn, union leaders promised
not to strike and recognized employers’ right to “managerial
prerogatives” and “fair profits.”
By the war’s end, unions were entrenched in many economic
sectors and nearly 15 million workers—a third of the non-farm
labor workforce—were union members, the highest proportion
in U.S. history. But labor was a less powerful partner in the war
than business or government. The New Deal’s decline continued
during the war, and Congress became thoroughly dominated by
a conservative alliance between Republicans and southern
Democrats, who retained Social Security but ended programs
allegedly controlled by leftists, such as the Civilian
Conservation Corps (CCC) and Works Progress Administration
(WPA). Many workers protested the demanding wartime
conditions and the freeze on wages, imposed by the government
even while corporate profits soared. Despite the “no-strike”
pledge, 1943 and 1944 saw multiple brief walkouts.

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Wartime Army and Navy Bases and Airfields
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Labor Union Membership
Table 22.1 Labor Union Membership
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Table 22.1 Labor Union Membership
Building Bombers
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Bombers being manufactured at Ford’s Willow Run factory

Fighting for the Four Freedoms
Fighting for the Four Freedoms
Freedom from Want
World War II came to be remembered as the Good War, in
which the nation united behind noble aims. But all wars need
the mobilization of public opinion, and freedom was a
prominent theme in efforts to “sell” the war. Roosevelt believed
the Four Freedoms represented essential American values that
could be universalized across the globe. Freedom from fear
meant a desire not only for peace but for long-term security in a
chaotic world. The importance of freedom of speech and
religion seemed self-evident, but their prominence emphasized
the new significance of First Amendment protections of free
expression. During the war, the Supreme Court’s judges,
contrasting American constitutional liberty with Nazi tyranny,
upheld the rights of religious minorities to refuse to salute the
American flag in public schools, as opposed to the coercive
patriotism of World War I.
Freedom from want seemed the most ambiguous of the Four
Freedoms. Though FDR first used it to refer to eliminating
barriers to trade, he soon linked this freedom to guaranteeing a
standard of living for American workers and farmers by
preventing a return of the Depression. FDR argued that this
would bring “real freedom for the common man.” When
Rockwell’s paintings first appeared in the Saturday Evening
Post, each was accompanied by an essay. Filipino poet and
American immigrant Carlos Bulosan wrote of those Americans
still outside the social mainstream and how to them, freedom
from want included having enough to eat, sending their children
to school, and being able to participate fully in American life.
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Recruitment Poster
28
In this recruitment poster for the Boy Scouts, a svelte Miss
Liberty prominently displays the Bill of Rights.
Patriotic Fan
29
This fan was marketed to women during World War II; it
illustrates how freedom and patriotism were closely linked.
Selling Freedom
The Office of War Information
The Fifth Freedom
Founded in 1942, the Office of War Information (OWI) was
created to mobilize public opinion. Political divisions created
by the New Deal affected efforts to promote the Four Freedoms
with liberal Democrats dominating the writing staff making the
conflict a “people’s war for freedom.” The OWI was concerned
that most Americans supported war efforts out of revenge
against the Japanese. To convince the American public that the
war was fought for the Four Freedoms, the OWI utilized radio,

film, the press, and other media to give the conflict an
ideological meaning, while avoiding the nationalist hysteria of
World War I. The OWI utilized deep-seated American traditions
including notions of bringing freedom to the world and the
United States as the Great Emancipator. Critics of the OWI
claimed that the freedom being pushed was Roosevelt’s 1930s
version. Congress eliminated most of its funding when they
became concerned that the OWI was promoting New Deal social
programs just as much as the war effort.
After the OWI was defunded, the “selling of America” became a
private affair. Private companies joined in efforts to promote
wartime patriotism under the guidance of the War Advertising
Council. Alongside advertisements urging Americans to
purchase war bonds, guard against revealing military secrets,
and grow “victory gardens,” there was also an emphasis on
marketing advertisers’ definition of freedom. They urged
Roosevelt had overlooked a fifth freedom—freedom of choice
through free enterprise. Americans on the home front enjoyed a
prosperity many could scarcely remember, despite the rationing
of scarce consumer items. Marketers stressed that the
possibilities for consumer goods were endless if free from
government controls.
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“Rise of Asia”
31
This poster depicts Japan liberating Asia from ABCD imperial
oppressors (Americans, British, Chinese, Dutch).

“Fight for Freedom!”
32
This poster issued by the OWI links the words of Abraham
Lincoln to the struggle against Nazi tyranny.
The Fifth Freedom
33
Advertisement by the Liberty Motors and Engineering
Corporation in Fortune depicting Uncle Sam offering the Fifth
Freedom, “free enterprise.”
Women’s Contributions
Women at Work
The Pull of Tradition
War mobilization sparked an unprecedented growth in women’s
employment to fill industrial jobs left by men. Government and
private ads celebrated the independent women worker with
images like Rosie the Riveter, the female industrial laborer
painted by Norman Rockwell as a muscle-bound and self-reliant
woman. With 15 million men in the military, women in 1944
made up one-third of the civilian workforce, and 350,000

women served in auxiliary military units. Women filled
industrial, professional, and government jobs previously barred
to them, such as aircraft manufacturing and shipbuilding, and
they forced some unions like the United Auto Workers to
confront issues like equal pay for equal work, maternity leave,
and child care. Many women who had a “taste of freedom”
working men’s jobs for male wages hoped to remain in the
workforce after the war.
Yet government, employers, and unions saw women’s work as
only a temporary wartime necessity. Though ads told women
working in factories that they were “fighting for freedom,” their
language promoted victory, not women’s rights or
independence. After the war, most women war workers,
especially those in high-paying industrial positions, lost their
jobs to men. Indeed, war ads informed Americans that their
work would help secure the “American way of life” after the
war—traditional families, with the women at home and men at
work, enjoying household appliances and consumer goods.
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Lathe Operator
35
A female lathe operator in a Texas plant that produced transport
planes
Wasps

36
This photograph shows the enthusiasm of three “fly girls”—
female pilots employed by the Air Force to deliver cargo and
passengers and test military aircraft. Known as WASPs (Women
Airforce Service Pilots) eventually numbered over 1,000
aviators who trained at an all-female base in Sweetwater, Texas.
Focus Question: Visions of Postwar Freedom
Focus Question:
What visions of America’s postwar role began to emerge during
the war?
37

Becoming the Dominant Power
Toward an American Century
“The Way of Life of Free Men”
Dreams of postwar prosperity united New Dealers and
conservatives, business and labor, and they were promoted by
two of the most famous roadmaps for the postwar world. The
American Century, published by the magazine magnate Henry
Luce in 1941 to mobilize Americans for an imminent war, asked
Americans to prepare “to become the dominant power in the
world,” and distribute to “all peoples” American “magnificent
industrial products” and “great American ideals,” particularly
their “love of freedom.” Luce believed that American power and
values would secure unprecedented prosperity and abundance,
all created by “free economic enterprise.” The idea that America
had a mission to spread democracy and freedom had its origins
in the American Revolution, but this idea traditionally saw
America as an example to be emulated, not an active agent
imposing an American system on others.
To some left critics, Luce’s appeal seemed a call for American
empire. Henry Wallace, a liberal New Dealer, former secretary
of agriculture for FDR, and FDR’s vice president beginning in
1940, responded with “The Price of Free World Victory,” an
address in May 1942. Wallace anticipated that Allied victory
would establish a “century of the common man” and that the
“march of freedom” would continue after the conflict. Wallace
argued the globe would be governed by international
cooperation, not any single power, and governments would
“humanize” capitalism and redistribute economic resources to
end hunger, illiteracy, and poverty. Luce and Wallace defined
freedom differently. Luce envisioned a world of free enterprise,
while Wallace sought a global New Deal. But they also both
believed America should intervene in the world by spreading
abundance and posing as a model to other nations, and they

ignored other nations’ visions of the postwar world.
While Congress dismantled parts of the New Deal, liberal
Democrats and their left-wing allies planned for a postwar
economy that would enable all Americans to enjoy freedom
from want. In 1942 and 1943, the National Resources Planning
Board (NRPB) outlined a peacetime economy based on full
employment, a larger welfare state, and an American standard
of living. Emphasizing economic security and full employment,
the NRPB called for a “new bill of rights” that would include
all Americans in Social Security and guarantee education,
health care, adequate housing, and employment. Liberal New
Dealers, labor, farmer and civil rights groups, and churches
welcomed the NRPB’s plan, whose promise of full employment
and fair income distribution seemed to one liberal magazine to
represent “the way of life of free men.” The reports showed that
liberals were moving away from trying to reform capitalism to
attaining full employment, social welfare, and mass
consumption without much direct government intervention in
the economy. They were influenced by John Maynard Keynes,
who argued that government spending best fostered economic
growth. Although war production had ended the Depression in a
kind of military Keynesianism, the NPRB proposed a
continuation of Keynesianism in the postwar period. An
increasingly conservative Congress opposed the NRPB plan and
cut the agency’s funding.
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This is America…

39
Despite the new independence enjoyed by millions of women,
World War II propaganda posters emphasized the male-
dominated family.
Economic Planning
An Economic Bill of Rights
The Road to Serfdom
In 1944, FDR, who knew that most Americans wanted a
guarantee of employment after the war, called for an “Economic
Bill of Rights.” While the original Bill of Rights limited
government power to secure liberty, this one expanded
government power to secure full employment, a minimum
income, medical care, education, and decent housing for all
Americans. FDR declared that “true individual freedom cannot
exist without economic security and independence.” But his
replacement of vice president Henry Wallace with Harry
Truman of Missouri suggested that he did not want to confront
Congress over social policy, and Congress never enacted the
Economic Bill of Rights. In 1944, Congress did enact the
Servicemen’s Readjustment Act, or GI Bill, which extended to
millions of returning veterans benefits such as unemployment,
educational scholarships, low-cost mortgages, pensions, and job
training. The GI Bill greatly shaped postwar America and was
one of the most far-reaching pieces of social legislation in
American history. It prevented postwar economic disruptions
and sparked a boom in education and housing, which led to
massive suburbanization. But Congress went no further. A
proposed Full Employment Bill that would have been a “GI
Bill” for non-veterans, guaranteeing employment and requiring
the federal government to increase spending if the economy
itself did not produce full employment, was watered down
before it passed in 1946 and did not require full employment.

The bill’s failure confirmed the political stalemate initiated in
the 1938 elections and marked the return of respectability for
the idea that economic planning endangered freedom. In 1944,
Friedrich A. Hayek, an Austrian-born economist, published The
Road to Serfdom, in which he argued that government planning
threatened individual liberty and “leads to dictatorship.” When
war production seemed to have restored capitalism, and fascism
showed the dangers of combining economic and political power,
Hayek’s book gave a new justification to opponents of the
activist state. Hayek claimed that no person or set of experts
could ever know enough to intelligently direct a complex,
modern economy, and that the free market’s scattered and
partial knowledge more effectively ran economic life. While
Hayek accepted some social policies such as minimum wage and
maximum-hour laws and a social safety net that guaranteed
minimal citizen welfare and opposed traditional conservatism’s
love of authority, he helped establish modern conservatism by
equating fascism, socialism, and the New Deal, and associating
economic planning with a loss of freedom.
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Our Friend
41
This Ben Shahn poster for the CIO urges workers to vote for
Roosevelt during his campaign for a fourth term.
Focus Question: The American Dilemma
Focus Question:

How did American minorities face threats to their freedom at
home and abroad during World War II?
42
American Pluralism
Patriotic Assimilation
World War II changed Americans’ visions of themselves as a
people. The fight against the Nazi empire and its theory of a
master race discredited ethnic and racial inequalities. The
cultural pluralism of ethnic and racial minorities in the 1920s
and the Popular Front in the 1930s was now promoted by the
government. It argued that the United States differed from its
enemies in its commitment to the principle that Americans of all
races, religions, and national origins could enjoy the Four
Freedoms. Racism was the doctrine of the enemy, while
Americanism meant tolerating diversity and equality. By the

war’s end, the new immigrants had been accepted as loyal
“ethnic” Americans, rather than members of “inferior races.”
World War II brought the new immigrants and their children
together with other Americans, drawing millions from urban
ethnic neighborhoods and rural areas and mixing them in
factories and the military. This “patriotic assimilation” was in
stark contrast to the coercive Americanism of World War I, in
which the Wilson administration made Anglo-Saxonism a
cultural norm. Roosevelt embraced cultural pluralism as a basis
of harmony in a diverse society, and the government promoted
Americanism as equality, in opposition to Nazi intolerance.
Public officials rewrote the past to define American identity as
free of racial or ancestral considerations. Repelled by Nazi
ideas of inborn racial differences, biological and social
scientists discarded the belief that race, culture, and intelligence
were linked. Even Hollywood depicted soldiers as a motley
force of men from diverse regional, ethnic, and religious
backgrounds who placed national loyalty above other identities.
Bigotry certainly remained part of American life; anti-Semitism
still contributed to the government’s offer of refuge to no more
than a handful of European Jews escaping the Nazis. But the
war made millions of ethnic Americans feel fully American for
the first time, but patriotic assimilation stopped at the color
line.
43
…Keep it Free!
44

Another This is America propaganda poster emphasizes equal
opportunity for all, but all the children in the classroom are
white.
Labor and Rights
The Bracero Program
Mexican-American Rights
The war had a less definite meaning for non-white groups.
Before Pearl Harbor, racial barriers were still intact. Southern
blacks were confined by segregation, and Asians could not
emigrate to the United States or become naturalized citizens.
Mexican-Americans had been deported during the Depression,
and most American Indians still lived in deep poverty on
reservations. But the war started changes that would have an
impact on the postwar period. Under the bracero program
launched in 1942, tens of thousands of contract laborers
migrated from Mexico to the United States to work as domestic
and agricultural workers. The program, designed as a temporary
war measure, lasted until 1964, and brought a total of 4.5
million Mexican workers into the country. The braceros were
assured decent housing and wages but were not citizens and
could be deported at any time. The war also offered
opportunities to second-generation Mexican-Americans to move
and find work, and contributed to the making of a new
“Chicano” culture that fused Mexican heritage and American
experience. For Mexican-American women in particular, the war
afforded new opportunities and “Rosita the Riveter” took her
place alongside “Rosie” in West Coast multiethnic war
production factories.
Yet the “zoot-suit” riots of 1943 in Los Angeles, in which
sailors and police attacked Mexican-American youths wearing
flashy clothing, showed the extent of wartime tolerance. But the
contrast between discrimination and wartime rhetoric of

freedom and pluralism inspired civil rights activism among
Mexican-Americans, such as protests against employment
discrimination. Roughly half a million Mexican-American men
and women served in the military. Discrimination against
Mexicans became an increasing embarrassment in Roosevelt’s
Good Neighbor nation. Texas, the state with the highest
population of people of Mexican descent, passed the Caucasian
Race—Equal Privileges resolution which stated that all
Caucasians, including Mexicans, deserved equal treatment in
places of public accommodation. This statute did not challenge
segregation of blacks and lacked any enforcement mechanism.
Discrimination was so bad, that Mexico prohibited Texas from
receiving bracero laborers for a time.
45
Americanos Todos
46
This OWI poster suggests that there is no contradiction between
pride in ethnic heritage and loyalty to the United States.
Paradoxical Experiences
Indians during the War
Asian-Americans in Wartime
Japanese-American Internment
The war also drew into the nation’s mainstream many American
Indians, thousands of whom served in the army, left the
reservations for war work (not all of whom returned), and took
advantage of GI Bill benefits. In contrast, Asian-Americans’

experience was a paradox. More than 50,000 children of
immigrants from China, Japan, Korea, and the Philippines
fought in the army, mostly in all-Asian units. With China as an
ally, Congress in 1943 ended exclusion and established a very
small quota for Chinese immigration. But many Chinese moved
out of ethnic ghettos to work alongside whites in the war
industry.
Japanese-Americans had a very different experience. While
many Americans viewed the war in Europe as an ideological
conflict with Nazism, Americans and Japanese viewed the
Pacific war as a racial war. Japan’s propaganda portrayed
America as contaminated with ethnic and racial diversity, as
opposed to the racially “pure” Japanese, while the attacks at
Pearl Harbor stirred long-standing anti-Asian prejudice.
Government propaganda depicted the Japanese as animalistic
and subhuman, and blamed Japan’s aggression on racial or
national characteristics. Most Japanese-Americans in the
mainland United States worked on farms in California, and
while one-third were first-generation immigrants, the majority
were nisei—American-born citizens, many of whom spoke only
English and had never been to Japan. Though the government
mobilized German- and Italian-Americans in the war effort and
arrested few of the non-naturalized among them, it viewed every
person of Japanese ethnicity as a potential enemy.
The military, facing an explosion of anti-Asian sentiment and
fearing an invasion, persuaded Roosevelt to issue Executive
Order 9066 in early 1942, that expelled all persons of Japanese
descent from the West Coast. More than 110,000 men, women,
and children—two-thirds of whom were American citizens—
were removed to internment camps far from home, where they
were confined in an environment of military discipline and
surveillance. Nonetheless, the internees did their best to create
an atmosphere of home by decorating their living spaces and
setting up activities like sports clubs and art classes for

themselves.
Internment demonstrated how easily war erodes basic civil
liberties. No court hearings, due process, or writs of habeas
corpus challenged the internment, which was supported almost
universally by the press, Congress, and public opinion. The
Supreme Court, in Korematsu v. United States, upheld the
policy, arguing that an order applying only to Japanese was not
based on race. Yet internees were asked to buy war bonds, sign
loyalty oaths, and consent to being drafted into the army.
Contradictions abounded in the experiences of Japanese-
Americans. For example, in 1944, Sono Isato danced on
Broadway while her brother served in the Pacific theater, and
her father was interned because he had been born in Japan. A
long campaign for acknowledgement followed the war and in
1988, Congress apologized for internment and compensated
victims.
47
Internment, 1942 to 1945
Map 22.4 Japanese-American Internment, 1942 to 1945
48
Map 22.4 Japanese-American Internment, 1942–1945
Wartime Propaganda

49
Wartime propaganda in the United States sought to inspire
hatred against the Japanese.
Waiting for Internment
50
Fumiko Hayashida and her thirteen-month-old daughter waiting
for relocation to an internment camp wearing identification tags
that were used for luggage.
Black War Experiences
Blacks and the War
Blacks and Military Service
In contrast to the treatment of Japanese-Americans, wartime
rhetoric of freedom helped spark significant changes in the
status of blacks. While Roosevelt denounced theories of racial
mastery, Nazi Germany cited American segregation to support
its own policies. Yet segregation and racial violence persisted.
The war stimulated a massive migration of blacks, the second
Great Migration, from the rural South to cities in the North and
West, but they faced intense hostility, especially in Detroit,
where a 1943 fight led to a race riot that killed thirty-four
people and led to a “hate strike” of white workers against black
employment at a war production plant. Lynching continued
unabated.

Nevertheless, more than 1 million blacks served in the armed
forces in segregated units, limited mostly to construction,
transportation, and other noncombat duties. Many northern
black draftees were sent to the South for military training,
where they resented the discrimination they faced and the better
treatment given to Nazi prisoners of war. When southern black
veterans sought the benefits of the GI Bill, they faced
discrimination that sharply limited their access. While the GI
Bill did not discriminate in its health, college tuition, job
training, or other benefits, local administrators in the South
curtailed, eliminated, or segregated these benefits to blacks’
disadvantage.
51
Identical Blood
52
During the War, Red Cross blood banks separated blood from
black and white Americans. This 1943 NAACP poster points out
that separation of blood has no scientific basis.
Black Responses
Birth of the Modern Civil Rights Movement
The Double-V
The modern civil rights movement was born during the war.
Resentful of the nearly complete exclusion of African-
Americans from jobs in the booming war industries, the black
labor leader A. Philip Randolph in July 1941 called for a March

on Washington to demand defense jobs, an end to segregation,
and an anti-lynching law. Randolph, who founded the
Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters and fought the racism of
unions and employers, criticized Roosevelt’s inaction by using
FDR’s rhetoric, declaring racial discrimination “undemocratic,
un-American, and pro-Hitler.” The march idea alarmed
Washington officials, and to prevent it, Roosevelt issued an
executive order that banned discrimination in defense jobs and
created a Fair Employment Practices Commission (FEPC) to
track compliance. Armed only with investigative powers, the
FEPC could not enforce the antidiscrimination order. But its
creation signaled an important shift in public policy. The FEPC
was the first agency since Reconstruction to fight for equal
opportunity for blacks, and it helped obtain jobs for black
workers in industrial factories and shipyards. By 1944, more
than 1 million blacks worked in manufacturing.
During the war, the NAACP’s membership rose from 50,000 to
500,000. The Congress of Racial Equality, founded in 1942 by
an interracial group of pacifists, held sit-ins in northern cities to
integrate restaurants and theaters. In early 1942, the Pittsburgh
Courier used the phrase that embodied black attitudes during the
war—the “double-V.” Victory over Germany and Japan, it
argued, must be accompanied by victory over segregation in
America. Black newspapers and black critics identified the gap
between the Roosevelt administrations’ celebration of American
ideals and the reality of race.
53
This Is the Enemy

54
This is the Enemy, a 1942 poster by Victor Ancona and Karl
Koehler, suggests a connection between Nazism abroad and
lynching at home.
Race Relations
What the Negro Wants
During the war, a left-based but broad coalition called for an
end to racial inequality in America. African-American and
Jewish groups campaigned against discrimination in
employment and housing. Despite resistance from many white
workers, CIO unions, especially those influenced by leftists and
communists, tried to organized black workers and win skilled
positions for them. Although AFL unions continued to
discriminate, CIO unions were far more racially integrated.
This new militancy among blacks scared moderate white
southerners, who now stood between blacks protesting
segregation and southern politicians who defended white
supremacy and the South's freedom to shape its own race
relations. The war that sparked modern civil rights agitation
also generated politics that anticipated the “massive resistance”
to desegregation in the 1950s. But in the North and West, many
liberals openly called for a transformation of race relations.
Some changes occurred. The National War Labor Board banned
racial wage differentials and the Supreme Court outlawed all-
white primaries, which had enabled southern states to
disenfranchise blacks. By the end of the war, the navy ended
segregation and the army had established a few integrated units.
In 1942, Wendell Willkie published One World, which sold
more than a million copies. The book’s great surprise came as
Willkie emphasized “our imperialisms at home,” and called that
a claim to world leadership would lack moral authority if racism

was not addressed.
55
Housing and Race Relations
56
This sign displayed outside of a Detroit housing project in 1942
illustrates the persistence of racism in the midst of a worldwide
struggle for freedom.
Attempting to Register to Vote
57
World War II encouraged a reinvigoration of the movement for
civil rights. This photograph shows African-Americans
attempting to register to vote in Atlanta.
The Creed and Racial Inequality
An American Dilemma
Black Internationalism
The new interest in the status of black Americans was evident in
An American Dilemma, published in 1944 and written by the
Swedish social scientist Gunnar Myrdal. While his book
depicted an America deeply affected by racism in law, politics,

economics, and social behavior, Myrdal also showed
appreciation for what he termed “the American Creed”—a belief
in equality, justice, equal opportunity, and freedom. He argued
that the war exposed to Americans more than ever the distance
between this creed and racial inequality. By urging the federal
government to follow American principles by banning racial
discrimination, Myrdal established the liberal position on race
relations in postwar America. By 1945, racial justice was
integrated in a liberal-left agenda that sought full employment,
civil liberties, and a larger welfare state. Many liberals now
demanded anti-lynching laws, an end to segregated schools and
housing, and the expansion of Social Security programs to cover
agricultural and domestic workers. This wartime vision of a
racially integrated, full-employment economy formed a bridge
between the New Deal and the Great Society of the 1960s.
The internationalism of black radicals in the early nineteenth
century was revived in the early twentieth century, partly in
reaction to a new global rule of white supremacy across national
lines. Garveyism, and the meeting of five Pan-African
Congresses between 1919 and 1945 that brought together black
intellectuals from across the world to denounce colonialism in
Africa, helped foster this new global consciousness among all
people of the African diaspora—a term used to describe the
scattering of people who share a single national, religious, or
racial identity. Black American leaders like W. E. B. Du Bois
and Paul Robeson met future leaders of African independence
movements, such as Kwame Nkrumah (Ghana), Jomo Kenyatta
(Kenya), and Nnamdi Azikiwe (Nigeria), in trips abroad.
Together they identified the struggles of black Americans with
black freedom struggles throughout the world. They argued that
racism had started in the slave trade and slavery and persisted in
colonialism. Freeing Africa from colonial rule, they thought,
would foster freedom in America. World War II stimulated
among African-Americans an even greater awareness of the
links between racism in the United States and colonialism

abroad, becoming increasingly aware of events in India and
China. In 1942, Robeson founded the Council on African
Affairs, which tried to place colonial liberation at the top of the
black American agenda.
58
Paul Robeson
59
Paul Robeson, the black actor, singer, and battler for civil
rights, leading Oakland dockworkers in singing the national
anthem in 1942.
Focus Question: The End of the War
Focus Question:
How did the end of the war begin to shape the postwar world?
60

The Manhattan Project
“The Most Terrible Weapon”
In early 1945, Allied triumph seemed inevitable. Hitler briefly
pushed the Allies back in France with a surprise counterattack
that created a huge bulge in Allied lines. Though the Battle of
the Bulge was the largest single battle ever fought by the U.S.
Army and inflicted 70,000 American casualties, the German
assault failed, and by March, American troops had crossed into
Germany. Hitler killed himself, Soviet troops took Berlin, and
on May 8, V-E Day (Victory in Europe), the war against
Germany ended. U.S. forces in the Pacific moved closer to
Japan after retaking Guam and the Philippines in 1944 and a
decisive naval victory at Leyte Gulf.
In the 1944 presidential election, Roosevelt defeated Thomas E.
Dewey, Republican governor of New York, and won an
unprecedented fourth term. But FDR died on April 12, 1945,
before the Allies secured victory. His successor, Harry S.
Truman, immediately faced an extraordinary decision—whether
to use the atomic bomb against Japan. Truman, not knowing
about the bomb before becoming president, was told by the
secretary of war that the United States had built “the most
terrible weapon ever known in human history.” The bomb was
the product of Einstein’s theory of relativity, which led
scientists to use uranium, or man-made plutonium, to create an
atomic reaction that could generate enormous power, which
could be used for peaceful purposes or to generate a colossal

explosion. Fleeing Germany for the United States, Einstein
warned Roosevelt that the Nazis were trying to build an atomic
weapon and urged Roosevelt to do the same. FDR launched the
Manhattan Project, the top-secret program in which scientists
during the war developed an atomic bomb, which was first
tested in New Mexico in July 1945.
61
The End of the War in Japan
The Dawn of the Atomic Age
The Nature of the War
On August 6, 1945, a U.S. plane dropped an atomic bomb on
Hiroshima, Japan. It virtually destroyed the entire city and
killed 70,000 immediately (140,000 more died from radiation by
the end of 1945, and thousands more died in the next five
years). Three days later, the United States dropped a second
bomb on Nagasaki that killed 70,000. The same day, the Soviet
Union declared war on Japan and invaded Manchuria. Japan
quickly surrendered. The catastrophic number of civilian
casualties caused by the bombs have ever since made them
controversial. Japanese forces fiercely resisted America’s
advance in the Pacific, and Truman’s advisers warned him that
an American invasion of Japan might cost the lives of 250,000
or more American troops. But the United States did not plan to
invade until 1946, and there were signs that Japan was close to
surrender. Japan indicated that it would surrender if Emperor
Hirohito retained his throne, but this did not meet Allied
demands for unconditional surrender (in the end, the Allies let
him stay). Some scientists who developed the atomic bomb
asked Truman to use it just to show its power to other nations.
Truman never hesitated to employ it.
The use of the atomic bomb represented a logical endpoint to

the way in which World War II was fought, namely, at great
cost to civilian life. Compared to World War I, in which 90
percent of deaths were military personnel, in World War II, 20
million of the 50 million who died were civilians. The Nazi
regime had systematically killed its enemies, including millions
of Jews, and bombed London and other cities. The Allies in turn
bombed German cities such as Dresden, where 100,000 civilians
perished. In March 1945, nearly the same number died in the
U.S. bombing of Tokyo. Although the war and government
propaganda led many Americans to dehumanize the Japanese
and few criticized Truman’s use of the bomb, public criticism,
aroused by images of civilian suffering, mounted.
62
“Fat Man”
63
“Fat Man,” the atomic bomb dropped on Nagasaki, Japan, on
August 9, 1945.
School in Hiroshima
64
Remains of an elementary school after Hiroshima bombing

The Big Three
Planning the Postwar World
Yalta and Bretton Woods
During the conflict, meetings between Allied leaders outlined
the architecture of international relations in the postwar period.
Churchill, Roosevelt, and Stalin met in Iran in 1942 and at
Yalta in the Soviet Union in 1945 to develop agreements. The
last “Big Three” conference occurred at Potsdam, outside
Berlin, in July 1945 and involved Stalin, Truman, and
Churchill. There Allied leaders created a military administration
for Germany and agreed to try Nazi officials for war crimes.
None of the three great Allied powers entirely trusted the
others, and each vied for geostrategic advantage. The Allies’
decision to delay the invasion of Europe cost many Russian
lives on the eastern front and incited Soviet resentment, but
their sacrifice persuaded Britain and the United States to allow
the Soviet Union to dominate eastern Europe.
At Yalta, Roosevelt and Churchill barely protested Stalin’s
plans to control areas of eastern Europe that had been part of
the Russian empire before World War I. Stalin agreed to enter
the war on Japan later in 1945,to include noncommunists in the
pro-Soviet Polish government, and to allow free elections there.
But Stalin intended to make eastern Europe communist, and
soon the Allies disagreed over the region’s fate.
Churchill also resisted U.S. pressure to move toward national
independence for India and other British colonies, and he made
separate, private deals with Stalin to split southern and eastern
Europe into separate spheres of influence. Britain also fought
American efforts to control the postwar global economy.
Delegations from forty-five nations that met at Bretton Woods,
New Hampshire, in July 1945 replaced the British pound with
the U.S. dollar as the main currency for international exchange.

During the Depression, FDR had taken the United States off the
gold standard, but Bretton Woods again forged a link between
the dollar and gold and set other national currencies at a fixed
rate in relation to the U.S. dollar. The meeting also created two
U.S.-dominated financial institutions. The World Bank would
provide money to developing nations and help rebuild Europe,
and the International Monetary Fund would prevent
governments from devaluing their currencies for trade
advantages. Bretton Woods created the structure of the postwar
global capitalist economy that made goods and investment more
free and recognized American dominance of world finance.
American leaders asserted that free trade would encourage
world economic growth, an assumption that continued to govern
U.S. foreign policy.
65
Stalin, Roosevelt, and Churchill
66
The Big Three—Stalin, Roosevelt, and Churchill—at their first
meeting in Tehran, Iran, 1943
Legacies of World War II
The United Nations
Peace, but Not Harmony
In 1944, near Washington, D.C., the Allies also founded a
successor organization to the League of Nations. The United

Nations (UN) would consist of a General Assembly of nations
where each member nation had an equal voice and a Security
Council tasked with maintaining world peace and security. The
Security Council had six rotating members and five permanent
ones—Britain, China, France, the Soviet Union, and the United
States, each with the power to veto resolutions. In June 1945,
fifty-one countries meeting in San Francisco adopted the UN
Charter, which outlawed force or its threat as a means for
settling international disputes, and Congress endorsed it the
following month.
The war radically redistributed world power. The major military
powers of Japan and German were defeated. Britain and France
were weakened. While only America and the Soviet Union could
still project their own power on the international stage, the
United States essentially became the dominant nation in the
world. But international harmony did not follow the peace.
Soviet occupation of eastern Europe soon helped spark the Cold
War, and the atomic bombs inspired much fear across the globe.
Allied rhetoric of freedom was not always followed in postwar
policy. In 1941, Winston Churchill and FDR issued the Atlantic
Charter, which assured that Nazi Germany’s defeat would be
followed by free trade, self-government for all nations, and a
global New Deal. It specifically embraced freedom from want
and freedom from fear, but left out the other two of the Four
Freedoms in deference to British colonial rule in India, where
Britons preferred not to grant freedom of speech and worship.
The Four Freedoms and the Atlantic Charter were intended to
solidify world opposition to the Axis powers. But it also laid
the foundation of human rights and inspired colonized peoples
to adopt the language and ideals of freedom and national self-
determination and use them in their struggles against the
victorious Allied countries—causing more conflict and war in
the future.
67

The End of an Era
68
A member of the U.S. Navy plays “Goin’ Home” on the
accordion as Franklin D. Roosevelt’s body is carried from the
Warm Springs Foundation where he died suddenly on April 12,
1945.
Review: Part One
Fighting World War II
Focus Question: What steps led to American participation in
World War II?
The Home Front
Focus Question: How did the United States mobilize economic
resources and promote popular support for the war effort?
Visions of Postwar Freedom
Focus Question: What visions of America’s postwar role began
to emerge during the war?
Review: Part Two
The American Dilemma
Focus Question: How did American minorities face threats to
their freedom at home and abroad during World War II?
The End of the War
Focus Question: How did the end of the war begin to shape the
postwar world?
MEDIA LINKS

—— Chapter 22 ——TitleMedia linksEric Foner on World War
II, pt. 1: African-Americans’ experienceWorld War II, pt. 1:
African-Americans' experiencesEric Foner on World War II, pt.
2: internment of Japanese-Americans World War II, pt. 2:
Internment of Japanese-AmericansEric Foner on World War II,
pt. 3: Roosevelt’s and Wilson’s wartime administrations World
War II, pt. 3: Roosevelt's and Wilson's Wartime
AdministrationsEric Foner on World War II, pt. 4: treatment of
Japanese-AmericansWorld War II, pt. 4: Treatment of Japanese-
AmericansEric Foner on the Universal Declaration of Human
Rights Universal Declaration of Human Rights
71
Next Lecture PREVIEW:
—— Chapter 23 ——
The United States and the Cold War, 1945 to 1953
Origins of the Cold War
The Cold War and the Idea of Freedom
The Truman Presidency
The Anticommunist Crusade
72
This concludes the Norton Lecture Slide Set for Chapter 22
Give Me Liberty!
AN AMERICAN HISTORY
FIFTH EDITION
by
Eric Foner
Norton Lecture Slides
Independent and Employee-Owned

73
EDUC 521
Present Level of Academic Achievement and Functional
Performance (PLAAFP)
The Present Level of Academic Achievement and Functional
Performance summarizes the results of assessments that identify
the student’s interests, preferences, strengths, and areas of need.
It also describes the effect of the student’s disability on his/her
involvement and progress in the general education curriculum,
and for preschool children, as appropriate, how the disability
affects the student’s participation in appropriate activities. This
includes the student’s performance and achievement in
academic areas such as writing, reading, math, science, and
history/social sciences. It also includes the student’s
performance in functional areas, such as self-determination,
social competence, communication, behavior, and personal
management. Test scores, if included, should be self-
explanatory or an explanation should be included, and the
Present Level of Academic Achievement and Functional
Performance should be written in objective, measurable terms,
to the extent possible. There should be a direct relationship
among the desired goals, the Present Level of Academic
Achievement and Functional Performance, and all other
components of the IEP.
Student’s Strengths, Preferences, and Interests
Elli Smith is an 8-year-old girl currently in the 2nd grade. Elli
was found eligible for service for Specific Learning Disability.
Elli also has asthma and needs access to her inhaler, as well as
regular check-ins with the school nurse.

According to the psychological evaluation, Elli demonstrates an
overall ability in the average range. She demonstrates
substantially less developed long-term retrieval associative
memory and auditory processing, specifically phonemic
awareness. These relative weaknesses coupled with difficulties
in the aspect of auditory processing, such as phonemic
awareness, which is the understanding of the smallest units of
sound (phonemes), might make the acquisition of reading
difficult. Also, the spelling of unfamiliar words might also
prove to be a challenging task. Elli’s social functioning, as
assessed through rating scales, teacher interviews, and direct
observation appears to be a challenging area. According to
achievement assessment, Elli demonstrates average oral
language skills, mathematics and written expression in the low
average range with significant deficient range. Teacher reports
indicate that Elli demonstrates an independent reading level of
pre-primer 1. Her auditory comprehension is very good, but her
word attack is very poor. She has received PALS remediation
and Title I supports for reading for a period of 6 months and has
made very minimal progress despite supplemental instruction
interventions targeting her identified areas of deficit.
Student’s Areas of Need (Deficits that Require Supports)
Elli’s areas of need resulting from her disability related deficits
include:
Decoding
Reading
Spelling
Written language
Prolonged or moderate/heavy physical activity (Asthma)
Effect of Disability on Student
Elli demonstrates substantially less developed long-term
retrieval, associative memory, and auditory processing,
specifically phonemic awareness. These relative weaknesses
coupled with difficulties in aspects of auditory processing, such

as phonemic awareness, which is the understanding of the
smallest units of sound (phonemes), makes the acquisition of
reading difficult as well as the spelling of unfamiliar words.
Academic Performance
Wechsler Individual Achievement Test – Third Edition (WIAT–
III)
Subtests with age-based scores:
Listening Comprehension 90, Early Reading Skills 92, Reading
Comprehension 79
Math Problem Solving 80, Alphabet Writing Fluency 96,
Sentence Composition 90
Word Reading 72, Pseudoword Decoding 77, Numerical
Operations 93
Oral Expression 95, Oral Reading Fluency 63, Spelling 80,
Math Fluency – Addition 83, Math Fluency – Subtraction 89,
Oral Reading Accuracy 61
Oral Reading Rate 78,
Listening Comprehension
Receptive Vocabulary 81 Below Average
Oral Discourse Comprehension 103 Average
Sentence Composition
Sentence Combing 98 Average, Sentence Building 84 Below
Average
Oral Expression
Expressive Vocabulary 85 Average, Oral Word Fluency 107
Average
Sentence Repetition 97 Average, Oral Language 91 Average
Total Reading 69 Low, Basic Reading 75 Below Average
Written Expression 85 Average
Mathematics 85 Average, Math Fluency 86 Average
Total Achievement 82 Below Average
Teacher Educational Information
Reading instructional level (1st); independent level (Readiness);
Elli’s comprehension is good as long as it is tested orally. She

can recall story elements and information when the story is read
to her. Her word attack skills are extremely limited. She knows
sounds when they are isolated but has difficulty putting the
sounds together. Her retention of words (sight words) is very
weak. She is currently receiving Title 1 and Pals Remediation,
but she has made very little growth. Language instructional
level (below grade level); She has memorized certain sentence
structures and adapts it to the current topic. Elli is an excellent
speller, but she cannot read the words she is spelling. She
memorizes the spelling features. Math: She is very good at
adding and subtracting and has caught on well to the strategies
she has been taught. She does a great job deciding which
operation should be used and then working out a word problem.
Social Studies and Science: Elli does very well in both classes.
Movement Ed.: She follows directions and does all activities;
seems to get along with everyone during class and seems to
enjoy PE. She does need access to her inhaler during PE and
recess, as well as regular check-ins with the school nurse. She
appears to love Art and Library and works well with other
students.
Page 2 of 2
EDUC 521
IEP Goals Template
Elementary Individualized Education Program (IEP)
Measureable Annual Goals, Progress Report
Directions: Use this template to complete the Module/Week 3
Writing Goals Assignment.
1. MEASURABLE ANNUAL GOAL:
GOAL:
Write the SOL number related to this goal:
How will progress toward these annual goals be measured?
(Check all that apply)

____ Classroom Participation
____ Checklist
____ Class work
____ Homework
____ Observation
____ Special Projects
____ Tests and Quizzes
____ Written Reports
____ Criterion-referenced test:_____________________
____ Norm-referenced test: _______________________
____Other:____________________________________
GOAL:
____ Checklist
____ Class work
____ Homework
____ Observation
____Other:____________________________________
GOAL:

____ Checklist
____ Class work
____ Homework
____ Observation
____Other:____________________________________
Lecture Slides
Give Me Liberty!
AN AMERICAN HISTORY
FIFTH EDITION
By Eric Foner
1
Chapter 25: The Sixties, 1960 to 1968

On February 1, 1960, four black students in Greensboro, North
Carolina, entered the local Woolworth’s department store and
sat down at a lunch counter reserved for whites. Told they
couldn’t be served, they stayed seated until the store closed.
They returned every day. Other students joined them, and soon
protests spread around the country. After five months,
Woolworth’s agreed to serve black customers at its lunch
counters.
The sit-in reflected blacks’ growing frustrations at the slow
pace of civil rights progress, and it marked the beginning of the
1960s, a decade of political activism and social change. Similar
protests flared throughout the South, demanding the integration
of parks, pools, restaurants, bowling allies, libraries, and other
facilities. By the end of 1960, as many as 70,000 people had
participated in sit-ins. Though angry whites often attacked
them, these civil rights activists were trained in nonviolent
resistance and did not retaliate.
The sit-ins forced Americans to rethink the meaning of freedom.
Civil rights activists, with their freedom rides, freedom schools,
freedom marches, and calls for “Freedom now!” made freedom
their rallying cry. Thousands of ordinary men and women risked
physical and economic safety to claim their freedom, and their
acts inspired other challenges to the status quo, such as a
student movement called the New Left, the “second wave” of
feminism, and activism by other minorities. At the end of the
1960s, these movements had challenged the 1950s definition of
freedom as shaped by the Cold War and consumerism. They
changed perceptions about U.S. foreign policy and introduced
notions of freedom in personal life. They made other Americans
aware that many groups, such as students, women, racial
minorities, and homosexuals, felt excluded from the enjoyment
of freedom.
2

Pentagon Protest
3
An antiwar demonstrator offers a flower to Military Police at a
1967 antiwar protest at the Pentagon.
Lecture Preview
The Civil Rights Revolution
The Kennedy Years
Lyndon Johnson’s Presidency
The Changing Black Movement
Vietnam and the New Left
The New Movements and the Rights
Revolution
1968
The subtopics for this lecture are listed on the screen above.
4
Focus Question: The Civil Rights Revolution
Focus Question:
What were the major events in the civil rights movement of the
early 1960s?
5

Nonviolent Protest
The Rising Tide of Protest
Through the sit-ins, college students became the leading force
for social change. In 1960, young black activists, along with a
few whites, in Raleigh, North Carolina, formed the Student
Non-Violent Coordinating Committee (SNCC), which would
work to replace segregation with a “beloved community” of
racial justice, and give blacks control over the decisions that
affected their lives. Direct actions of many sorts followed the
sit-ins. Blacks demanded access to segregated beaches and
pools. In 1961, the Congress of Racial Equality (CORE)
launched the Freedom Rides. Integrated groups traveled on
buses into the Deep South to force compliance with court orders
banning segregation in interstate transportation. Violent mobs
attacked them and burned the buses while police stood by. The
Freedom Rides forced the federal desegregation of interstate
transportation despite numerous arrests of activists.
Escalating protests saw growing resistance by local authorities.
Late in 1961, SNCC and other groups began a nonviolent

campaign against racial discrimination in Albany, Georgia. The
protests lasted a year, and demonstrators’ filling of jails failed
to win national sympathy. In late 1962, a court ordered the
University of Mississippi to admit James Meredith, a black
student. State police did nothing as a mob, encouraged by the
state’s governor, rioted. Two were killed, and President
Kennedy dispatched army troops to restore order.
6
High Tide of Protest
Birmingham
The March on Washington
Protest crested in 1963, as demonstrations against inequalities
in education, employment, and housing spread throughout the
South. In one week in June, more than 15,000 were arrested in
186 cities. This wave of discontent culminated in Birmingham,
Alabama, a Deep South city with a history of violence against
blacks since World War II. When local blacks protesting for
more economic opportunity and the desegregation of local
business had little success, Martin Luther King Jr., came to the
city. While in jail for violating a ban on demonstrations, King
wrote his eloquent “Letter from Birmingham Jail.” King
excoriated local clergy who asked for patience, and recounted
the daily abuses black southerners faced. He asked white
moderates to abandon fears of disorder and commit themselves
to racial justice. When King decided to have black
schoolchildren join the protests, the city’s police chief, Eugene
“Bull” Connor, ordered brutal attacks with nightsticks, fire
hoses, and attack dogs. Televised images of the repression
outraged national and world opinion, and led Kennedy to begin
to embrace the civil rights movement’s goals. Leading
businessmen, fearing damage to the city’s reputation, ended the
protests by desegregating stores and restaurants and by

promising to hire blacks.
Birmingham forced white Americans to decide whether they had
more in common with citizens demanding basic rights or with
violent segregationists. The assassination of Medgar Evers, an
NAACP official in Mississippi, and the bombing of a black
church in Birmingham that killed four young girls later in 1963,
made the question more pointed.
On August 28, 1963, 250,000 black and white Americans
participated in the March on Washington, considered by many
the high point of the civil rights movement. Organized by a
coalition of civil rights, labor, and church groups, it was the
largest protest in American history up to that time. Calling for
“Jobs and Freedom,” the marchers called for passage of a civil
rights bill in Congress, a public works program to fight
unemployment, a minimum-wage increase, and a law barring
discrimination in employment. On the Lincoln Memorial steps,
King said his most famous words, in what is now known as his
“I Have a Dream” speech. While the march showed the
movement’s potential, including unity between blacks and
whites, it also showed the movement’s limits. All the speakers
were male, despite the critical role of women in the movement.
Organizers also pressed SNCC leader John Lewis to remove
militant messages from his speech. Civil rights activists
resurrected the Civil War-era vision of the federal government
as the custodian of American freedom, despite the decades-long
promotion of segregation. However, black activists had a
historical reason to turn to the national authorities, rather than
state and local offices, but it remained unclear whether the
federal government would take up this responsibility.
7
Sit-In

8
Participants in a sit-in in Raleigh, North Carolina
Civil Rights Protesters
9
Civil rights demonstrators, Orangeburg, North Carolina, 1960
Birmingham Responds
10
A fireman assaulting young African-American demonstrators in
Birmingham with a high-pressure hose. Such pictures, broadcast
on television, proved a problem for the United States and its
global reputation.

March on Washington
11
Three participants in the 1963 March on Washington stand in
front of the White House.
Focus Question: The Kennedy Years
Focus Question:
What were the major crises and policy initiatives of the
Kennedy presidency?
12

Kennedy and Foreign Policy
Kennedy and the World
Though John F. Kennedy was president for only three years and
accomplished little in domestic affairs, his administration is
now seen as a time of high hopes and U.S. world leadership. In
his inaugural address, in 1961, Kennedy promised that a “new
generation of Americans” would “pay any price, bear any
burden” to “assure the survival and success of liberty,” seeming
to ask Americans to transcend 1950s consumerism and sacrifice
for the common good. But Kennedy ignored the growing civil
rights movement, and focused on his main interest: vigorously
fighting the Cold War.
Kennedy tried to increase U.S. influence and check communist
power in the world with several programs, including the Peace
Corps, which sent young Americans to assist economic and
educational work in developing nations, and a space program
that would send Americans to the moon (after the Soviets first
launched a satellite carrying the first man into orbit around the
Earth), which happened in 1969. Kennedy also formed a new
Latin America policy, the Alliance for Progress, a smaller
Marshall Plan for the region that would fight poverty and
challenge communism. But military regimes and local elites
controlled and took most Alliance funds, and few of Latin
America’s poor benefited.
Like Truman and Eisenhower, Kennedy saw the world through a
Cold War lens, including events in Cuba. In 1959, Fidel Castro
successfully led forces that overthrew the regime of the Cuban
dictator Fulgencio Batista. Under Batista, Cuba had been an
economic dependency of the United States, and when Castro’s
government started to nationalize Americans’ lands and
investments and sell sugar to the Soviet Union, Eisenhower
stopped trade with the island and the Central Intelligence

Agency (CIA) began to train anti-Castro exiles for an invasion.
In April 1961, Kennedy let the CIA invade at the Bay of Pigs.
The invasion was a colossal failure and pushed Cuba closer to
the Soviet Union. Kennedy’s administration tried assassinations
and other tactics to get rid of Castro but failed.
13
Cold Warrior
The Missile Crisis
Kennedy and Civil Rights
Relations between the United States and the U.S.S.R. worsened.
In August 1961, to deter emigrants fleeing from East to West
Berlin, the Soviets built a wall separating the two parts of the
city. Until its demolition, in 1989, the Berlin Wall symbolized
the Cold War and the division of Europe. But a far more
dangerous crisis developed in Cuba in October 1962, where U.S.
spy planes discovered that the Soviets were installing missiles
capable of delivering nuclear warheads to U.S. targets. The
Russians’ motives are still unclear, but the Kennedy
administration refused to accept the missiles’ presence.
Kennedy rejected military advice to invade Cuba, which would
have very likely triggered a Soviet attack in Berlin and perhaps
nuclear war, and instead imposed a blockade or “quarantine” of
the island, demanding the missiles’ removal. Tense behind-the-
scenes negotiations led Soviet premier Nikita Khrushchev to
withdraw the missiles in exchange for U.S. promises not to
invade Cuba and to secretly remove its missiles from Turkey
that could reach the Soviet Union. For thirteen days, the world
was on the brink of total nuclear war, and the crisis diminished
Kennedy’s Cold War enthusiasm. The next year, Kennedy tried
to reduce tensions by appealing for more cooperation, and that
year the United States and the U.S.S.R. agreed to a treaty

banning nuclear weapons tests in the atmosphere and in space.
In 1963, civil rights began to distract Kennedy from the Cold
War. Kennedy had been reluctant to support black demands, and
he seemed to share the fears of J. Edgar Hoover, director of the
Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), that the movement was
inspired by communism. Kennedy waited until 1962 to ban
discrimination in federal housing, a 1960 campaign promise. He
used force only when federal law was blatantly violated, but he
would not protect civil rights workers from violence, insisting
that law enforcement was a local responsibility. The
Birmingham protests convinced Kennedy that the United States
could not portray itself as the champion of freedom in the world
while it maintained a system of racial inequality. In June, he
called for a law banning discrimination in all public
accommodations, a major goal of the civil rights struggle. But
Kennedy died before the civil rights bill was enacted. On
November 22, 1963, while riding in a motorcade through Dallas,
Texas, he was shot and killed, most likely by Lee Harvey
Oswald, a troubled former marine. Oswald’s assassination two
days later by a local businessman has fostered speculation about
conspiracies to this day. Kennedy’s death shocked the nation,
and his delayed commitment to civil rights fell to his successor,
Lyndon B. Johnson.
14
James Meredith
15
White students refused to sit near James Meredith at the

University of Mississippi.
President Shot Dead
16
Reading the news of President Kennedy’s assassination on a
New York train
Focus Question: Lyndon Johnson’s Presidency
Focus Question:
What were the purposes and strategies of Johnson’s Great
Society programs?
17

Lyndon Johnson and Civil Rights
The Civil Rights Act of 1964
Freedom Summer
Unlike Kennedy, who came from a wealthy and powerful family
and seemed to view success as a birthright, Lyndon B. Johnson
grew up poor in the impoverished Texas Hill Country and
struggled to achieve wealth and power. By the 1950s, he was
majority leader of the U.S. Senate, but he never forgot the poor
white and Mexican children he had taught in the 1930s. More
than Kennedy, he was committed to New Deal social programs
that assisted the less fortunate.
Immediately upon taking office, Johnson called on Congress to
enact the civil rights bill that Kennedy had championed. In
1964, Congress passed the Civil Rights Act, which barred racial
discrimination in employment, institutions such as hospitals and
schools, and privately owned public accommodations such as
restaurants, hotels, and theater. It also banned discrimination on
the grounds of sex, although this provision was added to by
opponents of civil rights who hoped to derail the bill, and
embraced by liberal and female members of Congress. Johnson
knew that many whites opposed the law, and he feared the South
would turn Republican.
But the 1964 law did not address blacks’ right to vote in the
South. That summer, a coalition of civil rights groups started a
voter registration drive in Mississippi. Hundreds of white
college students from the North traveled to take part in the
campaign, called Freedom Summer. Violence was quick and
deadly, including bombings, beatings, and the murder of three

civil rights workers—two white, one black—near Philadelphia,
Mississippi. Though many black civil rights workers had been
killed, the deaths of the two white youths grabbed national
attention and revealed federal indifference to violence against
citizens claiming their rights. Freedom Summer also led to the
dramatic campaign by the Mississippi Freedom Democratic
Party (MFDP) to take the seats of the state’s all-white official
party at the 1964 Democratic national convention. As blacks
were barred from Democratic activities or registering to vote,
civil rights activists created the MFDP, open to all citizens.
Fannie Lou Hamer of the MFDP captivated the country in
televised hearings, in which she recounted her history of
poverty and beatings by police for civil rights work. Johnson
feared that southern Democrats would abandon the party if the
MFDP delegates were seated, and the MFDP rejected a
compromise to seat only two black delegates.
18
Oath of Office
19
Lyndon B. Johnson being sworn in as president by Judge Sarah
T. Hughes aboard Air Force One en route to Washington from
Dallas. Lady Bird Johnson and Jacqueline Kennedy, in the same
clothes she wore as her husband was murdered, look on.
Freedom School

20
Two students at a Freedom School in 1964
Conservative Threat
The 1964 Election
The Conservative Sixties
The 1964 Democratic convention weakened blacks’ faith that
they could use the political system and foretold the break
between Democratic liberals and the civil rights movement. But
the movement rallied behind Johnson’s campaign for reelection.
Johnson’s Republican opponent was Senator Barry Goldwater of
Arizona, whose 1960 book, The Conscience of a Conservative,
had sold more than 3 million copies. Goldwater demanded a
more aggressive Cold War stance, but mostly criticized
“internal” threats to freedom, especially the New Deal welfare
state. He called for private charity to replace public welfare and
Social Security and the abolition of the graduated income tax.
Goldwater also voted against the 1964 Civil Rights Act. But
Democrats’ portrayal of Goldwater as an extremist who would
abolish Social Security and risk nuclear war won Johnson an
overwhelming victory. Democrats also took two-to-one
majorities in both houses of Congress.
But the 1964 campaign also launched the modern conservative
movement. Goldwater carried five Deep South states, and
George Wallace, the segregationist Democratic governor of
Alabama, had done well in primaries in northern states such as
Indiana and Wisconsin. Also in 1964, California voters
approved Proposition 14, which repealed a 1963 law that banned

racial discrimination in real estate sales, celebrated by
conservatives as a move that would give white home owners
freedom against government interference.
The Goldwater campaign and other stirrings showed that the
1960s had a conservative side. In 1960, students inspired by the
conservative intellectual William F. Buckley gathered at his
home in Sharon, Connecticut, and formed the Young Americans
for Freedom (YAF). The YAF’s Sharon Statement advocated the
free market as the basis of personal freedom, limited
government, and the destruction of global communism in the
Cold War. YAF members became Goldwater’s shock troops in
his campaign. Goldwater also found support in the suburbs of
California and the Southwest, where immigrants from elsewhere
in the United States had come to work in defense-related
industries. These suburbanites were the base for later
conservative insurgencies. Goldwater’s winning of five Deep
South states also showed that Republicans might take advantage
of white resentments against civil rights and move the South
away from the Democrats. Although conservatives eventually
abandoned the blatant language of racial superiority and
inferiority, their calls for law and order and their stigmatization
of welfare had strong racial overtones.
21
1964 Presidential Election
Map 25.1 The Presidential Election of 1964
22

Map 25.1 The Presidential Election of 1964
Reagans in California
23
Ronald Reagan and his wife, Nancy, at an anticommunist event
in 1961
Martha Jackson Ross
24
Martha Jackson Ross, a native of Selma, offers her support to
civil rights demonstrators.
Lyndon Johnson and Reform
The Voting Rights Act
Immigration Reform
In early 1965, Martin Luther King Jr. launched a voting rights
drive in Selma, Alabama. Defying a ban by Governor Wallace,
King tried to lead a march from Selma to the state capital,

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