The document examines how land accessibility and land use change has created a socio-economic burden for women in Akpor Clan, Rivers State, Nigeria. It finds that as traditional farmland has been converted to other uses like residential and commercial due to population growth and policy changes, women have lost access and rights to the land they depend on for subsistence farming and livelihoods. This has increased unemployment, lowered household incomes, and forced women to take on informal jobs to support their families' needs.
The document discusses population and demography topics including:
- Population growth has rapidly increased over time, doubling from 1950-1987 as the world population reached 5 billion.
- The Philippines has one of the fastest growing populations in the world, ranking 13th in population size globally. Its population grew from 15 million in 1900 to over 60 million in 1990.
- Population change is influenced by three variables: fertility rates, mortality rates, and migration patterns. Reductions in mortality contributed to global population growth while migration has not significantly impacted growth in most countries.
This document provides an overview of population studies. It defines population as people inhabiting a given area and discusses how population studies examine the size, composition, and distribution of populations. Population studies aim to increase population awareness and promote measures to address rapid population growth. They examine factors like fertility, mortality, and migration. Population studies provide advantages in political, economic, social, and administrative planning contexts by helping understand impacts of population changes and balance development with population growth. They also help identify regional imbalances caused by population migration trends.
This document discusses factors that influence human and cultural geography. It covers topics like population growth, distribution, and movement. Three key points:
1) The world's population has grown rapidly in the last 200 centuries due to decreasing death rates and increasing birth rates. Most population growth is occurring in Asia, Africa, and Latin America.
2) Population distribution is uneven, with many people preferring to live in areas with fertile soil, mild climates, resources, and access to cities/jobs. Population density varies significantly between different parts of the world.
3) Migration, both within and between countries, is common. People migrate due to "push" factors like lack of jobs or conflict, and "pull
Demography is the science involved with the study of biological population. It is also general science that can be suited to any kind of dynamic population study involving changes over time or space. It involves the study of the size, structure, and distribution of populations and spatial and or temporal changes in them in response to birth, death, migration and aging.
Assess the extent to which population control policies are essential to a soc...capesociology
Population control policies can support national development by ensuring women's reproductive rights and preserving limited resources, but they are not the only means of development. Two population control policies implemented in the Caribbean include family planning programs and educational campaigns to encourage smaller families. However, some sociologists argue that truly developing the region requires investing in education, health care, and industrialization to improve human resources and technology.
New democratic movements for global regeneration_driessen 2019TravisDriessen1
Our global species is confronted with the converging crisis of climate change, unsustainable levels of inequality, mass extinction, and growing water and natural resource scarcity that are threatening the existential crisis of collapse. This fallout has already led to massive displacement and refugee crisis across Latin America and the African continent. New democratic social movements are recombining and ushering in new opportunities for a revolution of regenerative settlements to be built out across the globe. Doing so, can create new opportunities to restore biodiversity and bring the atmosphere to safe operating levels, lift billions into unprecedented human prosperity, and transform global governance to promote a new era cooperation and usher in a new era of human discovery and peaceful co-existence.
The document discusses the relationship between women and the environment. It notes that in the 1970s, Esther Boserup's book sparked interest in this topic. In the 1980s, policymakers began considering gender issues in environmental management. Women often have profound traditional knowledge of the natural world. The document also discusses how women's roles in agriculture and as gatherers of wood fuel came under increased scrutiny. It notes that environmental development has significant impacts on women.
This document discusses rural-urban migration in India. It provides background on how the British codified India's caste system, contributing to rigid social stratification and a rural-urban divide. After independence, the government documented castes to determine quotas for education and jobs. While this has helped marginalized groups, it has also led to protests over reverse discrimination. The document also examines reasons for migration like employment, education, marriage, and lack of security. It outlines the impacts of migration including increased urbanization, slums, and pressure on resources in cities.
The document discusses population and demography topics including:
- Population growth has rapidly increased over time, doubling from 1950-1987 as the world population reached 5 billion.
- The Philippines has one of the fastest growing populations in the world, ranking 13th in population size globally. Its population grew from 15 million in 1900 to over 60 million in 1990.
- Population change is influenced by three variables: fertility rates, mortality rates, and migration patterns. Reductions in mortality contributed to global population growth while migration has not significantly impacted growth in most countries.
This document provides an overview of population studies. It defines population as people inhabiting a given area and discusses how population studies examine the size, composition, and distribution of populations. Population studies aim to increase population awareness and promote measures to address rapid population growth. They examine factors like fertility, mortality, and migration. Population studies provide advantages in political, economic, social, and administrative planning contexts by helping understand impacts of population changes and balance development with population growth. They also help identify regional imbalances caused by population migration trends.
This document discusses factors that influence human and cultural geography. It covers topics like population growth, distribution, and movement. Three key points:
1) The world's population has grown rapidly in the last 200 centuries due to decreasing death rates and increasing birth rates. Most population growth is occurring in Asia, Africa, and Latin America.
2) Population distribution is uneven, with many people preferring to live in areas with fertile soil, mild climates, resources, and access to cities/jobs. Population density varies significantly between different parts of the world.
3) Migration, both within and between countries, is common. People migrate due to "push" factors like lack of jobs or conflict, and "pull
Demography is the science involved with the study of biological population. It is also general science that can be suited to any kind of dynamic population study involving changes over time or space. It involves the study of the size, structure, and distribution of populations and spatial and or temporal changes in them in response to birth, death, migration and aging.
Assess the extent to which population control policies are essential to a soc...capesociology
Population control policies can support national development by ensuring women's reproductive rights and preserving limited resources, but they are not the only means of development. Two population control policies implemented in the Caribbean include family planning programs and educational campaigns to encourage smaller families. However, some sociologists argue that truly developing the region requires investing in education, health care, and industrialization to improve human resources and technology.
New democratic movements for global regeneration_driessen 2019TravisDriessen1
Our global species is confronted with the converging crisis of climate change, unsustainable levels of inequality, mass extinction, and growing water and natural resource scarcity that are threatening the existential crisis of collapse. This fallout has already led to massive displacement and refugee crisis across Latin America and the African continent. New democratic social movements are recombining and ushering in new opportunities for a revolution of regenerative settlements to be built out across the globe. Doing so, can create new opportunities to restore biodiversity and bring the atmosphere to safe operating levels, lift billions into unprecedented human prosperity, and transform global governance to promote a new era cooperation and usher in a new era of human discovery and peaceful co-existence.
The document discusses the relationship between women and the environment. It notes that in the 1970s, Esther Boserup's book sparked interest in this topic. In the 1980s, policymakers began considering gender issues in environmental management. Women often have profound traditional knowledge of the natural world. The document also discusses how women's roles in agriculture and as gatherers of wood fuel came under increased scrutiny. It notes that environmental development has significant impacts on women.
This document discusses rural-urban migration in India. It provides background on how the British codified India's caste system, contributing to rigid social stratification and a rural-urban divide. After independence, the government documented castes to determine quotas for education and jobs. While this has helped marginalized groups, it has also led to protests over reverse discrimination. The document also examines reasons for migration like employment, education, marriage, and lack of security. It outlines the impacts of migration including increased urbanization, slums, and pressure on resources in cities.
Development Oppurtunities within Sudanese Displacement CampsMitchell Sipus
The document proposes developing livelihood strategies within Sudanese displacement camps by investing in home-based enterprises and the informal housing market. It notes that camps have developed complex informal economies out of necessity. However, limited opportunities, unemployment, and asset stripping have undermined development. The proposal argues that by supporting housing consolidation and the materials/industries needed, camps' informal economic relationships can stimulate development, as housing and livelihoods are intertwined within informal markets. Direct investment in local markets could engage residents in rebuilding and promote positive outcomes for displaced populations.
Challenges Encountered by Urban Women Farmers in their Agricultural ActivitiesBRNSS Publication Hub
The roles of women in agricultural production, particularly in food production and processing are very germane.
Despite this fact, women are often faced with severe constraints that affect their agricultural productivity. This
study examined the challenges facing urban women farmers in Lagos Metropolis. A total of 255 urban women
farmers were sampled from three different locations with the metropolis. Focus group discussions and in-depth
interview were organized to further elicit information on the subject matter. Using the grand mean score, the
study revealed that the most severe challenges faced by the women farmers in their urban agricultural activities
are access to credit facilities, access to land and access to adequate input, respectively.
Sustainable Development policy and strategy for the benefit of rural womenRAJKUMARPOREL
This document discusses sustainable rural development and the importance of empowering rural women. It notes that rural poverty disproportionately impacts women, who face issues like lower literacy rates, higher infant mortality, less access to technology, exclusion from credit programs, loss of land rights, lack of access to agricultural extensions, and underrepresentation in rural organizations. The document calls for actions to build social capital and resilience in rural communities by securing women's land tenure and access to resources, strengthening health and education, and empowering rural communities and women in decision making. It also discusses the growing role of non-governmental organizations in advocating for rural needs.
Emergence of Squatter Settlements in the Greater Accra Metropolitan Area in G...Premier Publishers
The document discusses the emergence of squatter settlements in the Greater Accra Metropolitan Area of Ghana. It finds that squatter settlements emerged due to both the need for survival by the poor and failures of the state. People live in squatter settlements due to high housing costs, unemployment, poverty, and poor housing policies. Most squatters work in the informal sector. The settlements have poor water, sanitation and waste disposal systems. The government has not adequately regulated the settlements due to lack of resources and political interference. It recommends developing affordable housing, improving planning, and supporting the informal sector to address the issue.
This document discusses global demography, population, urbanization, and ecology. It defines key demographic concepts like population, demography, fertility, mortality, and migration. It explains how demographers study and analyze population size, composition, distribution and changes. Tools of demography discussed include count, rate, ratio, proportion, and cohort/period measures. Population composition and density are addressed. The document details factors influencing global fertility rates, improvements reducing mortality, and impacts of migration on population structure. World population statistics from 2019 are also provided. The document concludes with an announcement about an upcoming quiz on global cities.
This chapter reviews literature on gender and land governance. It discusses how lack of access to land limits women's economic empowerment and finds that securing land rights for women can reduce poverty and hunger. However, customary systems often discriminate against women's land ownership. The chapter also examines different definitions of land governance and how it relates to issues like sustainable development, food security, and women's economic participation. Overall, the literature suggests that reforming land policies to promote equitable access for women can support greater gender equality and poverty reduction outcomes.
Factors influencing spatial distribution and density of populationMithun Ray
This document discusses factors that influence population distribution and density. It identifies physical factors like terrain, climate, soil, water supply and vegetation that impact where people live. Terrain like plains encourage density while mountains restrict it. A moderate climate and fertile soil support more people. Water supply and some vegetation types also influence settlement. Additionally, human factors like industrialization, transportation, urbanization, and policies shape population patterns. Areas with industries, infrastructure, and cities exhibit higher densities. Wars, conflicts and political instability can decrease populations in affected regions.
The document discusses various characteristics of populations including size, density, growth, and dispersion. It describes population growth models as exponential or logistic depending on whether resources are unlimited or limited by the environment's carrying capacity. The strategies for population growth are also covered, distinguishing between r-selected and K-selected types that thrive in changing versus stable environments.
The document discusses Right Livelihood Award winners from India between 1986 and 2008 who have done work related to social and environmental causes. It provides details on the monetary award shared by winners which is meant to support their ongoing work, not for personal use. It also notes that the Right Livelihood Award has been called the 'Alternative Nobel Prize' and is presented annually in Stockholm to recognize individuals and groups for their efforts.
This document summarizes key concepts in population and demography. It defines population as the number of people in a geographic area and demography as the statistical analysis of population characteristics. Rapid population growth can strain resources and lead to issues like poverty, overcrowding, and environmental degradation. Components of population change include fertility, mortality, life expectancy, and migration. Countries have implemented measures to control population growth such as family planning programs, abortion legalization, and encouraging delayed marriage.
This document summarizes key findings from 23 Participatory Poverty Assessments across 14 countries regarding links between poverty and the environment from the perspective of poor people. Three main factors were found to determine how well poor people could use, maintain, and control their environmental resources: 1) The local environmental context, including fragile biophysical contexts, natural hazards, and environmental degradation; 2) Political and institutional contexts that marginalized the poor and biased markets and resource allocation against them; 3) How environmental shocks were experienced depended on people's ability to adapt their livelihood strategies, but this was limited by the first two factors.
Ethnicity And Space In The Global City A New FrontierAlvaroMier
This document discusses how globalization has contributed to new geographies of centrality and marginality in cities. Some key points:
1) Large cities have become strategic sites for global economic processes, with some cities strengthening in economic power while others decline. Within cities, highly educated workers see high incomes while low-skilled workers see declining wages.
2) Cities concentrate both corporate economic power and growing populations of disadvantaged groups. The informal economy and immigrant communities represent marginalized urban forms, yet are intertwined with mainstream sectors.
3) Globalization is constituted not just by capital and corporations, but also by the people and cultures within cities. There is a complex interplay between advanced and marginalized economic
New democratic movements for global regeneration driessen 2019TravisDriessen1
Our global species is confronted with the converging crisis of climate change, unsustainable levels of inequality, mass extinction, and growing water and natural resource scarcity that are threatening the existential crisis of collapse. This fallout has already led to massive displacement and refugee crisis across Latin America and the African continent. New democratic social movements are recombining and ushering in new opportunities for a revolution of regenerative settlements to be built out across the globe. Doing so, can create new opportunities to restore biodiversity, bring the atmosphere to safe operating levels, lift billions into unprecedented human prosperity, and transform global governance to promote a new era cooperation, human discovery and peaceful co-existence.
AS GEOGRAPHY REVISION - MIGRATION - 5.3 INTERNATIONAL MIGRATIONGeorge Dumitrache
This document discusses different types of international migration. It defines voluntary migration as migration by choice and forced migration as migration with little choice, such as refugees fleeing persecution. It describes source areas as regions where migrants originate and receiving areas as where they migrate to. Remittances refer to money migrants send back home. Diasporas are dispersed populations from a common origin. Racial assimilation involves integrating into the host community through economic, social, and political means. Ethnic villages show evidence of migrant groups through shops, places of worship, and other facilities. International migration has large impacts on both donor and receiving countries. Globalization has increased mobility and awareness of opportunities abroad. Forced migration, including internal displacement, involves millions of people annually
Women face significant challenges in accessing productive resources like land and capital. While commonly cited statistics about women's contributions to agriculture and poverty rates are often unsupported, there are real gender inequalities. Better data and nuanced analysis are needed to understand intrahousehold dynamics and women's roles in food production and environmental stewardship. Recognizing women's agency and constraints in different contexts can improve policies and interventions.
This is a PowerPoint presentation that is meant to be used as a visual-aid in the lesson on Chapter 3 in World Geography : Building a Global Perspective, or on the topic of population and culture
This is the 10th lesson of the course 'Poverty and Environment ' taught at the Faculty of Social Sciences and Humanities, Rajarata University of Sri Lanka
HUMAN POPULATION
PopulationPopulation is a number of people, animals and plants (living things) occupying a certain area.
Human PopulationIs a group of people occupying a certain geographical unit.Characteristics of human population (i) POPULATION SIZEIs the total number of people living in the country; It is obtained through census.
(ii) POPULATION STRUCTURE
Population Structure is the composition of a g
Gender analysis of land ownership structures and agricultural production in i...Alexander Decker
This document summarizes a study on gender analysis of land ownership structures and agricultural production in Imo State, Nigeria. The study found that while females (78%) were more involved in agriculture than males (57%), land inheritance (75%) was the most common form of land ownership for males compared to females who primarily purchased land (67%). Males on average had larger farm sizes (4 hectares or more) than females (16% with farms that size). However, the study found that females had higher agricultural productivity than males across crops from 2008-2011. The document recommends that governments should revisit land tenure policies to be more equitable and encourage matrilineal land inheritance systems.
This document summarizes the challenges women face in rural areas due to unequal access to resources and lack of empowerment. It discusses how microfinance programs have aimed to economically empower women and promote gender equality. However, these programs often design "one-size-fits-all" financial products without integrating other services, and do not sufficiently address underlying social and cultural issues. As a result, many programs have minimal impact on strategic gender equality goals like changing power dynamics, and may even reinforce patriarchal systems by not involving men. The document calls for a more holistic approach to microfinance and women's empowerment that targets both women and addresses gender relations.
Development Oppurtunities within Sudanese Displacement CampsMitchell Sipus
The document proposes developing livelihood strategies within Sudanese displacement camps by investing in home-based enterprises and the informal housing market. It notes that camps have developed complex informal economies out of necessity. However, limited opportunities, unemployment, and asset stripping have undermined development. The proposal argues that by supporting housing consolidation and the materials/industries needed, camps' informal economic relationships can stimulate development, as housing and livelihoods are intertwined within informal markets. Direct investment in local markets could engage residents in rebuilding and promote positive outcomes for displaced populations.
Challenges Encountered by Urban Women Farmers in their Agricultural ActivitiesBRNSS Publication Hub
The roles of women in agricultural production, particularly in food production and processing are very germane.
Despite this fact, women are often faced with severe constraints that affect their agricultural productivity. This
study examined the challenges facing urban women farmers in Lagos Metropolis. A total of 255 urban women
farmers were sampled from three different locations with the metropolis. Focus group discussions and in-depth
interview were organized to further elicit information on the subject matter. Using the grand mean score, the
study revealed that the most severe challenges faced by the women farmers in their urban agricultural activities
are access to credit facilities, access to land and access to adequate input, respectively.
Sustainable Development policy and strategy for the benefit of rural womenRAJKUMARPOREL
This document discusses sustainable rural development and the importance of empowering rural women. It notes that rural poverty disproportionately impacts women, who face issues like lower literacy rates, higher infant mortality, less access to technology, exclusion from credit programs, loss of land rights, lack of access to agricultural extensions, and underrepresentation in rural organizations. The document calls for actions to build social capital and resilience in rural communities by securing women's land tenure and access to resources, strengthening health and education, and empowering rural communities and women in decision making. It also discusses the growing role of non-governmental organizations in advocating for rural needs.
Emergence of Squatter Settlements in the Greater Accra Metropolitan Area in G...Premier Publishers
The document discusses the emergence of squatter settlements in the Greater Accra Metropolitan Area of Ghana. It finds that squatter settlements emerged due to both the need for survival by the poor and failures of the state. People live in squatter settlements due to high housing costs, unemployment, poverty, and poor housing policies. Most squatters work in the informal sector. The settlements have poor water, sanitation and waste disposal systems. The government has not adequately regulated the settlements due to lack of resources and political interference. It recommends developing affordable housing, improving planning, and supporting the informal sector to address the issue.
This document discusses global demography, population, urbanization, and ecology. It defines key demographic concepts like population, demography, fertility, mortality, and migration. It explains how demographers study and analyze population size, composition, distribution and changes. Tools of demography discussed include count, rate, ratio, proportion, and cohort/period measures. Population composition and density are addressed. The document details factors influencing global fertility rates, improvements reducing mortality, and impacts of migration on population structure. World population statistics from 2019 are also provided. The document concludes with an announcement about an upcoming quiz on global cities.
This chapter reviews literature on gender and land governance. It discusses how lack of access to land limits women's economic empowerment and finds that securing land rights for women can reduce poverty and hunger. However, customary systems often discriminate against women's land ownership. The chapter also examines different definitions of land governance and how it relates to issues like sustainable development, food security, and women's economic participation. Overall, the literature suggests that reforming land policies to promote equitable access for women can support greater gender equality and poverty reduction outcomes.
Factors influencing spatial distribution and density of populationMithun Ray
This document discusses factors that influence population distribution and density. It identifies physical factors like terrain, climate, soil, water supply and vegetation that impact where people live. Terrain like plains encourage density while mountains restrict it. A moderate climate and fertile soil support more people. Water supply and some vegetation types also influence settlement. Additionally, human factors like industrialization, transportation, urbanization, and policies shape population patterns. Areas with industries, infrastructure, and cities exhibit higher densities. Wars, conflicts and political instability can decrease populations in affected regions.
The document discusses various characteristics of populations including size, density, growth, and dispersion. It describes population growth models as exponential or logistic depending on whether resources are unlimited or limited by the environment's carrying capacity. The strategies for population growth are also covered, distinguishing between r-selected and K-selected types that thrive in changing versus stable environments.
The document discusses Right Livelihood Award winners from India between 1986 and 2008 who have done work related to social and environmental causes. It provides details on the monetary award shared by winners which is meant to support their ongoing work, not for personal use. It also notes that the Right Livelihood Award has been called the 'Alternative Nobel Prize' and is presented annually in Stockholm to recognize individuals and groups for their efforts.
This document summarizes key concepts in population and demography. It defines population as the number of people in a geographic area and demography as the statistical analysis of population characteristics. Rapid population growth can strain resources and lead to issues like poverty, overcrowding, and environmental degradation. Components of population change include fertility, mortality, life expectancy, and migration. Countries have implemented measures to control population growth such as family planning programs, abortion legalization, and encouraging delayed marriage.
This document summarizes key findings from 23 Participatory Poverty Assessments across 14 countries regarding links between poverty and the environment from the perspective of poor people. Three main factors were found to determine how well poor people could use, maintain, and control their environmental resources: 1) The local environmental context, including fragile biophysical contexts, natural hazards, and environmental degradation; 2) Political and institutional contexts that marginalized the poor and biased markets and resource allocation against them; 3) How environmental shocks were experienced depended on people's ability to adapt their livelihood strategies, but this was limited by the first two factors.
Ethnicity And Space In The Global City A New FrontierAlvaroMier
This document discusses how globalization has contributed to new geographies of centrality and marginality in cities. Some key points:
1) Large cities have become strategic sites for global economic processes, with some cities strengthening in economic power while others decline. Within cities, highly educated workers see high incomes while low-skilled workers see declining wages.
2) Cities concentrate both corporate economic power and growing populations of disadvantaged groups. The informal economy and immigrant communities represent marginalized urban forms, yet are intertwined with mainstream sectors.
3) Globalization is constituted not just by capital and corporations, but also by the people and cultures within cities. There is a complex interplay between advanced and marginalized economic
New democratic movements for global regeneration driessen 2019TravisDriessen1
Our global species is confronted with the converging crisis of climate change, unsustainable levels of inequality, mass extinction, and growing water and natural resource scarcity that are threatening the existential crisis of collapse. This fallout has already led to massive displacement and refugee crisis across Latin America and the African continent. New democratic social movements are recombining and ushering in new opportunities for a revolution of regenerative settlements to be built out across the globe. Doing so, can create new opportunities to restore biodiversity, bring the atmosphere to safe operating levels, lift billions into unprecedented human prosperity, and transform global governance to promote a new era cooperation, human discovery and peaceful co-existence.
AS GEOGRAPHY REVISION - MIGRATION - 5.3 INTERNATIONAL MIGRATIONGeorge Dumitrache
This document discusses different types of international migration. It defines voluntary migration as migration by choice and forced migration as migration with little choice, such as refugees fleeing persecution. It describes source areas as regions where migrants originate and receiving areas as where they migrate to. Remittances refer to money migrants send back home. Diasporas are dispersed populations from a common origin. Racial assimilation involves integrating into the host community through economic, social, and political means. Ethnic villages show evidence of migrant groups through shops, places of worship, and other facilities. International migration has large impacts on both donor and receiving countries. Globalization has increased mobility and awareness of opportunities abroad. Forced migration, including internal displacement, involves millions of people annually
Women face significant challenges in accessing productive resources like land and capital. While commonly cited statistics about women's contributions to agriculture and poverty rates are often unsupported, there are real gender inequalities. Better data and nuanced analysis are needed to understand intrahousehold dynamics and women's roles in food production and environmental stewardship. Recognizing women's agency and constraints in different contexts can improve policies and interventions.
This is a PowerPoint presentation that is meant to be used as a visual-aid in the lesson on Chapter 3 in World Geography : Building a Global Perspective, or on the topic of population and culture
This is the 10th lesson of the course 'Poverty and Environment ' taught at the Faculty of Social Sciences and Humanities, Rajarata University of Sri Lanka
HUMAN POPULATION
PopulationPopulation is a number of people, animals and plants (living things) occupying a certain area.
Human PopulationIs a group of people occupying a certain geographical unit.Characteristics of human population (i) POPULATION SIZEIs the total number of people living in the country; It is obtained through census.
(ii) POPULATION STRUCTURE
Population Structure is the composition of a g
Gender analysis of land ownership structures and agricultural production in i...Alexander Decker
This document summarizes a study on gender analysis of land ownership structures and agricultural production in Imo State, Nigeria. The study found that while females (78%) were more involved in agriculture than males (57%), land inheritance (75%) was the most common form of land ownership for males compared to females who primarily purchased land (67%). Males on average had larger farm sizes (4 hectares or more) than females (16% with farms that size). However, the study found that females had higher agricultural productivity than males across crops from 2008-2011. The document recommends that governments should revisit land tenure policies to be more equitable and encourage matrilineal land inheritance systems.
This document summarizes the challenges women face in rural areas due to unequal access to resources and lack of empowerment. It discusses how microfinance programs have aimed to economically empower women and promote gender equality. However, these programs often design "one-size-fits-all" financial products without integrating other services, and do not sufficiently address underlying social and cultural issues. As a result, many programs have minimal impact on strategic gender equality goals like changing power dynamics, and may even reinforce patriarchal systems by not involving men. The document calls for a more holistic approach to microfinance and women's empowerment that targets both women and addresses gender relations.
The contribution of women to household food security in the kassena nankana ...Alexander Decker
This document summarizes a study on the contribution of women to household food security in the Kassena-Nankana East District of Ghana. It finds that the majority of women in the area are engaged in food crop farming to feed their households. However, women face various challenges including discrimination in decision making regarding land and credit. Socio-cultural factors like traditions that deprive widows of inherited property also negatively impact women's ability to contribute to food security. While women play a critical role in food production, more support is needed to address challenges and harness their potential to ensure adequate nutrition for families.
The document discusses economic empowerment of women through inclusive finance and its role in ensuring food security and sustainable development. It notes that while microfinance has expanded access to credit for many women, interventions often focus only on microcredit and do not address gender issues. As a result, the potential for women's empowerment and development are not fully realized. The document recommends more comprehensive programs that promote gender equality in design and implementation to better attain objectives of empowering women, alleviating poverty, and fostering sustainable development.
Women and the sustainable management of environmentTasadduq Hussain
Women play a vital role in environmental sustainability but often lack equal opportunities and participation in decision making. They constitute half the world's population but do two-thirds of the work and earn only one-tenth of the income, owning just one percent of property. As primary caregivers and managers of resources, women are in a unique position to improve human and economic well-being but their needs are often not prioritized, denying them equal access to education, healthcare, land, and political power. Without opportunities for education and economic self-sufficiency, many women remain trapped in poverty, posing barriers to environmental sustainability.
Contributions of cooperative movement to alleviation of poverty among rural w...Alexander Decker
This study examines the impact of cooperative movements on poverty alleviation among rural women in Oriade Local Government, Nigeria. Data was collected through questionnaires administered to 200 women. The study found that cooperative membership significantly reduced poverty by allowing women to access loans to invest in businesses and purchase assets. However, some women did not reduce poverty as they did not use loans for productive purposes like asset acquisition. Overall, the study concludes that cooperative movements play a key role in improving the livelihoods of rural communities by providing access to financial resources. It recommends that cooperatives encourage members to invest loan proceeds in assets rather than just consumption.
Women face disadvantages related to the environment and natural resources due to traditional gender roles. They spend significant time collecting water, fuel, and farming without secure land rights. This limits their time for other activities and subjects them to health and safety risks. Integrating gender considerations into environmental policies and increasing women's access to resources and decision making can improve environmental sustainability and reduce poverty and hunger.
Scott_Rough Draft with Edits Final DraftElijah Scott
1) Customary land tenure systems in sub-Saharan Africa, including Kenya, contribute to insecure land rights for women. 2) This undermines economic development and leaves female-headed households more vulnerable to poverty. 3) The 2010 Kenyan Constitution aimed to promote gender equality in land rights, but implementation has been lacking, perpetuating problems like land grabbing that undermine women's livelihoods and food security.
This document summarizes a study on a microfinance program in rural Uganda called Bukonzo Joint Cooperative Microfinance Ltd (BJCMF) that provides integrated services of rural finance, value chain support, and gender capacity building. The program aims to promote women's empowerment and gender equality. It finds that the program is registering dramatic changes in gender equality, like increased women's control of resources and shared household responsibilities. However, to achieve community-wide women's empowerment and gender equality, more integrated efforts are needed in markets and institutions that reinforce gender inequality. The document provides details on the program approaches, services, products, and positive outcomes observed, within the cultural context of serious gender inequality in the study area.
Land tenure conflicts and its influence on Food security and Rural livelihood...AI Publications
Land is construed as a vital means of survival and hence the primary reason why people and communities compete (vie) to exert control over it. This study sets to contribute to conflicts resolution through an understanding of how conflicts over land influence food security and rural livelihoods in Mezam. Land conflicts often have extensive negative effects on economic, social, spatial and ecological development. This is especially true in Mezam division, where land market institutions are weak, opportunities for economic gain by illegal action are widespread and many poor people lack access to land. Data were collected using a semi structured questionnaire and focus group discussions were organized where possible. A total of 200 questionnaires were administered to both farmers and grazers in Mezam, Santa, Bali, Tubah and Bafut. These were done through face to face interviews, discussion with graziers and farmers representatives, focus groups as well as field observation so as to permit us carry out an ample information from the field and have an in-depth study of the conflict situation in Mezam. These data were introduced into SPSS version 24.0 and analyzed using descriptive statistics, frequencies, charts and graphs. Common conflicts recorded in the area in Mezam are farmer-grazer conflicts and land ownership. Regarding the effects of conflicts on food security, 60% of respondents attested disruption of livestock activities and food production cycle, 52.5% mentioned shortages in food supply resulting to high prices in the local markets. Conflicts also resulted to the flee of the local farm labour force. It was also found out that conflicts affected rural development projects in the study area such as micro credit institutions, bridges, roads, electrification projects, storage facilities, markets and portable water. This will facilitate communication between the villagers in the affected areas and improve on food production and accessibility. It was suggested that one of the ways to resolve tenure conflicts in the area was for the administrative authorities to demarcate boundaries or map out farm and grazing lands between the various villages and also facilitate the process of issuing land titles. Looking at the existing policies, legal and institutional framework discussed in this study, I can say that I have been able to identify some commissions and policies put in place by the Government of Cameroon governing land administration and management that is sufficient in strengthening the tenure security of the local population in Mezam if respected and put in practice. It was also recommended that the administrative authorities should facilitate the issuing of land titles to the local population and demarcate farming and grazing lands between villages that decision making should always consider the actors on the field and be transparent too.
Investing in rural women farmers narrows the gender gap in agricultureICRISAT
The glaring inequality between men and women farmers in the African agricultural sector is alarming evidence that calls for fair, inclusive and sustainable development. Gender productivity gaps vary across and even within countries, but recent studies suggest that gender gaps are in the range of 10% to 30%. Gender gap in agricultural productivity means that crop production is lower than its potential. Closing the gender gap in access to production capitals alone has been estimated to have the potential of lifting 100–150 million people out of hunger, thus resulting in benefits that spread far beyond female farmers.
Urban Poverty, Livelihood, and Gender Perceptions and Exper.docxjessiehampson
Urban Poverty, Livelihood, and
Gender: Perceptions and Experiences
of Porters in Accra, Ghana
Muriel Adjubi Yeboah
This paper reports the results of interviews and group dis-
cussions elicited from a sample of forty males and eighty
females who were working as porters in Accra, Ghana. The
purpose of the paper is to generate and analyze new informa-
tion about the nature and experience of poverty among this
group. Porters of both sexes self-report livelihood strategies
are affected by their lack of capital assets. Their perception
of poverty is shaped by culturally accepted traditional beliefs
regarding gender roles and gender ideologies. Further research
is called for to confirm these results, but they already have
implications for national and international policies that seek
to address critical issues of exclusion and inequality.
Introduction
Most poverty studies in sub-Saharan Africa have focused on rural analysis,
with little analysis in urban areas. Part of the reason for this urban neglect
can be attributed to low urbanization rates in Africa. Globally, sub-Saharan
Africa presents the lowest urbanization rate, of 40 percent, but this is pro-
jected to increase to 48 percent by 2030 (UN-Habitat 2009). Recent analysis
of sub-Saharan Africa’s urbanization indicates rapid urbanization rates,
averaging 4.7 percent annually since the 1970s (Akinboye 2004:154). Rural–
urban migration and natural population increase in urban areas are the major
factors contributing to urbanization in sub-Saharan Africa.
Rural areas lack economic development; this is coupled with the
removal of subsidies on agriculture inputs and increased interest rates on
farming credits. These constraints on livelihoods have led to the migration
of young adults into cities seeking jobs and other opportunities. Urban
population growth in sub-Saharan Africa is associated with increasing pov-
erty rates in cities (Rakodi and Lloyd-Jones 2002). Estimates by UN-Habitat
show that about 70 percent of all urban residents in sub-Saharan Africa live
in slums (UN-Habitat 2009).The urban poor experience a cash economy,
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overcrowding, low consumption rates, poor environmental sanitation, lack
of security, and high levels of mobility. The outcome of urban growth is the
presence of highly marginalized subpopulations within sub-Saharan Afri-
can cities, with concerns over health and well-being and a feeling of being
excluded from urban environments.
This paper explores the livelihood strategies of a selected urban sub-
population who work as porters. The purpose is to generate and analyze new
information about the nature and experience of poverty among this group.
This analysis is necessary for a better understanding of the pheno ...
1) Land tenure systems in Africa began changing rapidly in the 2000s due to increases in agricultural land values, pressure from agribusiness for large-scale farming, and urbanization. These changes often reduced women's secondary rights to forest and tree products.
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3) Anthropological studies show that as meanings around land ownership changed, from individual to household control for example, women's access changed too. Social identities, like what it means to be a wife, also influenced women's land rights as marriage patterns changed.
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Land accessibility the burden on socio – economic livelihood of women in akpor clan
1. Journal of Economics and Sustainable Development
ISSN 2222-1700 (Paper) ISSN 2222-2855 (Online)
Vol.4, No.14, 2013
www.iiste.org
Land Accessibility: The Burden on Socio – Economic Livelihood
of Women in Akpor Clan, Obio/Akpor Local Government Area,
Rivers State, Nigeria.
Ikechi Omenuihu Okwakpam1* Epelle Alafuro Ph.D2
1. Department of Geography and Environmental Studies, Ignatius Ajuru University of Education,
P.M.B 5047 Port Harcourt, Nigeria.
2. Department of Political Science, Ignatius Ajuru University of Education,P.M.B 5047 Port Harcourt,
Nigeria.
*Email: ikechiokwas@gmailcom
Abstract
The study examined the land accessibility and its attendant burden on the socio – economic livelihood of the
Women in Akpor Clan in Obio/Akpor LocalGovernment Area of Rivers State, Nigeria. The specific objectives
were to identify the factors responsible for land use change towards lack of sustainable land access. Highlight the
extent this unfavourable trend affect the Socio – Economic livelihood of women in the study Area. The sample
population was 330 indigenous women of low economic standing, who most often, are involved in subsistent
farming. A multi – stage probability sampling approach was utilized in the study.The primary data source
entailed the use of structured questionnaire and the focus group discussions. The secondary data source is
through reviewing of other pertinent research output on women access to land. The study found somewhat erratic
nevertheless decisive decline in the income of the household.The pluralism of land rights remains in the hands of
male folk and government institution. Also, the original occupational pursuit of farming has ceased to be
important because the land use change has occupied the indigenous farmland which leads to socio – economic
livelihood burden. Unemployment accounts for more than half of the active population. The women are
compelled to join informal jobs in order to maintain household needs.The following recommendations are
therefore made; the government should seek to be explicit as possible in determining the conditions under which
the women can assert their rights. Purposeful and adequate participation is necessary in decision making for the
women to have opportunity to dialogue on how best farmland can be accessed. The process of expropriation
should be clear, and adequate compensation to those who own land should be encouraged. Credit programmes
and savings, targeting women to upscale economic opportunity will curb the socio – economic burden
experienced.
Keywords: land, accessibility, socio – economic, livelihood, women
1. Introduction
Land is the most important resource that women depend on for cultivation and therefore their livelihood. Its
almost limitless capacity demonstrates the high degree of value place on it for competing interest vie
accessibility. Lack of access to land has consequences for women as social and economic actors. According to
Jommo (1995) “People of any culture suffer stress in their personal or social lives when the traditional patterns
of organization begin to fall apart. For those with few resources to cushion the shock the breakdown of age – old
life support is especially hard to cope with. Inheritance practices as well as land rights often Priorities ownership
to Men or to kinship groups. This concentration of resources in the hands of men widens the gender gap in
access to land, exacerbating the burden to sustainable access to farmland by the women.
According to Lastarria-Cornhiel and Frais (2009), land represents an important cultural resource, a productive
factor and capital asset supporting the basic needs of humanity. Its livelihood asset and the basic building blocks
support women in pursing self-sufficiency. As a highly valued resource it does not only determine condition but
also the position of men and women within a particular class and society. Similarly, Oyeshola, (1995) identifies
the importance of land as dominant resource where economic activity of farming, fodder and the ingredients of
much income earning strive. It is a resource that dignifies, brings food production, peace, security and justice and,
promotes a culture of respectful use of natural resources and ensuring that the future generations can meet their
needs. Land is fundamental importance to economic activity and development of any community. It provides the
most common source of wealth, social status and a powerful economic activity especially to the women.
Accessibility can be conceived as physical proximity of two or more places or activity opportunities available in
a geographical region; or it can be perceived as basically related to those things which are important to them
(Moseley, 1976; Igwe & Adeyemo, 2008). According to Ayeni (1987) access to essential resources is positively
related to development so that lack of access is cited as evidence of under development. Accessibility, therefore,
is the relative balance between demand for land and livelihood. The burden on socio economic livelihood is so
106
2. Journal of Economics and Sustainable Development
ISSN 2222-1700 (Paper) ISSN 2222-2855 (Online)
Vol.4, No.14, 2013
www.iiste.org
much that the women are often displaced from access to their traditional farmland which is the most important
source of their economy. A livelihood comprises the capabilities, assets (store resources, claims and access) and
activity required for a means of living. Livelihood is a concept that is generally associated with health,
employment, income status, accessibility. Unequal Access of land create gap which limits the social and
economic livelihood and consequently limited opportunity for women to forge quality living.
Various studies have shown that the main burden of changes in socio – economic sector of any society has fallen
on women. Factors that curtail women’s equal rights to land include; discriminatory laws and regulations,
especially related to property and inheritance, customary practices and traditional patriarchal relations within
families and communities and overall vulnerable position of the women. Women are generally known to be
suffering from gender deprivation because of customary and statutory land rights which often culminate in the
loss of land rights. Women provide 70 – 80 percent of all agriculture labour and 90 percent of labour involving
food production (IFAD, 1993).
Social justice recognizes the need for a right base approach to resource utilization which demand equal access to
equal quality, with the needs and rights of vulnerable groups appropriately addressed (DFID, 2002; Ivbijaro &
Akintola, 2012). Issues of access to land have an impact on a very significant women population who still
depend on land access for their subsistence and livelihood. The acquisition of lands which does not give
consideration to the direct and indirect effects on various socio-economic sectors lead to serious loss of output (a
loss in food production), real risk of growing socio-economic differentiate, greater structural inequality and a
steady deepening of poverty in the area (IIED 1990). Over time several efforts have been embarked, possible to
correct the current trend in order to achieve sustainable development. Development that generates economic
growth and distribute its benefit equitably, that generates the environment rather than destroying it, that
empowers people rather than marginalizing them. Development is not a choice but a necessity if lands are to
meet the livelihood of citizens. To achieve Sustainable land access, it must aim to meet the economic,
environmental and social needs of current societies without harming the living conditions of future generations
(WCED, 1987). Achieving sustainability requires addressing inequality between Men and Women in the
distribution of resources such as land. This paper therefore, examines land accessibility and the burden it exert
on the Socio – Economic livelihood of women with a brief overview of variables responsible for land use change
in the study area. It goes further to highlight the unfavourable socio – economic livelihood of the women as a
result of land access and finally proffers measures on sustainable approach to curb the situation.
2. Methodology Approach
Data presented in this study were obtained through primary data source (i.e. through distribution of questionnaire
and focus group discussions) and secondary data source (i.e. reviewing other pertinent research output on women
access to land). By applying a simple random sampling approach, 350 copies of the questionnaire was
administered in each of the three Communities (Choba, Rumuolumeni and,Ozuoba) sampled.
The sample of the households was age determined - Women over the age of 40 years. This was done to obtain
insight into women perceptions of their access to farmlands. The sampling ensured that each household has equal
chance of representation. Of the 350 copies of questionnaire administered, 330 copies were properly filled and
returned. The principal component analysis was Univarate technique to obtain summary measures of central
tendency (mean, median, and mode) of monthly income distribution amongst sampled household and measure of
dispersion (e.g. range, standarddeviation, and variance) for single variables, as well as percentages and
proportions. Such measures were necessary to characterize the study population.
3. The Study Area
Akpor is an important Clan in Obio/Akpor Local Government Area of Rivers State of Nigeria, consisting of ten
indigenous communities (Rumuolumeni, Choba, Rumuokwachi, Rumuologu, Rumuokparali, Ogbogoro, Ozuoba,
Rumuosi, Rumuekeni, Alakahia,), at the northerly urban fringe of Port Harcourt.The economy is essentially
agricultural; farming is the principal source of livelihood and is based on the cultivation of yam, cassava, and
vegetables. More recently there has been population increase triggered by urban sprawl and the infrastructural
development (the tertiary institutions – University of Port Harcourt, Choba and, Ignatius Ajuru University of
Education, Rumuolumeni and, two important jetties at Rumuolumeni and Choba, respectively). The population
pressure exerts undue pressure on the indigenous farmland and increase in the demand for it.
3.1 Land Use Change in the Enclave
Unlike Port Harcourt municipality, Akpor is not totally planned. Urban sprawl has swamped the clan which, in
many cases, the people neither inspire nor desire and, which often instead of leading to an overall enhancement,
in fact in most cases cause considerable socio – economic damage to the inhabitants. For example, the enclave is
losing economic viability which often times the women does not have little understanding of the changes that are
taking place, and experience great difficulty in adapting to the situation. The land change has occurred to include
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land Communities of Rumuolumeni, Choba, Ozouba, Alakahia, Rumuosi, Rumuekene, Ogbogoro, Rumualogu.
In most cases, it is always difficult to distinguish the difference in land demarcation between Port Harcourt
municipality and these communities because; urban sprawl is increasing in a great pace without corresponding
public policy planning to cope with the very rapid rate of growth. The increase in competing land use as a result
of in-migration; illegal spatial activities produce negative consequences. One of the consequences is the quantity
of farmland available for existing use diminishes. The women, in most cases bear the burden of coping with the
problem.
In the past years, the dominant land tenure system has been the customary land tenure. Land was largely under
customary land tenure with traditional ownership structure, which was in the hands of lineage heads. Customary
tenure was the important system through which the people determine how resources can be used and managed.
The system includes the alienability of land so that although families have secure and inherited land holdings,
these cannot be freely trade on the market. The traditional land ownership made it difficult to sell or buy land
because it is not fully individualized. However, in recent times, nature, which used to be a friend, has become an
enemy in the struggle for survival. Land value is being appreciated as a result of urban sprawl which fuelled the
sale of land by the Male folk.
Even though women play a very substantial role in agriculture, land ownership and / or land tenure systems,
have historically very often discriminate against women. Traditional inheritance, especially of farm land has
been predominantly patrilineal, often construed as a father – to – son affair. Patriarchal culture which favours
and gives preference to male heir has made it easy to sell off these lands because of the continuous systematic
acquisition of the land by government establishment through the extant Land Use Act of 1978. The land use Act
brought open access regime prevalent on State controlled land. The Governor of a State could exercise absolute
right to own, control, use and dispose at will State land. The Act was an instrument under which government
could acquire land through useful recognition of the eminent domain power to regulate and arbitrate over land.
The land use Act nationalized rights in land, ostensibly to facilitate access to development purposes (Obinna et al.
2008). Recently, Rivers State Government has initiated Greater Port Harcourt Administration, charged with the
acquisition of land in eight Local Government Areas (Port Harcourt, parts of Obio/Akpor, Eleme,
Okrika,Oyigbo,Ogu,Etche and Ikwerre) of the State. The introduction of all these policies is alien to the people
and undervalues and even ignores existing customary systems. These policies do not adequately recognize the
indigenous communities that were distinct in their traditional ownership structure of land and thereby make land
more exclusive, individualized and alienable with a short term benefits - the need to gain higher status and
competition for everyday life among the men who hastily sell off these lands to land speculators.
3.2 Women Access to Land
The important role women play in the economy cannot be overemphasized. Women are generally responsible for
providing for the household needs and their access to land for food production is critical to the welfare of the
entire household. The women are predominantly distinguished by the dominant economic activity of subsistent
farming, an activity that is important sector in the local economy (the backbone of the local economy) from the
past generation. Land is the physical terrain upon which this activity functions. Experience has shown that land
demonstrate a high degree of value in our societies. It is of prime importance in shaping the identity, integrity,
solidarity and culture of any group of people (Quarcopoome, 1992).
While it is important to recognize the special value systems about land and the resilience and resourcefulness of
it, in more recent times, the indigenous women are faced with the consequences of urban sprawl and population
pressure which force them out of their traditional occupation of farming and undermining their role as the
essential providers of food and energy. Basically, this significantly affects the indigenous farmlands where most
of the women totally depend upon for survival. The traditional base farmland has increased substantially of use
for other development. Land formally used for agriculture is being turned to mixed land use. This action is
destroying the natural resource upon which farming activity is based. The greater risk of losing such important
resource fall generally to the most vulnerable (women of low income) segments of the society.
The consequences of this is that urban sprawl create emergence of land market where there is compelling need to
sell-off these lands by the male folk for mixed land use but mainly residential and commercial purpose. The
Farmland conversion Report shows 8 percent rise in shift from agricultural into urban land use between 1992- 94,
54,307 to 1994 – 96, 58,442 percent respectively. Some research estimates the number of agricultural land being
eating away by urbanization to be between 16,000 and 20,000 hectares yearly. Farmlands are disappearing
drastically with dramatic loss of cultural identity. Too often, the disadvantaged receive no compensation and as a
result suffer increased poverty. Any just compensation made is shared by the chiefs and any male son of the
family. The women are totally excluded from the exercise; they receive little of the money paid in this process
and only being compensated for the value of crops destroyed.
Sustainable access to land cannot be achieved under the continuing exploitation of land by the privileged in the
society. It will be a ruse if it does so. It must ensure access to land to all household and provide environmentally
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sound physical planning. Because of social distance, the problems of the vulnerable in the society are not fully
appreciated by the policy makers. Women are rarely invited to participate in decision making process. Men
strongly dominate decision-making processes and leadership in the community. Access of individuals and
groups to scarce resources depends on their economic position. Makinwa & Ozo. (1987), asserted that “the
relationship between social well-being of people and the inequality in accessibility to societal resources affect
their access to scarce resources.”
Within customary law, the inheritance right is favourable to male heir. Women access to farmland is regulated
through male relations. The traditional practices and institutional mechanism have made it difficult and do not
allow women the right to own land but, they gain access to land often through their husbands or fathers or
brothers, and lose such access after becoming widowed, divorced and deserted. It is only the men that have
transfer rights – the rights to sell or mortgage the land. The strong patriarchal family structures influence
women’s role in the local economy structure where women have limited access to this valuable asset, generally
known to be suffering from gender deprivation. Women have tendency of losing their identity as a result of this
social imbalance. Some researchers have not hesitated to condemn these cultural traditions which they see as
placing an excessive burden on women. Others have asked how women can acquire the right consistent with
their socio – economic responsibilities. On the positive side, there is a growing concern on the need to enhance
livelihood opportunities, protection of the vulnerable, equal right of women and the restitution of alienated land.
The UN – Habitat on Women and Secure Tenure has recognized several articles and programmes that introduce
gender sensitive legislation which ensures that women have secure and equal access to and control over
productive resources such as land. The UN resolution of 1974. enshrines the right of rural women to participate
on equal footing in agrarian reform. Similarly, chapter 14 of programme 21 approved by UNPED at the Rio
Summit in 1992, call on government to take necessary steps to promote women’s access to land. The world
conference on women (Beijing 1995), urges government to undertake legislative and administrative reforms in
order to give women full and equal access to economic resources, including land ownership. Similarly, action
programme of the World’s Summit on Social Development (Copenhagen 1995), calls on governments to expand
and promote equal land ownership rights through appropriate measures, such as agrarian reform. Paragraph 16(a)
and (b), objective 3 of the action plan of FAO’s World Food Summit (Rome 1996), urges member states to
guarantee security of tenure and equal access to land for all those living in poverty, including women.
4.0 Socio – Economic Burden on Women
4.1 Income
The mean monthly income of the household was found to be N43, 995, while the modal monthly income was
N30, 500. This means that half of the household in the sampled communities earned the equivalent of labour
US$5.00 per day, which is within the poverty bracket and very close to the absolute poverty line. It further
revealed that most women in this area have very little opportunity to engage in income generating activities. The
women bore the brunt of the economic environment, where there is somewhat erratic but nevertheless decisive
decline in the income in 2008 to 2012, reflecting a median family income of N43, 676. This figure points
relatively lower levels of prosperity of many households who bear disproportionate share of survival burden and
more deprivation. Uneven income means many households cannot meet their daily needs, lack access to
farmland which they rely overwhelming upon as a source of income. Many leave with little hope of improving
their situations and raising sufficient income to survive is challenging. Given the low income of the households,
it is not surprising that capital investment and therefore incomes of the indigenous women are low, very few
have access and rights to land. The tables below show a distribution of monthly household incomes amongst
sampled household and the major income – related statistics in the communities
Table 1. Monthly Income Distribution Amongst Sampled Households
S/N
INCOME CATEGORIES
N
%
1
Less than N18,000
0
0
2
18,000 – 22,999
42
12.7
3
23,000 – 27,999
43
13.0
4
28,000 – 32,999
91
27.6
5
33,000 – 37,999
19
5.8
6
38,000 – 42,999
0
0
7
43,000 – 47,999
89
27.0
8
48,000 – 100,999
37
11.2
9
101,000 or more
9
2.7
TOTAL
330
100
Source: Authors’ Field Survey, 2012.
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S/N
1
2
3
4
5
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Table 2. Income Related Statistics
STATISTICS
VALUES (N)
Mean monthly household income
43,995.45
Standard deviation
33,700.65
Standard error of mean
23,04.68
Median monthly household income
30,500.00
Modal monthly household income
30,500.00
Source: Authors’ Field Survey, 2012.
4.2 Occupation
Of Occupational distribution amongst the employed members of the sampled communities, a little over one third
34.7 percent of the household reported to be farmers. The staple crops were cassava, yam and vegetables. The
women, once self-sufficient in staple food crops, also produce for marketing to meet the basic household needs.
From the survey, access to land is through relatives as compared to inheritance. The exploitation has resulted to
low income of the majority of the indigenous women.
Table 3. Occupational Structure of Women in the Sampled Communities
S/N
OCCUPATION
N
%
1
Farmers
25 34.7
2
Fishing
00 00.0
3
Informal sector economy (petty trading, hair dressing and dress making) 36 50.0
4
Professionals in private practice/government
05 07.0
5
Junior workers in companies/ government
06 08.3
TOTAL
72 100
Source: Authors’ Field Survey, 2012
Most of the women have shifted from the traditional occupational pursuit of farming and now engaged in
informal sector economy of hairdressing, dressmaking, petty trading in food and agricultural products such as
fruits, vegetables, and tubers. The obvious line of thought is that farming has ceased to be important occupation
amongst the households. It is not surprising that informal sector enterprise of trading was important amongst the
women, since it is conceivable that they cannot venture beyond the confines of the enclave to engage in erstwhile
traditional occupation of farming. The informal sector economy has increasingly grown and the transactions are
done on the street, open space.
4.3 Employment Status
Unemployment accounts for more than half of the active population. Only about 36 percent of economically
working age women was actively engaged in the labour force in the last five years. Slightly more than 60 percent
of such women were previously so engaged in farming activities in the last five years. There has been a shift in
land use as a result of population pressure and physical development. The more rapid the rate of growth, the
higher the land use demand. This demand propels land developers to build as much as possible to accommodate
their needs and in the process denying the women the traditional occupational pursuit. Urban sprawl,
infrastructural development and population pressure on the land lead to dramatic decline in overall agriculture
productivity. Myers, David, Akrat &, Hamid, (1995), confirm that decline in overall agricultural productivity is
due to a combination of factors, which include over population and urbanization. It is obvious that a relatively
well paid and secured employment in public and formal sector is available only to shrinking minority of the
population. Poverty is spreading amongst the working population (those between 18 and 60/65 years of age).
Many women have been compelled to join informal jobs in order to maintain household spending power. As the
lands become scarce, farmlands diminish in size. The terms which it is available become increasingly
unfavourable and difficult.
5.0 Conclusion
The pluralism of land resource within urban land tenure remains. Land resources are concentrated in the hands of
male folk and government institution who determine how resources including land can be used and managed.
Women do not enjoy the same rights as the Men. The implication of this is that the quantity of farmland
available for existing use diminishes every day. Loss of these farm lands creates unaccustomed forms of social
stress. This widens the gap in access to land. The original occupational pursuit of farming has ceased to be
important because of increase in competing land use. This land use change has occupied the indigenous
farmland which leads to socio – economic livelihood burden. Most of the women are compelled to join informal
jobs in order to maintain household needs. Various land policies do not adequately recognize the indigenous
communities that were distinct in their traditional ownership structure of land. These have adversely affected the
overall performance of and output of the women in a number of ways such as high level of living, poverty,
restricted access to land. Failure to halt further burden might jeopardize the right of large segment of the women
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population with serious socio – economic implications or consequences.
6.0 Recommendation
Positive solutions must be seen against the background of the acute socio – economic burden suffered by the
majority of women. The government should seek to be explicit as possible in determining the conditions under
which the women can assert their rights. Women right to land should be protected and strengthened, particularly
for those who have no other way of earning a reasonable living. There should be an efficient land policy that
consciously integrates the women into planning and management mechanism. Berner (2000) asserts that
“policies are required in the provision and distribution of the ingredient: land because of its unique nature and
the crucial role it plays in human life cannot be treated as ordinary assert”. Purposeful and adequate participation
is necessary in decision making for the women to have opportunity to dialogue on how best farmland can be
accessed in an urban growing area. Income-earning opportunities should enhance the range of income sources
and not replace existing sources.The process of expropriating land should be clear and, adequate compensation
to those who own land should be encouraged. Enhancing a credit programmes and savings, targeting women to
upscale economic opportunity will curb the socio – economic burden experience by the vulnerable, especially
the women.
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