The document describes a two-step synthesis of naphthalen-2-yl benzoate. First, benzonitrile was hydrolyzed using sulfuric acid to produce benzoic acid. This was confirmed using TLC, melting point, and IR spectroscopy. Second, benzoic acid was esterified with 2-naphthol using tosyl chloride and N-methylimidazole as a catalyst to produce the target compound naphthalen-2-yl benzoate. The product was confirmed using TLC, melting point, IR, and NMR spectroscopy. The overall synthesis involved a hydrolysis followed by an esterification to convert the starting nitrile to the final est
The document discusses knocking in engines, octane number, and cetane number. Knocking occurs when unburnt fuel ignites too early, damaging the engine. Octane and cetane numbers indicate a fuel's resistance to knocking, with higher numbers being less prone to knocking. Octane number is used for gasoline and is based on a mixture of iso-octane and n-heptane. Cetane number is used for diesel and is based on a mixture of hexadecane and 2-methylnaphthalene.
Production of coal tar on industrial scaleMehwish Imroze
Coal tar is a by-product of the carbonization of coal to make coke or the gasification of coal to make coal gas. It is a brown-black, highly viscous liquid. The production process involves heating coal to high temperatures in oxygen-deficient conditions to concentrate the carbon into coke. This releases coal tar and other by-products. Coal tar can be obtained through by-product coke production processes, where the off-gases from carbonizing coal are collected and processed to recover coal tar and other by-products like light oil. Local and international suppliers provide coal tar in Pakistan with minimum order quantities of around 20 tons and prices ranging from $420-700 per ton depending on the supplier
In coal fired power plants coal is a main fuel for combustion purpose. Before use of coal different tests are to be carried out to analysis the constituent elements and some undesirable contamination in the coal. Discuss the analysis procedures of the coal.
The analysis of coal is as follows C=82%, H=6%,O2=4% and remaining is ash. Determine the amount of theoretical air required for complete combustion. If the actual air supplied is 40% in excess and 80% of given carbon is burnt to CO2 and remaining is CO. Conduct the volumetric analysis of dry products of combustion.
The document provides information about a book titled "JEE Main & Advanced IITJEE Solved Papers Chemistry 2021-1979" published by Arihant Prakashan. It includes the publisher information, contents of the book covering 33 chapters on different topics of chemistry, and information about the author Ranjeet Shahi. It also lists the sales and support offices of the publisher across different cities in India.
Partial gibbs free energy and gibbs duhem equationSunny Chauhan
Partial gibbs free energy and gibbs duhem equation,relation between binary solution,relation between partiaL properties,PARTIAL PROPERTIES,PARTIAL PROPERTIES IN BINARY SOLUTION,RELATIONS AMONG PARTIAL PROPERTIES,Maxwell relation,Examples
Poly-nuclear hydrocarbons are organic compounds containing multiple aromatic rings made of carbon and hydrogen. Naphthalene is the simplest poly-nuclear hydrocarbon containing two fused benzene rings. It undergoes addition and substitution reactions more easily than benzene due to its slightly lower stability. Anthracene contains three fused benzene rings and phenanthrene contains three angularly fused rings. These compounds exhibit aromatic properties and undergo electrophilic substitution. Diphenylmethane and triphenylmethane contain isolated benzene rings connected by methylene groups. These compounds find use in dyes, polymers, and pharmaceuticals.
Armfield Gas Absorption Column ExperimentHadeer Khalid
The absorption of CO2 from air to water was studied in Gas absorption column built by Armfield company. Lab report and experiment was part of Separation Lab.
The document discusses knocking in engines, octane number, and cetane number. Knocking occurs when unburnt fuel ignites too early, damaging the engine. Octane and cetane numbers indicate a fuel's resistance to knocking, with higher numbers being less prone to knocking. Octane number is used for gasoline and is based on a mixture of iso-octane and n-heptane. Cetane number is used for diesel and is based on a mixture of hexadecane and 2-methylnaphthalene.
Production of coal tar on industrial scaleMehwish Imroze
Coal tar is a by-product of the carbonization of coal to make coke or the gasification of coal to make coal gas. It is a brown-black, highly viscous liquid. The production process involves heating coal to high temperatures in oxygen-deficient conditions to concentrate the carbon into coke. This releases coal tar and other by-products. Coal tar can be obtained through by-product coke production processes, where the off-gases from carbonizing coal are collected and processed to recover coal tar and other by-products like light oil. Local and international suppliers provide coal tar in Pakistan with minimum order quantities of around 20 tons and prices ranging from $420-700 per ton depending on the supplier
In coal fired power plants coal is a main fuel for combustion purpose. Before use of coal different tests are to be carried out to analysis the constituent elements and some undesirable contamination in the coal. Discuss the analysis procedures of the coal.
The analysis of coal is as follows C=82%, H=6%,O2=4% and remaining is ash. Determine the amount of theoretical air required for complete combustion. If the actual air supplied is 40% in excess and 80% of given carbon is burnt to CO2 and remaining is CO. Conduct the volumetric analysis of dry products of combustion.
The document provides information about a book titled "JEE Main & Advanced IITJEE Solved Papers Chemistry 2021-1979" published by Arihant Prakashan. It includes the publisher information, contents of the book covering 33 chapters on different topics of chemistry, and information about the author Ranjeet Shahi. It also lists the sales and support offices of the publisher across different cities in India.
Partial gibbs free energy and gibbs duhem equationSunny Chauhan
Partial gibbs free energy and gibbs duhem equation,relation between binary solution,relation between partiaL properties,PARTIAL PROPERTIES,PARTIAL PROPERTIES IN BINARY SOLUTION,RELATIONS AMONG PARTIAL PROPERTIES,Maxwell relation,Examples
Poly-nuclear hydrocarbons are organic compounds containing multiple aromatic rings made of carbon and hydrogen. Naphthalene is the simplest poly-nuclear hydrocarbon containing two fused benzene rings. It undergoes addition and substitution reactions more easily than benzene due to its slightly lower stability. Anthracene contains three fused benzene rings and phenanthrene contains three angularly fused rings. These compounds exhibit aromatic properties and undergo electrophilic substitution. Diphenylmethane and triphenylmethane contain isolated benzene rings connected by methylene groups. These compounds find use in dyes, polymers, and pharmaceuticals.
Armfield Gas Absorption Column ExperimentHadeer Khalid
The absorption of CO2 from air to water was studied in Gas absorption column built by Armfield company. Lab report and experiment was part of Separation Lab.
This document discusses the determination of molecular weight through measurement of boiling point elevation. It defines boiling point and explains how various factors can affect boiling point, including pressure, molecular weight, impurities, and intermolecular interactions. The document outlines the colligative properties of solutions and how boiling point elevation is one of four common colligative properties. It provides the procedure for measuring boiling point elevation and equations for calculating molecular weight from experimental measurements.
The rate of a reaction is the amount of chemical change occurring per unit time. It can be expressed as the decrease in concentration of a reactant or increase in concentration of a product over time. The rate is influenced by temperature, concentration of reactants, nature of reactants, presence of catalysts, and radiation. Reactions can be zero order, first order, or second order depending on how the rate depends on the concentration of reactants. The order and molecularity of a reaction are different concepts. Chain reactions involve initiation, propagation, and termination steps that regenerate reactive intermediates to sustain the reaction.
This document provides an overview of key concepts in organic chemistry structure and bonding. It discusses atomic structure, including electrons occupying atomic orbitals. Covalent bonding is described using valence bond theory and molecular orbital theory. Hybridization of atomic orbitals allows carbon to form single, double, and triple bonds with different geometries using sp, sp2, and sp3 hybrid orbitals. Examples like methane, ethylene, and acetylene are used to illustrate hybrid orbital bonding structures. Molecular representations like Lewis structures and condensed structural formulas are also introduced.
This document summarizes the synthesis and characterization of chloropentaamminecobalt(III) chloride. It describes several methods for preparing this coordination complex, including reacting cobalt(II) chloride with aqueous ammonia and hydrogen peroxide. The complex forms red-violet crystals that decompose above 150°C with the loss of ammonia. It dissolves readily in hot water and reacts with diamines to form other cobalt complexes. Potential applications include using it in nanocomposites for high-temperature electronics.
The document summarizes the design of a car called Elmer that is powered by a chemical reaction between acetic acid and sodium bicarbonate. Safety features and proper handling of chemicals are described. The neutralization reaction produces carbon dioxide gas that powers the engine. When the car reaches the end of the track, a separate "Elephant Toothpaste" reaction produces bubbles that interrupt lasers and stop the engine by closing a solenoid valve. A cost breakdown lists the materials and chemicals used.
The melting point of a substance is the temperature at which it changes state from solid to liquid. A solid usually melts over a range of temperatures rather than at one specific temperature. Impure solids melt over a wider range and at a lower temperature than pure solids. The student measured the melting point of sample A and found it to be between 100-102°C, identifying it as benzoyl peroxide which is reported to have a melting point in that range.
This lab report summarizes an experiment to determine the cloud point and pour point of coconut oil. The cloud point is the temperature at which the oil becomes cloudy due to wax separation as it cools, while the pour point is the temperature at which the oil stops flowing. The apparatus used includes the oil sample, thermometer, beaker, cooling bath, cork, and testing jar. The procedure cools the oil sample in the testing jar in a cooling bath while observing for cloudiness and flow. The results found were a cloud point of 17°C and pour point of 13°C for coconut oil.
There are two main ways to classify coal: by rank and by type. Coal rank refers to the degree of coalification, ranging from peat to anthracite. Lower rank coals like lignite are softer with higher moisture and lower energy content, while higher rank coals are harder and stronger. Coal can also be classified by type, such as coking coal or thermal coal. Destructive distillation of coal produces coal tar, from which useful chemicals like benzene, naphthalene, and creosote can be obtained. Gasification and the Fischer-Tropsch process provide routes to convert coal into synthetic fuels and hydrocarbon products.
This document provides information on lipids including their definition, importance, classification, properties, analysis methods, and quality evaluation. Lipids are composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen and include oils, fats, and waxes. They are important as fuels, for insulation, and for absorbing vitamins. Lipids can be classified as simple, compound, or derived and are either saturated or unsaturated. Methods for analyzing lipids include determining the acid value, saponification value, iodine value, and peroxide value. The quality of oils and fats is also evaluated based on properties like color, odor, and acid content.
1. The document describes an experiment to determine the flash point and fire point of kerosene and diesel using a Cleveland open cup tester.
2. The flash point is the lowest temperature at which a fuel gives off enough vapors to flash but not burn continuously when exposed to an ignition source. The fire point is the temperature at which the fuel will continuously burn for 5 seconds after the ignition source is removed.
3. The experiment finds the flash point of kerosene to be 62°C and diesel to be 66°C, while the fire points are slightly higher at 64°C and 68°C respectively.
Benzilic acid rearrangement. The benzilic acid rearrangement is formally the 1,2-rearrangement of 1,2-diketones to form α-hydroxy–carboxylic acids using a base. This reaction receives its name from the reaction of benzil with potassium hydroxide to form benzilic acid.
1) Naphthalene, anthracene, and phenanthrene are polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons that consist of fused benzene rings.
2) They exhibit resonance stabilization, with the heat of hydrogenation lower than predicted based on the number of benzene rings.
3) Electrophilic aromatic substitution reactions, including nitration, sulfonation, and halogenation, occur predominantly at the alpha position of naphthalene and substituted naphthalenes. Beta substitution requires high temperatures or activating groups.
Supercritical fluids have properties between gases and liquids. They can dissolve materials like liquids and diffuse through solids like gases. Carbon dioxide is commonly used as a supercritical fluid in supercritical fluid extraction (SFE) and supercritical fluid chromatography (SFC). In SFE, the supercritical fluid is used to extract analytes from samples, while in SFC it is used as the mobile phase to separate analytes chromatographically. Both techniques take advantage of how the density and solvent strength of the supercritical fluid can be tuned by adjusting the pressure and temperature.
This document outlines an experiment to determine the critical solution temperature of the phenol-water system. It describes the objective, requirements, theory, procedure, observations, calculations, results and precautions. The key steps are: mixing phenol and water in varying proportions, heating with stirring and noting the temperature at which the mixture becomes clear, then cooling and noting when turbidity reappears. By plotting the miscibility temperatures against phenol concentration, the maximum value on the curve gives the critical solution temperature, which is the temperature above which phenol and water are completely miscible in all proportions.
Standard Test For Ash From Petroleum Products , D482Student
Standard Test For Ash From Petroleum Products , D482
Ash contents is defined as the inorganic residue that remains after combustion of the oil in air at specific high temperature. Ash ranges from 0.1% to 0.2%. The ash content of a fuel is a measure of the amount of inorganic noncombustible material it contains. Some of the ash forming constituents occur naturally in crude oil: others are present as a result of refining or contamination during storage or distribution. For instance, it could be due to the presence of compounds of the following elements: vanadium, sodium, calcium, magnesium, zinc, lead, iron, nickel. Or it could be picked up by the crude oil during storage and handling. Metals content above 200 ppm are considered to be significant but the variations are very large. The higher the ash content the higher is the tendency of the crude oil to form sludge or sediment. Oils containing more than 0.05% ash are considered high ash oils; those containing less than 0.02% ash are considered low ash oils.
Prepared By Yasir Albeatiy
This document provides an introduction and self-introduction of Muhammad Shozab Mehdi. It states his qualifications including degrees from NFC Institute of Engineering and Technology and Pakistan Institute of Engineering and Technology. It also lists his research interests in hydrodynamics and mass transfer in multiphase flows and his office contact details. It then provides an outline for the course CH 212: Fuel and Combustion including topics that will be covered such as various fuels, combustion aspects, and emission control.
The document describes three methods for estimating the composition of organic compounds:
1. Duma's method estimates nitrogen content by heating the compound with excess copper oxide, which oxidizes other elements to gases leaving free nitrogen gas.
2. Kjeldahl's method is a simpler method that involves heating the compound with sulfuric acid and catalysts to estimate nitrogen in fertilizers and foods.
3. The Carius method uses nitric acid and silver nitrate to estimate halogen elements by forming precipitates of silver halides that are measured.
Synthesis of tris (thiourea) copper (i) sulphate by kwezi mwaka juliusMakerere University
its a well described report on SYNTHESIS OF TRIS (THIOUREA) COPPER (I) SULPHATE and this serves to industrial chemistry students doing transition metal chemistry.
Introduction of poly-cyclic compounds, resonance, molecular orbital structure, physical properties, preparation, reaction and uses of napthalene, anthracene, phenanthrene, napthaquinone, napthol, napthylamine, 9,10 anthraquinone and phenanthrequinone.
1) Researchers discovered that silver trifluoromethanesulfonate (AgOTF) can promote a one-pot dehydration and oxidative co-dimerization of benzylic alcohols to form carbon-carbon bonds through hydrovinylation.
2) Reaction of benzylic alcohols with AgOTF leads to alcohol dehydration followed by radical coupling of the vinylarene intermediates to form end-dibenzenes.
3) The reaction is believed to involve alcohol dehydration by AgOTF, followed by silver reduction which oxidizes the alkene to form a radical cation that couples with styrene to form the hydrovinylation product.
This document discusses the determination of molecular weight through measurement of boiling point elevation. It defines boiling point and explains how various factors can affect boiling point, including pressure, molecular weight, impurities, and intermolecular interactions. The document outlines the colligative properties of solutions and how boiling point elevation is one of four common colligative properties. It provides the procedure for measuring boiling point elevation and equations for calculating molecular weight from experimental measurements.
The rate of a reaction is the amount of chemical change occurring per unit time. It can be expressed as the decrease in concentration of a reactant or increase in concentration of a product over time. The rate is influenced by temperature, concentration of reactants, nature of reactants, presence of catalysts, and radiation. Reactions can be zero order, first order, or second order depending on how the rate depends on the concentration of reactants. The order and molecularity of a reaction are different concepts. Chain reactions involve initiation, propagation, and termination steps that regenerate reactive intermediates to sustain the reaction.
This document provides an overview of key concepts in organic chemistry structure and bonding. It discusses atomic structure, including electrons occupying atomic orbitals. Covalent bonding is described using valence bond theory and molecular orbital theory. Hybridization of atomic orbitals allows carbon to form single, double, and triple bonds with different geometries using sp, sp2, and sp3 hybrid orbitals. Examples like methane, ethylene, and acetylene are used to illustrate hybrid orbital bonding structures. Molecular representations like Lewis structures and condensed structural formulas are also introduced.
This document summarizes the synthesis and characterization of chloropentaamminecobalt(III) chloride. It describes several methods for preparing this coordination complex, including reacting cobalt(II) chloride with aqueous ammonia and hydrogen peroxide. The complex forms red-violet crystals that decompose above 150°C with the loss of ammonia. It dissolves readily in hot water and reacts with diamines to form other cobalt complexes. Potential applications include using it in nanocomposites for high-temperature electronics.
The document summarizes the design of a car called Elmer that is powered by a chemical reaction between acetic acid and sodium bicarbonate. Safety features and proper handling of chemicals are described. The neutralization reaction produces carbon dioxide gas that powers the engine. When the car reaches the end of the track, a separate "Elephant Toothpaste" reaction produces bubbles that interrupt lasers and stop the engine by closing a solenoid valve. A cost breakdown lists the materials and chemicals used.
The melting point of a substance is the temperature at which it changes state from solid to liquid. A solid usually melts over a range of temperatures rather than at one specific temperature. Impure solids melt over a wider range and at a lower temperature than pure solids. The student measured the melting point of sample A and found it to be between 100-102°C, identifying it as benzoyl peroxide which is reported to have a melting point in that range.
This lab report summarizes an experiment to determine the cloud point and pour point of coconut oil. The cloud point is the temperature at which the oil becomes cloudy due to wax separation as it cools, while the pour point is the temperature at which the oil stops flowing. The apparatus used includes the oil sample, thermometer, beaker, cooling bath, cork, and testing jar. The procedure cools the oil sample in the testing jar in a cooling bath while observing for cloudiness and flow. The results found were a cloud point of 17°C and pour point of 13°C for coconut oil.
There are two main ways to classify coal: by rank and by type. Coal rank refers to the degree of coalification, ranging from peat to anthracite. Lower rank coals like lignite are softer with higher moisture and lower energy content, while higher rank coals are harder and stronger. Coal can also be classified by type, such as coking coal or thermal coal. Destructive distillation of coal produces coal tar, from which useful chemicals like benzene, naphthalene, and creosote can be obtained. Gasification and the Fischer-Tropsch process provide routes to convert coal into synthetic fuels and hydrocarbon products.
This document provides information on lipids including their definition, importance, classification, properties, analysis methods, and quality evaluation. Lipids are composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen and include oils, fats, and waxes. They are important as fuels, for insulation, and for absorbing vitamins. Lipids can be classified as simple, compound, or derived and are either saturated or unsaturated. Methods for analyzing lipids include determining the acid value, saponification value, iodine value, and peroxide value. The quality of oils and fats is also evaluated based on properties like color, odor, and acid content.
1. The document describes an experiment to determine the flash point and fire point of kerosene and diesel using a Cleveland open cup tester.
2. The flash point is the lowest temperature at which a fuel gives off enough vapors to flash but not burn continuously when exposed to an ignition source. The fire point is the temperature at which the fuel will continuously burn for 5 seconds after the ignition source is removed.
3. The experiment finds the flash point of kerosene to be 62°C and diesel to be 66°C, while the fire points are slightly higher at 64°C and 68°C respectively.
Benzilic acid rearrangement. The benzilic acid rearrangement is formally the 1,2-rearrangement of 1,2-diketones to form α-hydroxy–carboxylic acids using a base. This reaction receives its name from the reaction of benzil with potassium hydroxide to form benzilic acid.
1) Naphthalene, anthracene, and phenanthrene are polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons that consist of fused benzene rings.
2) They exhibit resonance stabilization, with the heat of hydrogenation lower than predicted based on the number of benzene rings.
3) Electrophilic aromatic substitution reactions, including nitration, sulfonation, and halogenation, occur predominantly at the alpha position of naphthalene and substituted naphthalenes. Beta substitution requires high temperatures or activating groups.
Supercritical fluids have properties between gases and liquids. They can dissolve materials like liquids and diffuse through solids like gases. Carbon dioxide is commonly used as a supercritical fluid in supercritical fluid extraction (SFE) and supercritical fluid chromatography (SFC). In SFE, the supercritical fluid is used to extract analytes from samples, while in SFC it is used as the mobile phase to separate analytes chromatographically. Both techniques take advantage of how the density and solvent strength of the supercritical fluid can be tuned by adjusting the pressure and temperature.
This document outlines an experiment to determine the critical solution temperature of the phenol-water system. It describes the objective, requirements, theory, procedure, observations, calculations, results and precautions. The key steps are: mixing phenol and water in varying proportions, heating with stirring and noting the temperature at which the mixture becomes clear, then cooling and noting when turbidity reappears. By plotting the miscibility temperatures against phenol concentration, the maximum value on the curve gives the critical solution temperature, which is the temperature above which phenol and water are completely miscible in all proportions.
Standard Test For Ash From Petroleum Products , D482Student
Standard Test For Ash From Petroleum Products , D482
Ash contents is defined as the inorganic residue that remains after combustion of the oil in air at specific high temperature. Ash ranges from 0.1% to 0.2%. The ash content of a fuel is a measure of the amount of inorganic noncombustible material it contains. Some of the ash forming constituents occur naturally in crude oil: others are present as a result of refining or contamination during storage or distribution. For instance, it could be due to the presence of compounds of the following elements: vanadium, sodium, calcium, magnesium, zinc, lead, iron, nickel. Or it could be picked up by the crude oil during storage and handling. Metals content above 200 ppm are considered to be significant but the variations are very large. The higher the ash content the higher is the tendency of the crude oil to form sludge or sediment. Oils containing more than 0.05% ash are considered high ash oils; those containing less than 0.02% ash are considered low ash oils.
Prepared By Yasir Albeatiy
This document provides an introduction and self-introduction of Muhammad Shozab Mehdi. It states his qualifications including degrees from NFC Institute of Engineering and Technology and Pakistan Institute of Engineering and Technology. It also lists his research interests in hydrodynamics and mass transfer in multiphase flows and his office contact details. It then provides an outline for the course CH 212: Fuel and Combustion including topics that will be covered such as various fuels, combustion aspects, and emission control.
The document describes three methods for estimating the composition of organic compounds:
1. Duma's method estimates nitrogen content by heating the compound with excess copper oxide, which oxidizes other elements to gases leaving free nitrogen gas.
2. Kjeldahl's method is a simpler method that involves heating the compound with sulfuric acid and catalysts to estimate nitrogen in fertilizers and foods.
3. The Carius method uses nitric acid and silver nitrate to estimate halogen elements by forming precipitates of silver halides that are measured.
Synthesis of tris (thiourea) copper (i) sulphate by kwezi mwaka juliusMakerere University
its a well described report on SYNTHESIS OF TRIS (THIOUREA) COPPER (I) SULPHATE and this serves to industrial chemistry students doing transition metal chemistry.
Introduction of poly-cyclic compounds, resonance, molecular orbital structure, physical properties, preparation, reaction and uses of napthalene, anthracene, phenanthrene, napthaquinone, napthol, napthylamine, 9,10 anthraquinone and phenanthrequinone.
1) Researchers discovered that silver trifluoromethanesulfonate (AgOTF) can promote a one-pot dehydration and oxidative co-dimerization of benzylic alcohols to form carbon-carbon bonds through hydrovinylation.
2) Reaction of benzylic alcohols with AgOTF leads to alcohol dehydration followed by radical coupling of the vinylarene intermediates to form end-dibenzenes.
3) The reaction is believed to involve alcohol dehydration by AgOTF, followed by silver reduction which oxidizes the alkene to form a radical cation that couples with styrene to form the hydrovinylation product.
The document discusses several polynuclear hydrocarbons including naphthalene, anthracene, phenanthrene, and diphenylmethane. It provides their structures, classification, synthesis methods, chemical reactions, and uses. Naphthalene contains two fused benzene rings and can be prepared from coal tar or through Diels-Alder reactions. Anthracene and phenanthrene both contain three fused benzene rings and can undergo halogenation, nitration, oxidation, and Diels-Alder reactions. Diphenylmethane consists of a methane molecule with two phenyl groups and can be synthesized through Friedel-Crafts condensations. These compounds are used in dyes, plastics
This experiment determines the strength of sodium hydroxide (NaOH) and sodium carbonate (Na2CO3) in a water sample. Standard hydrochloric acid (HCl) is titrated against sodium carbonate to determine its normality. The water sample is then titrated with HCl using phenolphthalein and methyl orange indicators. The volume of HCl used corresponds to the amount of NaOH and Na2CO3 present. Calculations are done to determine the normality and strength of NaOH and Na2CO3 in the water sample based on the titration results.
New benzotriozole phthalocyanine nickel(ii) photostabilizer for low density p...Alexander Decker
This document summarizes the synthesis and characterization of a new benzotriazole phthalocyanine nickel(II) complex to be used as a photostabilizer for low density polyethylene. The complex was prepared and characterized using elemental analysis and FT-IR spectroscopy. Experimental investigation showed that this complex acts as an excellent photostabilizer for LDPE, providing stabilization through multiple pathways, unlike commercial antioxidants which typically offer only single mechanisms of protection. Testing revealed that the complex performed better than LDPE samples containing other common antioxidants at preventing degradation when exposed to UV light over time. Therefore, the complex is a promising new photostabilizer for improving the UV resistance of LDPE.
The document summarizes research on the synthesis of lead tungstate (PbWO4) hollow nanostructures via a low-temperature hydrothermal method at different pH levels without using surfactants. PbWO4 samples were characterized using XRD, TEM, and photoluminescence. XRD showed the samples were highly crystalline and single phase. TEM images revealed the formation of hollow nanoparticles and nanotubes at pH 7. The nanotubes had an outer diameter of 12.37 nm and lengths from 80-170 nm. Photoluminescence spectroscopy exhibited a broad blue-green emission that was fitted with four Gaussian peaks attributed to excited states of emission centers.
1. An unknown liquid was analyzed using solubility, boiling point, IR, NMR, and chemical tests to determine its identity.
2. IR and NMR spectroscopy indicated the presence of an aromatic ring and ketone carbonyl group. Chemical tests confirmed the presence of a methyl ketone functional group.
3. Through spectral analysis and testing, the unknown liquid was identified as 4-phenyl-2-butanone (benzylacetone).
Benzocaine was synthesized through a three step process starting from p-nitrotoluene. The steps included oxidation of the methyl group to a carboxylic acid, Fischer esterification to form the ester, and reduction of the nitro group to an amine. The structure of benzocaine was confirmed through 1H NMR, 13C NMR, DEPTQ, and FT-IR spectroscopy. While a semi-pure sample of benzocaine was obtained, improvements could be made to increase yield and purity, such as lowering the oxidation temperature and extending the esterification time.
The document summarizes an experiment on acid-base titrations. Sodium hydroxide was standardized and used to titrate hydrochloric acid, phosphoric acid, and an unknown acid. Titrations of hydrochloric acid showed the equivalence point was pH 7. Phosphoric acid titration showed two equivalence points, determining its two pKa values. Titration of the unknown acid found its molecular weight to be 76.09 g/mol, identifying it as tartaric acid. A final potassium hydrogen phthalate titration found the experimental curve nearly identical to the theoretical curve.
The document summarizes an experiment on acid-base titrations. Sodium hydroxide was standardized and used to titrate hydrochloric acid, phosphoric acid, and an unknown acid. Titrations of hydrochloric acid showed the equivalence point was pH 7. Phosphoric acid titration showed two equivalence points, determining its two pKa values. Titration of the unknown acid found its molecular weight to be 76.09 g/mol, identifying it as tartaric acid. A final potassium hydrogen phthalate titration found the experimental and theoretical titration curves nearly identical.
Naphthalene is an aromatic hydrocarbon consisting of two fused benzene rings. It is isolated from coal tar, where it makes up 6-10% of the fraction. Naphthalene crystallizes as white plates with a strong odor. It sublimes readily and is insoluble in water but soluble in organic solvents. Naphthalene undergoes substitution and addition reactions similarly to benzene, though it is somewhat less aromatic. Resonance structures show that the C1-C2 bond has more double bond character, making it shorter than the C2-C3 bond. Naphthalene has several industrial and medical uses including in the production of naphthols, dyes, beta blocker drugs
Application Of Hydroxyapatite In Protein PurificationKatie Robinson
The document summarizes research on the application of hydroxyapatite in protein purification. Key points:
- Hydroxyapatite was synthesized using calcium chloride and sodium phosphate precursors at high temperature (700°C) to minimize carbonate content on the surface. This resulted in hydroxyapatite with higher crystallinity and lower carbonate content.
- The hydroxyapatite was then used as a matrix for protein purification, similar to how DEAE is used for anion exchange. SDS-PAGE analysis showed that hydroxyapatite not only has characteristics for anion exchange but also cation exchange, as additional protein bands were observed.
- This demonstrates that hydroxyapatite can be used for
Preparation and properties of acetyleneShelah Lontoc
The document summarizes an experiment on the preparation and properties of acetylene gas. Key points:
1. Acetylene gas is prepared by the hydrolysis of calcium carbide with water. It is a colorless gas with a garlic-like odor.
2. Acetylene's properties include burning with a luminous yellow flame, reacting slowly with bromine and permanganate solutions, and forming precipitates with silver nitrate and copper chloride solutions.
3. The experiment allowed students to observe acetylene's preparation, combustion, halogenation, oxidation, and substitution reactions. It provided insights applicable to laboratory analysis of body fluids and blood samples.
Esters are important compounds that are used in many synthetic reactions to produce products for medicinal, cosmetic, and fuel applications. This document details a laboratory experiment where benzocaine, a local anesthetic, was synthesized from p-aminobenzoic acid using Fischer esterification. The product was analyzed and characterized using melting point, NMR, IR, and GC-MS to confirm it was benzocaine. The percent yield of 85.8% indicated a successful synthesis.
This document provides information about chemistry practical exams, including common apparatus, reagents, lab setup, and procedures. It lists the standard equipment provided to each student, such as burettes, pipettes, and beakers. Common reagents that will be available on shelves are identified, along with special reagents and their concentrations. The document outlines the systematic analysis of anions and cations, including preparation of sodium carbonate extracts and group separation tables. Specific experiments and observations are described to test for common anions and cations.
Nitric acid and hydrochloric acid are strong acids that are highly soluble in water. Nitric acid is produced commercially via the Ostwald process, which involves catalytic oxidation of ammonia to produce nitric oxide, which is then oxidized to nitrogen dioxide and absorbed in water to form nitric acid. Hydrochloric acid is produced via electrolysis of sodium chloride to produce chlorine, which is then combined with hydrogen to form hydrochloric acid. Both acids are colorless liquids with pungent odors that are widely used in industry, such as in fertilizer production and cleaning applications. Proper storage of the acids requires acid resistant containers and secondary containment to mitigate hazards.
Displacement titration as analytical techniqueP.K. Mani
This document discusses displacement titration, specifically titrations of anions of weak acids (Bronsted bases) with strong acids. It provides examples of titrating salts of weak acids like sodium acetate, potassium cyanide, and borax with hydrochloric acid. The pH at the endpoint is calculated based on the concentration of the weak acid produced. Indicators that can be used for different titrations are also discussed based on the pH range at the endpoint.
Phenols: methods of preparation, chemical reactionAmbreenKauser2
The document discusses the properties and reactions of phenols. Phenols contain a hydroxyl group directly attached to a benzene ring. They are more acidic than alcohols due to resonance stabilization of the phenoxide ion. Phenols undergo electrophilic aromatic substitution at the ortho- and para-positions. They are also oxidized by strong oxidizing agents. Common phenols include phenol, cresols, and resorcinol. Phenol is used as an antiseptic and in making resins, plastics and drugs. Cresols are used as herbicides, antioxidants and preservatives. Resorcinol is used as an antiseptic and disinfectant.
1. 1
Chris Myers
CHM 352
Kek project: Hydrolysis of benzonitrile and esterification of benzoic acid
Abstract
The purpose of this experiment was to synthesize naphthalen-2-yl benzoate
(ester) from benzonitrile (nitrile) using a two-step procedure. Acid hydrolysis of
the benzonitrile was carried out by using H2SO4 to produce benzoic acid. After
confirmation by TLC, melting point, and IR benzoic acid was then synthesized into
naphthalen-2-yl benzoate by an esterification reaction with 2-naphthol. TLC,
melting point, IR, and NMR confirmed the final product’s identity.
Introduction
The purpose of this experiment was to synthesize naphthalen-2-yl benzoate
from a given amount of benzonitrile. After reviewing literature it was suggested
that there were several ways to synthesize the product from the specific starting
material. In this experiment a two-step procedure was chosen. The first step of
synthesis involved hydrolysis of the benzonitrile to produce benzoic acid. The
second step of the procedure involved esterification of the benzoic acid with 2-
naphthol to synthesize the final product napthalen-2-yl benzoate (Figure 1).
Figure 1. Reaction scheme
2. 2
The hydrolysis of benzonitrile can occur either under acidic or alkaline
conditions to result in the formation of benzoic acid. When a nitrile is hydrolyzed
the compound is basically reacting with water in a two-step process. During this
process the reaction initially produces an amide. The amide is then hydrolyzed to
ultimately produce a carboxylic acid, in this case benzoic acid. Since the reaction
between water and nitriles is extremely slow, heat is needed along with a catalyst.
As stated earlier this reaction can occur with several different catalysts. Basic
catalysts such as NaOH, or acidic catalysts like HCl1 or H2SO4 are all frequently used
in hydrolysis reactions. In this experiment the acid H2SO4 was the catalyst chosen
for the reaction. H2SO4 was chosen over HCl and NaOH due to a procedure in which
p-nitrophenylacetic acid is produced from p-nitrobenzyl cyanide. This procedure
turned a nitrile into a carboxylic acid under mild conditions with a theoretical yield
higher than any procedure using HCl or NaOH. It was expected that by following
this procedure with benzonitrile and H2SO4, a similar yield of benzoic acid would be
produced2.
The second step of napthalen-2-yl benzoate synthesis called for the
esterification of benzoic acid with 2-naphthol. Esterification, also, is not limited by
one type of catalyst and can make use of several reagents such as H2SO4, HCl,
Me2NSO2Cl with N,N-dimethylamine3, DCC/DMAP4, and TsCl with N-
methylimidazole5 to react with a carboxylic acid and alcohol. Initially Me2NSO2Cl
with N,N-dimethylamine was chosen for synthesis as this was used for an
esterification procedure between 3-phenylpropanoic acid and 1-octanol at
temperatures slightly above room temperature ultimately producing an ester with
3. 3
percent yields between 93-973. However, due to chemicals not being ordered, the
procedure switched last minute to using TsCl with N-methylimidazole as the
catalyst. This was chosen over the other reagents due to knowledge that N-
methylimidazole forms an extremely reactive ammonium intermediate by removing
the tosylate ester previously formed between the TsCl and the benzoic acid5. With
the addition of an alcohol (2-naphthol) it was predicted that the product
naphthalene-2-yl benzoate would form.
Results and Discussion
The first part of the experiment began by hydrolyzing the benzonitrile with
H2SO4, H2O, and heat to synthesize the intermediate product benzoic acid. In this
reaction the lone pair of the nitrogen was expected to react with and become
protonated by an H+ from the H2SO4. Next water should attack the carbon
connected directly to the nitrogen as a pi bond between the two gives its electrons
to the nitrogen. A proton transfer was expected and a lone pair on the oxygen forms
a pi bond to the carbon as the pi bond between the nitrogen and carbon gives its
electrons to the nitrogen. Water is expected to attack the non-benzene ring carbon a
second time. Another proton transfer is expected to take place (from the H2O)
making the leaving group NH3+. Oxygen is then expected to use a lone pair to create
a pi bond to the carbon, kicking out the NH3+. Lastly the H on the pi bonded OH+ is
expected to donate its electrons to the oxygen and be removed to form benzoic acid
(Figure2).
4. 4
In order to make the benzonitrile the limiting reagent high molar
concentrations of H2SO4 were used. It was suggested that such a high concentration
would possibly restrict the amount of water accessible for hydrolysis, ultimately
causing less benzoic acid formation. Therefore, water was added to the mixture
with a molar concentration four times higher than that of H2SO4 in order for
conditions to be favorable for hydrolysis and collisions with water to occur.
Confirmation of the benzoic acid product was based mainly off of three
pieces of evidence: TLC, melting point, and IR. When examining the Rf values of the
TLC containing the standard benzoic acid (0.125) to the experimental (0.187) they
matched much more closely than to that of the experimental and standard
benzonitrile (0.750). In the second evaluation of the product, the experimental
melting point (118°-119° C) also matched closely to the benzoic acid’s literature
value melting point (122° C). The IR spectrum also showed significant evidence for
the synthesis of the desired product as there was a very broad peak from ~3500 cm-
Figure 2. Hydrolysis of benzonitrile (mechanism)
5. 5
1 to ~2500 cm-1 indicating a presence of a carboxylic acid OH group. A strong peak
at 1677.71 cm-1 was also observed, indicating the presence of a carbonyl C=O group
(IR attached). Lastly the product’s appearance was noted as a white/colorless
crystalline solid. This fell into the expectations of the known appearance of benzoic
acid. When combined, these pieces of evidence strongly suggest that the
benzonitrile had successfully been converted to benzoic acid.
The second part of the experiment involved the esterification of the benzoic
acid and the 2-naphthol to produce the final product naphthalene-2-yl benzoate. In
this reaction the catalyst amounts were based off of the molar equivalent of benzoic
acid (1 molar equivalent) produced in the first step. In respect to this amount the
TsCl had a molar equivalent of 1.2 and the N-methylimidazole had a molar
equivalent of 3. What was expected in this reaction was to form a tosylate as a lone
pair on the benzoic acid’s OH to attacks the sulfur on the TsCl, ultimately kicking out
the Cl-. Next the unmethylated nitrogen on the N-methylimidazole was expected to
form a tetrahedral intermediate by attacking the carbonyl carbon, as electrons from
the pi bond between the carbon and oxygen go to the oxygen. As a lone pair from
this oxygen was donated to form the pi bond again to the carbonyl carbon, it was
expected for the leaving group –OTs to be kicked out. As 2-naphthol was added to
the reaction it was expected for the a lone pair on the alcohol’s OH to attack the
carbonyl carbon, as electrons from the pi bond between the carbon and oxygen once
again go to the oxygen. A proton transfer was then expected to occur subsequently
kicking out the N-methylimidazole as a lone pair on the oxygen formed a pi bond to
6. 6
the carbon. This ultimately produces the desired final product of naphthalene-2-yl
benzoate (Figure 3).
Confirmation of the final product as naphthalene-2-yl benzoate was based off
of four pieces of evidence: TLC, melting point, IR and NMR. When examining the Rf
values of the TLC containing the naphthalene-2-yl benzoate (0.29) to the
experimental (0.30) they matched closely. In the second evaluation of the product,
obtaining a melting point was somewhat difficult as different melting point
instruments gave melting points that differed by as much as 15° C. However, after
finding one instrument that gave multiple measurements at the same temperature it
was found that the experimental product’s melting point (100°-101° C) matched
closely to the naphthalene-2-yl benzoate’s literature value melting point (105° C).
The IR spectrum also showed significant evidence for the successful synthesis of the
final product as the broad peak from ~3500 cm-1 to ~2500 cm-1, indicative of a
carboxylic acid, disappeared along with the 1677 cm-1. The spectrum also showed
Figure 3. Esterification of benzoic acid (mechanism)
7. 7
the appearance of a peak at 1730.11 cm-1 indicating the presence of an ester bond
(IR attached). When examining the 1H NMR spectrum no peaks were observed in
the 10-13 ppm range indicating presence of benzoic acid. Acetonitrile and 2-
naphthol peaks were also absent from the spectrum confidently suggesting that the
product formed was indeed a relatively pure naphthalene-2-yl benzoate (NMR
attached).
Experimental
Benzoic Acid: Benzonitrile (5.1157 g, 0.0419 mol), H2SO4 (20.17 mL, 0.365 mol), DI
water (26.00 mL, 1.46 mol) and a boiling chip were all added to a round bottom
flask and refluxed for 20 minutes. The reddish/brown mixture was then diluted
with 45.00 mL of DI water and cooled to 0° C. The solution was then suction filtered
and washed several times with ice water to recover solid product (5.21 g, 0.043 mol,
102.6% yield). Rf = 0.188 (chloroform).
IR 3072 2827 2554 1678 1601 1583 1497 1453 1420 1324 1288 1180 1128 1101
1073 1027 1000 931 805 683 666 cm-1
Naphthalen-2-yl benzoate: TsCl (9.59 g, 0.0503 mol) in CH3CN (70 mL) and a stir
bar were added to a benzoic acid solution (5.21 g, 0.043 mol) and N-
methylimidazole (10.0 mL, 0.1257 mol) in CH3CN (20 mL). This solution was then
cooled in an ice bath and stirred for 30 minutes. Dissolved in 20ml of CH3CN 2-
naphthol (6.9 g, .048 mol) was then added chilled mixture and stirred for 2 hours.
After mixing the CH3CN was removed by the rotary evaporator and the solid was
dissolved in 150 mL of a 1:1 mixture of water and 5% NaOH solution. This solution
was then mixed with a 1:1 volume amount of ether to extract the ester. This
8. 8
extraction was done three times with the total volume of ether used being 450 mL.
Next the organic phase was then washed with 500 mL of brine. To absorb all of the
water from the solution Na2SO4 was added to the mixture until clumps stopped
forming and powder Na2SO4 freely moved around the solution. The solution was
decanted into a round bottom and then rotary evaporated to remove the ether. This
left a very light pink/brown powdery solid behind (9.401 g, 0.038 mol, 90.7% yield).
Many tests were done to confirm product, thus mass will be lighter. Also the scale
used throughout entire experiment measures about 85% of actual mass. Rf = 0.188
(chloroform).
IR 1730 1627 1597 1510 1451 1377 1354 1317 1272 1264 1238 1206 1176 1154
1136 1122 1078 1062 1024 1002 958 902 893 878 818 801 746 737 684 673 662
cm-1
1H NMR (resolution poor) 8.249 8.179 7.984 7.868 7.770 7.669 7.567
References
1Organic Syntheses; Wiley & Sons: New York, 1941; Collect. Vol. No. I, 406
2Organic Syntheses; Wiley & Sons: New York, 1941; Collect. Vol. No. I, 36
3Wakasugi, K.; Nakamura, A.; Tanabe, Y. N,N-dimethylamines; a novel and efficient
agent for esterification, amidation between carboxylic acids, and
equimolar amounts of alcohols and amines. Tetrahedron Letters, 2001, 42,
7427-7430.
4Wakasugi, K.; Nakamura, A.; Iida, A.; Nishii, Y.; Nakatani, N.; Fukushima, S.; Tanabe,
Y. Novel and efficient method for esterification, amidation between
carboxylic acids and equimolar amounts of alcohols, and amines utilizing
9. 9
Me2NSO2Cl and N,N-dimethylamines; its application to the synthesis of
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5Wakasugi, K.; Nakamura, A.; Iida, A.; Nishii, Y.; Tanabe, Y. Simple, mild, and
practical esterification, thioesterification, and amide formation utilizing p-
toluenesulfonyl chloride and N-methylimidazole. Adv. Synth. Catal. 2003,
345, 1209-1214