This document discusses barriers to the widespread dissemination of solar water heaters (SWHs) in South Africa. It finds that while SWHs have significant potential to reduce electricity demand and greenhouse gas emissions, high upfront capital costs present a major barrier to adoption. Additionally, the current subsidy programs from the South African government may not be sufficient to facilitate widespread diffusion. Alternative financing mechanisms are needed to overcome barriers related to affordability and make SWHs a viable investment for more end users.
The document is a collection of endorsements for the Zero Carbon Australia 2020 plan published by Beyond Zero Emissions. Several key points are made in the endorsements:
1) The plan shows that transitioning Australia to 100% renewable energy by 2020 is technically feasible and affordable.
2) It provides a roadmap for how Australia can become a global leader in renewable energy given its natural resources.
3) Adopting the plan would help Australia meet its emissions reduction targets and shift to a sustainable energy future.
The document discusses several topics related to global energy patterns:
1) Energy sources vary in their availability over time and space between finite, renewable, and patterns of consumption.
2) Economic development is positively correlated with energy use as economies industrialize and living standards rise.
3) Managing increasing energy demand involves social, economic, and environmental tradeoffs around issues like infrastructure expansion and resource exploitation.
Literature Review of Solar Energy EngineeringYogeshIJTSRD
Scientific concept of energy is capacity to do work. Energy is the basic ingredient to sustain life and development. It is the key to industrial development for the promotion of economic and living standard of the society. The growth of world population coupled with rising standard of living has escalated the growth of energy consumption. The modern industrialization has been dependent upon the conventional energy resources i.e. crude oil, natural gas and coal. Dr. Mukesh Kumar Lalji "Literature Review of Solar Energy Engineering" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-5 | Issue-3 , April 2021, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd40045.pdf Paper URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/other-scientific-research-area/other/40045/literature-review-of-solar-energy-engineering/dr-mukesh-kumar-lalji
The document critiques Andrew Kenny's argument that nuclear power is a better option than renewable energy. It argues that Kenny exaggerates claims about nuclear power's safety and sustainability. While Kenny provides some valid points about nuclear power's reliability, he underestimates its negative consequences, such as radiation exposure from accidents and the uneven global distribution of uranium resources. The document concludes that Kenny's defense of nuclear power is imbalanced and exaggerated.
Principal Sources of Energy (Renewables vs Fossil)ACX
This document discusses different types of energy sources and their sustainability. It outlines renewable energy sources like solar, wind, hydropower, biomass and geothermal that can be replenished. In contrast, fossil fuels like coal, oil and gas are non-renewable. The document also examines how access to reliable energy is essential for achieving the UN's Millennium Development Goals by enabling education, healthcare, poverty reduction, gender equality and environmental sustainability. It provides the example of multifunctional platforms that can power tools for grinding grain or husking using a simple diesel engine, bringing economic and social benefits to communities.
This document provides background information on renewable energy in India. It notes that over 80 million Indian households lack access to electricity and over 800 million people rely on traditional biomass energy. Renewable energy is seen as a way to provide clean energy access and mitigate climate change. India has set a target of meeting 15% of its energy needs through renewable sources by 2020. So far, renewable energy capacity has grown significantly, especially for wind and solar power. However, there is potential to expand renewable applications beyond electricity generation for heating, cooling, cooking and mechanical uses.
The document is a collection of endorsements for the Zero Carbon Australia 2020 plan published by Beyond Zero Emissions. Several key points are made in the endorsements:
1) The plan shows that transitioning Australia to 100% renewable energy by 2020 is technically feasible and affordable.
2) It provides a roadmap for how Australia can become a global leader in renewable energy given its natural resources.
3) Adopting the plan would help Australia meet its emissions reduction targets and shift to a sustainable energy future.
The document discusses several topics related to global energy patterns:
1) Energy sources vary in their availability over time and space between finite, renewable, and patterns of consumption.
2) Economic development is positively correlated with energy use as economies industrialize and living standards rise.
3) Managing increasing energy demand involves social, economic, and environmental tradeoffs around issues like infrastructure expansion and resource exploitation.
Literature Review of Solar Energy EngineeringYogeshIJTSRD
Scientific concept of energy is capacity to do work. Energy is the basic ingredient to sustain life and development. It is the key to industrial development for the promotion of economic and living standard of the society. The growth of world population coupled with rising standard of living has escalated the growth of energy consumption. The modern industrialization has been dependent upon the conventional energy resources i.e. crude oil, natural gas and coal. Dr. Mukesh Kumar Lalji "Literature Review of Solar Energy Engineering" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-5 | Issue-3 , April 2021, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd40045.pdf Paper URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/other-scientific-research-area/other/40045/literature-review-of-solar-energy-engineering/dr-mukesh-kumar-lalji
The document critiques Andrew Kenny's argument that nuclear power is a better option than renewable energy. It argues that Kenny exaggerates claims about nuclear power's safety and sustainability. While Kenny provides some valid points about nuclear power's reliability, he underestimates its negative consequences, such as radiation exposure from accidents and the uneven global distribution of uranium resources. The document concludes that Kenny's defense of nuclear power is imbalanced and exaggerated.
Principal Sources of Energy (Renewables vs Fossil)ACX
This document discusses different types of energy sources and their sustainability. It outlines renewable energy sources like solar, wind, hydropower, biomass and geothermal that can be replenished. In contrast, fossil fuels like coal, oil and gas are non-renewable. The document also examines how access to reliable energy is essential for achieving the UN's Millennium Development Goals by enabling education, healthcare, poverty reduction, gender equality and environmental sustainability. It provides the example of multifunctional platforms that can power tools for grinding grain or husking using a simple diesel engine, bringing economic and social benefits to communities.
This document provides background information on renewable energy in India. It notes that over 80 million Indian households lack access to electricity and over 800 million people rely on traditional biomass energy. Renewable energy is seen as a way to provide clean energy access and mitigate climate change. India has set a target of meeting 15% of its energy needs through renewable sources by 2020. So far, renewable energy capacity has grown significantly, especially for wind and solar power. However, there is potential to expand renewable applications beyond electricity generation for heating, cooling, cooking and mechanical uses.
Comparative Studies of the Measured and Predicted Values of Global Solar Radi...YogeshIJTSRD
This study was aimed at utilizing the monthly mean values of global solar radiation, sunshine hours, rainfall, wind speed, atmospheric pressure and cloud cover to develop an empirical equation for estimation global solar radiation on a horizontal surface for Awka 6.2 °N, 7.0 °E for nine year period 2005 – 2013 . The regression constants were obtained using regression analysis and the predicted values of global solar radiation calculated. The measured values of global solar radiation were compared with the predicted using different models. The result showed that the deviations were minimal. Validation of the results was tested using MBE, RMSE and MPE. The values of R and R2 were also determined for each model. Of all these meteorological parameters sunshine hours, rainfall, wind speed, atmospheric pressure and cloud cover used in this study only sunshine hours was found to have a direct correlation with global solar radiation. Result obtained show that all the models except model 4 were in good agreement with the measured global solar radiation considering their MBE, RMSE and MPE values. However, considering the RMSE, models 5 and 6 gave better predictions of R which indicate that about 94.8 of variation in the monthly mean solar radiation on a horizontal surface can be accounted for by the models. Therefore, either model 5 or model 6 can be used for predicting global solar radiation for Awka and other locations with similar climate conditions. Nwokoye, A. O. C. | Mbadugha, A. O. "Comparative Studies of the Measured and Predicted Values of Global Solar Radiation for Awka, Nigeria using Selected Seven Models" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-5 | Issue-5 , August 2021, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd43919.pdf Paper URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/physics/other/43919/comparative-studies-of-the-measured-and-predicted-values-of-global-solar-radiation-for-awka-nigeria-using-selected-seven-models/nwokoye-a-o-c
SPRU energy seminar Matthew Hannon 1.12.2015 - Lost at Sea? Wave Energy’s Dif...Matthew Hannon
The UK established its first large-scale wave energy innovation programme in 1976 in a bid to develop an alternative domestic supply of energy in light of the oil crisis. As such wave energy became the principal focus for renewable energy public RD&D funding during the late 1970s. However, funding rapidly declined during the 1980s after the programme was discontinued due to a perceived lack of progress and a shift in political support towards nuclear energy. It wasn’t until the early 2000s that wave energy support enjoyed a renaissance with government believing it could play a central role in meeting its climate change and energy security targets, whilst also stimulating economic growth.
Whilst approximately £75m of public and £525m of private sector funds were subsequently invested in ocean energy RD&D between 2000 and 2012 this ultimately failed to deliver a commercially viable wave energy device. This slow progress can in part be attributed to the complexity of the engineering challenge this research explores whether the level and type of support on offer may have been a contributing factor. Drawing upon both qualitative and quantitative analysis this research examines the effectiveness of the UK’s wave energy innovation system and the lessons that have been learnt to help accelerate wave energy technology innovation in the future.
In terms of the level of funding the research finds that ocean energy has at a national and international level received less funding than other renewable energy technologies that have reached commercialisation. In terms of the effectiveness of the funding that was committed the research finds that the innovation support system put in place has exhibited a number of critical weaknesses. These include a pressure to go ‘too big too soon’, poor levels of developer collaboration, intermittent government support and a poorly coordinated funding landscape.
Despite these failures significant ‘policy learning’ has taken place in the UK, triggering a major reconfiguration of its ocean energy innovation system that is considered to have created a stronger innovation system. Positive developments include a refocusing on component vs. device development, treating wave and tidal energy innovation separately and a greater degree of innovation body coordination. Even so a number of recommendations are presented to strengthen the system further still, not least greater coordination between UK and Scottish governments and stronger links between universities and device developers.
Should Vermont's Ridges Be Developed For Wind Power?Energize Vermont
Professor Ben Luce analyzes whether it makes sense to develop Vermont's wind resource atop its many ridgelines or if there are better alternatives with less impact on natural resources and communities.
RENEWABLE ENERGY TOWARDS A SUSTAINABLE POWER SUPPLY IN THE NIGERIAN POWER IND...IAEME Publication
The challenge of climate change results primarily from the global use of fossil
fuel. Renewable energy as alternative energy source allows the use of natural sources
such as micro-hydro, wind; solar, and biomass that are sustainable to be explored.
The increase in the dependence on renewable energy calls for attention which can be
solved by the use of energy management. Energy management will provide a
consistent and controllable power supply. There is the need for the integration of
energy management into the grid planning and design. In this work, Energy
management using energy storage is thus considered as one design method for the
system to maximize simplicity and increase reliability using HOMER, a conventional
simulation tool.
In this paper, Agham explores the issue of the use of renewable energy in the country and its place in achieving a pro-people, pro-environment national power industry. The paper would go through the basics of renewable energy (RE), the country's renewable energy resources and potentials vis-à-vis the current energy pattern. The overarching policy and program of the government will then be discussed, its impacts on the current energy landscape and Agham's critique on the current framework.
Offshore wind farms in Lake Michigan have the potential to power almost 3 million homes while providing environmental and economic benefits. However, their development has faced challenges due to public opposition and a lack of political support. Educating the public about the benefits of offshore wind, including providing clean energy without harming wildlife or views, could help build support and allow the United States to tap into this sustainable energy source, as has already been done successfully in Europe.
Marine Renewable Energy: Legal and Policy Challenges to Integrating an Emergi...Glen Wright
Marine renewable energy faces significant legal and policy challenges to its integration as an emerging renewable source. Key challenges include obtaining permits, determining seabed ownership, conducting environmental impact assessments, connecting to electricity grids, and establishing incentives. While the technology is advancing, most jurisdictions lack coherent regulatory frameworks, and obtaining project approvals can take years. Strategic environmental assessments, streamlined permitting processes, and clustered grid connections may help address these challenges as countries work to reform policies and better facilitate marine renewable energy development.
The Chernobyl nuclear disaster of 1986 in Ukraine caused widespread radioactive contamination over much of western Europe, affecting humans, soil, plants, and animals. In response, firefighters extinguished external fires and received large radiation doses, a concrete shell was built around the reactor which continues to leak radiation, and Pripyat was evacuated. Satellite imaging and radiation detectors tracked the plume and dykes, dams, and walls were constructed to prevent contamination of soil and water. Environmental impact assessments, which predict project impacts and inform decision making, always include a baseline study of the pre-project environment.
Four senior figures in nuclear physics and energy distributed this letter aimed at buttressing the recent call by four climate scientists to pursue nuclear power as an affordable and relatively safe large-scale energy source with limited climate impact.
The letter from the climate scientists is here:
'To Those Influencing Environmental Policy But Opposed to Nuclear Power': http://nyti.ms/1iEGeR3
The signatories on the new letter are:
Andrew C. Kadak
Former President of the American Nuclear Society and Member of the US Nuclear Waste Technology Review Board
http://www.nwtrb.gov/board/kadak.html
Richard A. Meserve
President of the Carnegie Institution for Science and a former Chairman of the US Nuclear Regulatory Commission
http://carnegiescience.edu/president_richard_meserve
Neil E. Todreas
Korea Electric Power Company Professor (emeritus) and a former Chairman of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology Department of Nuclear Science and Engineering
http://web.mit.edu/nse/people/faculty/todreas.html
Richard Wilson
Mallinckrodt Research Professor of Physics (emeritus) and a former Chairman of the Harvard University Department of Physics
http://users.physics.harvard.edu/~wilson/
End of project presentation given at Castleton, Peak District National Park, 2nd June 2010, describing outputs from the RELU funded Sustainable Uplands project
The document discusses nuclear energy and nuclear waste. It provides information on what nuclear energy and radioactive waste are, how nuclear power plants produce electricity, and the process of nuclear fission. It then discusses the pros and cons of nuclear energy, including the benefits of low emissions but the challenges of disposing of nuclear waste safely due to associated hazards like long half-lives of radioactive materials. Risks of nuclear accidents and the finite nature of uranium fuel are also addressed.
This document outlines the key topics to be covered in a course on sustainable energy technology, including:
- Energy basics, units, and terms as well as the relationship between energy, technology, and sustainability. Renewable energy sources and sustainability are discussed.
- Planetary energy balance, utilization rates, and resources. Global trends in energy use and GDP are examined, showing energy use typically grows with economic development.
- Issues like uneven energy distribution globally, resource availability/scarcity, and the impact of fossil fuel usage on climate change via increased CO2 emissions are reviewed.
Global warming is caused by greenhouse gas emissions that trap heat in the atmosphere. The main causes are pollution from vehicles, electricity production, and industry, as well as deforestation. This leads to effects like more frequent heat waves, rising sea levels, health impacts, and destruction of coral reefs. Solutions include using energy efficient products, reducing deforestation and emissions, and shifting to public transportation. International agreements like the Kyoto Protocol have aimed to reduce greenhouse gases but a new Copenhagen Protocol may be needed.
This document summarizes a technology strategy for greening the Cape and Islands region of Massachusetts. It outlines the context of energy challenges and policies, presents an inventory of the region's current energy use and emissions, and identifies priority technology areas and high impact projects to reduce fossil fuel dependence and transition to renewable energy sources. These include improving building envelopes and heating systems, promoting biofuels and electric vehicles, developing offshore wind and community-scale renewable projects, and integrating smart grid technologies. The strategy estimates the region could achieve around 70% energy independence and cut carbon emissions by 61% through these initiatives.
“Government's first duty is to protect the people, not run their lives.” – Ronald Reagan
“If you really think that the environment is less important than the economy, try holding your breath while you count your money.” ― Guy McPherson
“Loyalty to the Nation all the time, loyalty to the Government when it deserves it.” – Mark Twain
This document discusses nuclear power and the challenges of preventing nuclear terrorism. It provides an overview of nuclear power, including how it works and its uses for electricity generation and medicine. While nuclear power has benefits like being renewable and producing large amounts of energy, it also has risks like radioactive waste and potential for nuclear weapons proliferation or terrorism if nuclear materials fall into the wrong hands. The document examines both pros and cons of nuclear power and outlines future plans to address challenges to ensure nuclear energy is safe and securely managed.
Ian Menzies of the Developing Global Citizens Team at Learning and Teaching Scotland gave this presentation on interdisciplinary learning to the Institute of Physics Scotland teacher meeting in June 2011
Integrated Science: Merging scientific disciplines to address global challengesDuPont
The document discusses the global challenges of meeting increasing demand for food and energy by 2050 given population growth. It argues that the chemical industry has an important role to play in providing sustainable solutions through continued integration of scientific disciplines, diversification of ideas, and collaboration. DuPont's approach involves applying integrated science to develop innovations that can help address issues like more efficient energy use and a cleaner energy supply through technologies for areas like biofuels, wind power, and solar energy.
Generation of Hydroelectricity By Sea Wavesvivatechijri
Oscillation Wave Column (Owc) is generation of electricity and most popular categories of wave
energy device. They work on the natural wave action i.e alternate compression & decompression of Trapped Air to
generate electricity. In the view of rising population & more consumption of electricity, alternative thinking for
generation of electricity for future use is essential. In recent years the application of generation of hydroelectricity
(By OWC) in most of the country is widely acceptable. The Main objective of present research work is to provide &
popularize the simple, feasible, ecofriendly, renewable source for generation of electricity. OWC technology in
such a type of system, which hardness energy from oscillation of seawater into chamber & converts wave energy
into electrical energy with low energy impact
Game theory assumes that parties in an interdependent relationship will act in their own self-interest. The document summarizes the core assumptions of game theory and provides context about the rise of SkyEurope Airlines, the first low-cost carrier in Central Europe. It launched in 2001 from Slovakia, taking advantage of cheaper aircraft and pilots following 9/11. Factors like available airport slots and diminished demand due to fears of flying after the attacks created opportunities for a new airline.
This document discusses various roles within an organization including colleagues, labourers, those in marketing, R&D, transport, communication, and office assistants as well as externals, users, handlers and clients. Complaints are also mentioned.
Comparative Studies of the Measured and Predicted Values of Global Solar Radi...YogeshIJTSRD
This study was aimed at utilizing the monthly mean values of global solar radiation, sunshine hours, rainfall, wind speed, atmospheric pressure and cloud cover to develop an empirical equation for estimation global solar radiation on a horizontal surface for Awka 6.2 °N, 7.0 °E for nine year period 2005 – 2013 . The regression constants were obtained using regression analysis and the predicted values of global solar radiation calculated. The measured values of global solar radiation were compared with the predicted using different models. The result showed that the deviations were minimal. Validation of the results was tested using MBE, RMSE and MPE. The values of R and R2 were also determined for each model. Of all these meteorological parameters sunshine hours, rainfall, wind speed, atmospheric pressure and cloud cover used in this study only sunshine hours was found to have a direct correlation with global solar radiation. Result obtained show that all the models except model 4 were in good agreement with the measured global solar radiation considering their MBE, RMSE and MPE values. However, considering the RMSE, models 5 and 6 gave better predictions of R which indicate that about 94.8 of variation in the monthly mean solar radiation on a horizontal surface can be accounted for by the models. Therefore, either model 5 or model 6 can be used for predicting global solar radiation for Awka and other locations with similar climate conditions. Nwokoye, A. O. C. | Mbadugha, A. O. "Comparative Studies of the Measured and Predicted Values of Global Solar Radiation for Awka, Nigeria using Selected Seven Models" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-5 | Issue-5 , August 2021, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd43919.pdf Paper URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/physics/other/43919/comparative-studies-of-the-measured-and-predicted-values-of-global-solar-radiation-for-awka-nigeria-using-selected-seven-models/nwokoye-a-o-c
SPRU energy seminar Matthew Hannon 1.12.2015 - Lost at Sea? Wave Energy’s Dif...Matthew Hannon
The UK established its first large-scale wave energy innovation programme in 1976 in a bid to develop an alternative domestic supply of energy in light of the oil crisis. As such wave energy became the principal focus for renewable energy public RD&D funding during the late 1970s. However, funding rapidly declined during the 1980s after the programme was discontinued due to a perceived lack of progress and a shift in political support towards nuclear energy. It wasn’t until the early 2000s that wave energy support enjoyed a renaissance with government believing it could play a central role in meeting its climate change and energy security targets, whilst also stimulating economic growth.
Whilst approximately £75m of public and £525m of private sector funds were subsequently invested in ocean energy RD&D between 2000 and 2012 this ultimately failed to deliver a commercially viable wave energy device. This slow progress can in part be attributed to the complexity of the engineering challenge this research explores whether the level and type of support on offer may have been a contributing factor. Drawing upon both qualitative and quantitative analysis this research examines the effectiveness of the UK’s wave energy innovation system and the lessons that have been learnt to help accelerate wave energy technology innovation in the future.
In terms of the level of funding the research finds that ocean energy has at a national and international level received less funding than other renewable energy technologies that have reached commercialisation. In terms of the effectiveness of the funding that was committed the research finds that the innovation support system put in place has exhibited a number of critical weaknesses. These include a pressure to go ‘too big too soon’, poor levels of developer collaboration, intermittent government support and a poorly coordinated funding landscape.
Despite these failures significant ‘policy learning’ has taken place in the UK, triggering a major reconfiguration of its ocean energy innovation system that is considered to have created a stronger innovation system. Positive developments include a refocusing on component vs. device development, treating wave and tidal energy innovation separately and a greater degree of innovation body coordination. Even so a number of recommendations are presented to strengthen the system further still, not least greater coordination between UK and Scottish governments and stronger links between universities and device developers.
Should Vermont's Ridges Be Developed For Wind Power?Energize Vermont
Professor Ben Luce analyzes whether it makes sense to develop Vermont's wind resource atop its many ridgelines or if there are better alternatives with less impact on natural resources and communities.
RENEWABLE ENERGY TOWARDS A SUSTAINABLE POWER SUPPLY IN THE NIGERIAN POWER IND...IAEME Publication
The challenge of climate change results primarily from the global use of fossil
fuel. Renewable energy as alternative energy source allows the use of natural sources
such as micro-hydro, wind; solar, and biomass that are sustainable to be explored.
The increase in the dependence on renewable energy calls for attention which can be
solved by the use of energy management. Energy management will provide a
consistent and controllable power supply. There is the need for the integration of
energy management into the grid planning and design. In this work, Energy
management using energy storage is thus considered as one design method for the
system to maximize simplicity and increase reliability using HOMER, a conventional
simulation tool.
In this paper, Agham explores the issue of the use of renewable energy in the country and its place in achieving a pro-people, pro-environment national power industry. The paper would go through the basics of renewable energy (RE), the country's renewable energy resources and potentials vis-à-vis the current energy pattern. The overarching policy and program of the government will then be discussed, its impacts on the current energy landscape and Agham's critique on the current framework.
Offshore wind farms in Lake Michigan have the potential to power almost 3 million homes while providing environmental and economic benefits. However, their development has faced challenges due to public opposition and a lack of political support. Educating the public about the benefits of offshore wind, including providing clean energy without harming wildlife or views, could help build support and allow the United States to tap into this sustainable energy source, as has already been done successfully in Europe.
Marine Renewable Energy: Legal and Policy Challenges to Integrating an Emergi...Glen Wright
Marine renewable energy faces significant legal and policy challenges to its integration as an emerging renewable source. Key challenges include obtaining permits, determining seabed ownership, conducting environmental impact assessments, connecting to electricity grids, and establishing incentives. While the technology is advancing, most jurisdictions lack coherent regulatory frameworks, and obtaining project approvals can take years. Strategic environmental assessments, streamlined permitting processes, and clustered grid connections may help address these challenges as countries work to reform policies and better facilitate marine renewable energy development.
The Chernobyl nuclear disaster of 1986 in Ukraine caused widespread radioactive contamination over much of western Europe, affecting humans, soil, plants, and animals. In response, firefighters extinguished external fires and received large radiation doses, a concrete shell was built around the reactor which continues to leak radiation, and Pripyat was evacuated. Satellite imaging and radiation detectors tracked the plume and dykes, dams, and walls were constructed to prevent contamination of soil and water. Environmental impact assessments, which predict project impacts and inform decision making, always include a baseline study of the pre-project environment.
Four senior figures in nuclear physics and energy distributed this letter aimed at buttressing the recent call by four climate scientists to pursue nuclear power as an affordable and relatively safe large-scale energy source with limited climate impact.
The letter from the climate scientists is here:
'To Those Influencing Environmental Policy But Opposed to Nuclear Power': http://nyti.ms/1iEGeR3
The signatories on the new letter are:
Andrew C. Kadak
Former President of the American Nuclear Society and Member of the US Nuclear Waste Technology Review Board
http://www.nwtrb.gov/board/kadak.html
Richard A. Meserve
President of the Carnegie Institution for Science and a former Chairman of the US Nuclear Regulatory Commission
http://carnegiescience.edu/president_richard_meserve
Neil E. Todreas
Korea Electric Power Company Professor (emeritus) and a former Chairman of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology Department of Nuclear Science and Engineering
http://web.mit.edu/nse/people/faculty/todreas.html
Richard Wilson
Mallinckrodt Research Professor of Physics (emeritus) and a former Chairman of the Harvard University Department of Physics
http://users.physics.harvard.edu/~wilson/
End of project presentation given at Castleton, Peak District National Park, 2nd June 2010, describing outputs from the RELU funded Sustainable Uplands project
The document discusses nuclear energy and nuclear waste. It provides information on what nuclear energy and radioactive waste are, how nuclear power plants produce electricity, and the process of nuclear fission. It then discusses the pros and cons of nuclear energy, including the benefits of low emissions but the challenges of disposing of nuclear waste safely due to associated hazards like long half-lives of radioactive materials. Risks of nuclear accidents and the finite nature of uranium fuel are also addressed.
This document outlines the key topics to be covered in a course on sustainable energy technology, including:
- Energy basics, units, and terms as well as the relationship between energy, technology, and sustainability. Renewable energy sources and sustainability are discussed.
- Planetary energy balance, utilization rates, and resources. Global trends in energy use and GDP are examined, showing energy use typically grows with economic development.
- Issues like uneven energy distribution globally, resource availability/scarcity, and the impact of fossil fuel usage on climate change via increased CO2 emissions are reviewed.
Global warming is caused by greenhouse gas emissions that trap heat in the atmosphere. The main causes are pollution from vehicles, electricity production, and industry, as well as deforestation. This leads to effects like more frequent heat waves, rising sea levels, health impacts, and destruction of coral reefs. Solutions include using energy efficient products, reducing deforestation and emissions, and shifting to public transportation. International agreements like the Kyoto Protocol have aimed to reduce greenhouse gases but a new Copenhagen Protocol may be needed.
This document summarizes a technology strategy for greening the Cape and Islands region of Massachusetts. It outlines the context of energy challenges and policies, presents an inventory of the region's current energy use and emissions, and identifies priority technology areas and high impact projects to reduce fossil fuel dependence and transition to renewable energy sources. These include improving building envelopes and heating systems, promoting biofuels and electric vehicles, developing offshore wind and community-scale renewable projects, and integrating smart grid technologies. The strategy estimates the region could achieve around 70% energy independence and cut carbon emissions by 61% through these initiatives.
“Government's first duty is to protect the people, not run their lives.” – Ronald Reagan
“If you really think that the environment is less important than the economy, try holding your breath while you count your money.” ― Guy McPherson
“Loyalty to the Nation all the time, loyalty to the Government when it deserves it.” – Mark Twain
This document discusses nuclear power and the challenges of preventing nuclear terrorism. It provides an overview of nuclear power, including how it works and its uses for electricity generation and medicine. While nuclear power has benefits like being renewable and producing large amounts of energy, it also has risks like radioactive waste and potential for nuclear weapons proliferation or terrorism if nuclear materials fall into the wrong hands. The document examines both pros and cons of nuclear power and outlines future plans to address challenges to ensure nuclear energy is safe and securely managed.
Ian Menzies of the Developing Global Citizens Team at Learning and Teaching Scotland gave this presentation on interdisciplinary learning to the Institute of Physics Scotland teacher meeting in June 2011
Integrated Science: Merging scientific disciplines to address global challengesDuPont
The document discusses the global challenges of meeting increasing demand for food and energy by 2050 given population growth. It argues that the chemical industry has an important role to play in providing sustainable solutions through continued integration of scientific disciplines, diversification of ideas, and collaboration. DuPont's approach involves applying integrated science to develop innovations that can help address issues like more efficient energy use and a cleaner energy supply through technologies for areas like biofuels, wind power, and solar energy.
Generation of Hydroelectricity By Sea Wavesvivatechijri
Oscillation Wave Column (Owc) is generation of electricity and most popular categories of wave
energy device. They work on the natural wave action i.e alternate compression & decompression of Trapped Air to
generate electricity. In the view of rising population & more consumption of electricity, alternative thinking for
generation of electricity for future use is essential. In recent years the application of generation of hydroelectricity
(By OWC) in most of the country is widely acceptable. The Main objective of present research work is to provide &
popularize the simple, feasible, ecofriendly, renewable source for generation of electricity. OWC technology in
such a type of system, which hardness energy from oscillation of seawater into chamber & converts wave energy
into electrical energy with low energy impact
Game theory assumes that parties in an interdependent relationship will act in their own self-interest. The document summarizes the core assumptions of game theory and provides context about the rise of SkyEurope Airlines, the first low-cost carrier in Central Europe. It launched in 2001 from Slovakia, taking advantage of cheaper aircraft and pilots following 9/11. Factors like available airport slots and diminished demand due to fears of flying after the attacks created opportunities for a new airline.
This document discusses various roles within an organization including colleagues, labourers, those in marketing, R&D, transport, communication, and office assistants as well as externals, users, handlers and clients. Complaints are also mentioned.
This document does not contain any readable text or information to summarize. It appears to contain random characters that do not form words or sentences. In 3 sentences or less, a summary cannot be generated since there is no meaningful information to extract.
This short document discusses a visit to the city of Varanasi, also known as Benares or Kashi, which is an important religious city for Hindus in India located along the Ganges River. The document notes that Assi Ghat is a series of steps and landings that lead down to the river in Varanasi, making it a popular place for people to perform ritual ablutions and prayers.
Mesurement of cretinine kinase from blood of a cardiac patientAtai Rabby
1. The document discusses measuring creatine kinase (CK) levels in the blood of a healthy person and a cardiac patient to detect muscle damage.
2. CK levels were higher in the cardiac patient (214.7 U/L) compared to the healthy person (97.62 U/L), indicating possible myocardial infarction in the patient.
3. CK is released into the blood from damaged muscle tissue and can be used as a biomarker for detecting cardiac muscle damage like heart attacks.
A grandma and grandpa find a large peach floating down the river while doing laundry. When they cut it open at home, a healthy boy named Momotaro emerges. Momotaro grows up and sets off with some animal friends to defeat demons on Oni Island. He returns victorious with treasure, becoming famous for his brave deeds.
Avishkaar Group is a leading manufacturer and exporter of Indian sarees established in 1970 in Surat, Gujarat, with a large production facility and product lines that includes designer, heavy work, fashion, and printed sarees for both domestic and international markets. The company prides itself on continuous innovation through technology and product improvements to meet customer demands. Avishkaar Group's showroom called Avishkaar Museum displays and sells various products including sarees, garments, accessories, and gifts.
Don't Write Them Off, Cast Iron Boilers Still Have a FutureBuildingMech
This article discusses how cast-iron boilers, while often dismissed, can still be used for condensing applications. With features like a down-flow design and thicker walls, cast-iron boilers have been shown to withstand corrosion from condensation for over 20 years. Cast-iron boilers also offer benefits like very low head loss and high thermal mass. The article argues that with modern controls and designs, cast-iron condensing boilers provide a simple and efficient option for hydronic heating systems.
Small Biz Community and Economic Development Corp is a nonprofit organization established in 2008 to unite small businesses in Pompano Beach, Florida and advocate for their economic interests. The organization provides resources like low-cost computer classes and business workshops. It also partners with other organizations to put on events that help small businesses grow and support the community, such as business expos, health fairs, and networking events. The nonprofit aims to promote economic development, employment opportunities, and financial education for local youth.
England is a country that is part of the United Kingdom. It shares land borders with Wales to the west and Scotland to the north. England's capital and largest city is London, a global financial and cultural center located in southeast England.
Solar Desalination Plant for South African industryLungisani Miya
South Africa faces water scarcity issues due to uneven freshwater distribution and a growing population. Desalination is a potential solution to produce fresh water from saline sources, but conventional desalination technologies require large amounts of energy not available in many rural areas. The document describes the development of a prototype solar desalination plant that uses renewable solar energy. The system is a low-cost, sustainable solar-assisted distillation design that mimics the natural water cycle to produce potable water from brackish sources for rural communities lacking access to clean water or electricity. Initial tests found the prototype's flow rate compares favorably to other small-scale solar desalination systems developed locally.
Nuclear power is a part of the solution that produced huge amount of electricity and has low emission of gases that cause climate change.Let's support green energy for our future generation.
This document discusses cooling water options for new nuclear power stations in the UK. It provides an overview of different cooling system designs, including direct once-through systems and various cooling tower options. It evaluates the environmental impacts of water abstraction and thermal discharges for each system. While direct cooling can have impacts on aquatic life from intake and discharge, the document finds it can be considered best available technology if best practices for design, mitigation and compensation are followed. Site-specific factors will also determine the suitability of different options.
The major challenges to powering sub-Saharan Africa sustainably discussed were:
1) Limited government budgets prioritize other sectors, restricting financing for energy development requiring public-private partnerships.
2) Attracting sufficient private investment is challenging due to risks around weak governance, lack of off-takers able to pay, and politicization of energy pricing.
3) Choosing appropriate technologies to provide universal access quickly while avoiding inferior solutions is difficult given the need for fast, large-scale deployment. Promoting technologies seen as "green" may not match user preferences.
Fuel Cells are becoming the preferred alternate energy but unless the constraints are understood and dealt with it will not be adopted at the rate it should
Geothermal Energy: Advantages, Disadvantages, Economics and Policy Shaharuf Islam
Geothermal energy is a renewable energy source generated within the earth that can be used directly for heating or converted to electricity. It has several advantages including being renewable, producing zero emissions, requiring less space than other energy sources, and providing a stable source of employment. However, it also has disadvantages such as high initial installation costs, requiring complex systems with high maintenance needs, and the risk of resource depletion if withdrawal rates are too high. While the costs of generating electricity from geothermal sources are relatively low once facilities are established, the initial capital investments tend to be high. Governments can implement policies like incentives, public-private partnerships, and risk insurance programs to promote greater development and use of geothermal energy resources.
Strategies and Scenario for Geothermal Resource Development and Utilization i...Iceland Geothermal
Dr. Meseret Teklemariam Zemedkun
United Nations Enviroment Programme (UNEP)
The UNEP Energy Programme and Activities promote the integration of environmental and social considerations in energy related decisions.
Iceland Geothermal Conference 2013
March 5-8, 2013, Harpa, Reykjavík
SMALL HYDROPOWER RELEVANCE FOR BASIC ENERGY NEED IN AFRICAIAEME Publication
Africa has abundance of various resources to make it a giant continent but due to
inadequate energy generation, full exploration of all these resources is continuously
hindered leading to inability to meet up to her full status. Hydropower (HP) is one the
energy sources that is available, renewable and sustainable but has been experiencing
low patronage. Many researchers have reported the abundance of potential sites in Africa
suitable for small hydro-utilization below 100 megawatts which can serve as isolated
systems or supply national grids. Small hydro-power (SHP) generates clean and
renewable electrical energy and is one of the most cost effective and environmental
friendly energy generation technologies available. This paper reviews the distribution of
hydro-power in Africa, its advantages, and some of the technologies involved in bringing
power through SHP to all including rural dwellers.
OFFSHORE WIND RESOURCE ASSESSMENT OFF THE SOUTH AFRICAN COASTLINEIAEME Publication
The document analyzes the offshore wind resource potential along the South African coastline. Four potential sites for offshore wind farms were identified based on considerations of shipping routes, proximity to the electrical grid, and offshore oil and gas exploration areas. Wind data from the Global Wind Atlas was analyzed for each site. Site 2 showed the highest power density and average wind speed within the 50m hub height, making it the best potential location for an offshore wind farm. The study found offshore wind energy to be a viable option for South Africa to increase renewable energy production.
The document discusses the potential for sub-surface hydrokinetic turbines to harness ocean currents for renewable energy generation. It notes that while water covers most of the Earth's surface, underwater power is rarely utilized. It then proposes researching and developing a vertical axis sub-surface turbine that could generate electricity from ocean currents in a scalable and cost-effective way. The summary highlights the large untapped potential of tidal energy along continental shelves to power many homes.
Geothermal well Site Characteristics from Climate Resilient Technologies in N...QUESTJOURNAL
ABSTRACT: Geothermal energy is regarded as a clean energy source. This assertion has a degree of truth subject to technological interventions applied in its extraction. This paper focuses on quality of vegetation, soils and water points at well sites. The concentrations of trace elements at the well sites is mainly determined by adequacy of technological interventions. Geothermal energy is classified as renewable source and climate changeresilient. However, ineffective interventions andreservoir characteristics could result in undesired effluents to the surrounding rendering it unsustainable. More so, the resource is located in fragile ecosystems pivotal in climate change resilience. Simple random sampling of 81 wells was done. Samples were collected and analyzed in the laboratory. The results indicated that contamination of the vegetation, soils and water was evident. Boron concentrations in the soils for instance resulted in a sigma value of 5.99 and p- value of 0.00. This meant its concentration was significantly higher as compared to recommended standards set by Kenya’s environmental Authority. Therefore, undesirable environmental impacts were a reality in geothermal production and hence could jeopardize efforts for building climate resilience.The choice of technology thus has a bearing on climate resilience for a geothermal facility especially those located in fragile ecological set ups.
This executive summary discusses the role of bioenergy in sustainable human development. It notes that roughly 2 billion people lack access to modern energy and bioenergy can help meet basic needs by providing locally produced energy for tasks like water pumping, lighting, and local enterprises. Modernizing bioenergy systems through improved efficiency and conversion of biomass to fuels like electricity can provide environmental and socioeconomic benefits. However, traditional biomass use is inefficient and contributes to deforestation. The summary advocates modernizing biomass use to improve livelihoods in a sustainable manner.
The document discusses energy in Africa. It notes that while renewable energy sources like wind and solar have grown globally, Africa's energy development has largely stagnated due to issues like poor policy implementation and corruption. Currently, fossil fuels provide most of Africa's electricity, but harnessing the continent's renewable resources could help power economic growth. Countries like South Africa, Egypt, Morocco, and Kenya have begun adopting renewable initiatives to attract investors and meet future energy needs through sources like solar, wind, hydropower, and geothermal. Expanding renewable access across Africa would aid development by improving living standards and reducing poverty.
A View Of Latin America Through Green PerspectivesaNumak & Company
As the world is turning green, the green future of Latin America seems bright ahead, as many Latin countries are investing in solar, wind, and hydro energy instead of coal. There still exist many problems though, like having a loss of energy sources.
IJERD (www.ijerd.com) International Journal of Engineering Research and Devel...IJERD Editor
1. The document summarizes a study that investigated awareness of renewable energy technology education in Adamawa and Taraba States of northeast Nigeria. A total of 360 questionnaires were administered across 12 local government areas, with respondents aged 18-50.
2. The results revealed that 67% of respondents in both states were unaware of any form of renewable energy. 54% had not shown concern for the environment previously. However, most respondents were willing to learn about and adopt renewable energy technologies.
3. The majority of respondents felt they needed more information about renewable energy, especially through radio and schools. However, over 70% thought the government should take primary responsibility for increasing renewable energy use.
Presentation from Director Gauri Singh during the first IRENA meeting on the Africa Clean Energy Corridor.
http://www.irena.org/menu/index.aspx?mnu=Subcat&PriMenuID=30&CatID=79&SubcatID=343
The document discusses the advantages and disadvantages of both solar energy and nuclear energy as power sources. Solar energy is a renewable resource that does not produce pollution but has variability issues and high upfront costs. Nuclear energy produces no greenhouse gases but has challenges with waste disposal and potential safety issues from plant failures. Overall, the document provides an overview of the key factors to consider when determining whether solar power or nuclear power is a better option.
Our new report explores the great potential in modern renewable energy and analyzes how it can be used to avoid the negative environmental and societal consequences that hydropower can have.
Here is what I submitted to the Canadian Nuclear Safety Commission regarding the Darlington Nuclear power plant. Submitted on October as a formal written comment on October 15 2012.
The Microsoft 365 Migration Tutorial For Beginner.pptxoperationspcvita
This presentation will help you understand the power of Microsoft 365. However, we have mentioned every productivity app included in Office 365. Additionally, we have suggested the migration situation related to Office 365 and how we can help you.
You can also read: https://www.systoolsgroup.com/updates/office-365-tenant-to-tenant-migration-step-by-step-complete-guide/
Digital Marketing Trends in 2024 | Guide for Staying AheadWask
https://www.wask.co/ebooks/digital-marketing-trends-in-2024
Feeling lost in the digital marketing whirlwind of 2024? Technology is changing, consumer habits are evolving, and staying ahead of the curve feels like a never-ending pursuit. This e-book is your compass. Dive into actionable insights to handle the complexities of modern marketing. From hyper-personalization to the power of user-generated content, learn how to build long-term relationships with your audience and unlock the secrets to success in the ever-shifting digital landscape.
How information systems are built or acquired puts information, which is what they should be about, in a secondary place. Our language adapted accordingly, and we no longer talk about information systems but applications. Applications evolved in a way to break data into diverse fragments, tightly coupled with applications and expensive to integrate. The result is technical debt, which is re-paid by taking even bigger "loans", resulting in an ever-increasing technical debt. Software engineering and procurement practices work in sync with market forces to maintain this trend. This talk demonstrates how natural this situation is. The question is: can something be done to reverse the trend?
Skybuffer SAM4U tool for SAP license adoptionTatiana Kojar
Manage and optimize your license adoption and consumption with SAM4U, an SAP free customer software asset management tool.
SAM4U, an SAP complimentary software asset management tool for customers, delivers a detailed and well-structured overview of license inventory and usage with a user-friendly interface. We offer a hosted, cost-effective, and performance-optimized SAM4U setup in the Skybuffer Cloud environment. You retain ownership of the system and data, while we manage the ABAP 7.58 infrastructure, ensuring fixed Total Cost of Ownership (TCO) and exceptional services through the SAP Fiori interface.
Introduction of Cybersecurity with OSS at Code Europe 2024Hiroshi SHIBATA
I develop the Ruby programming language, RubyGems, and Bundler, which are package managers for Ruby. Today, I will introduce how to enhance the security of your application using open-source software (OSS) examples from Ruby and RubyGems.
The first topic is CVE (Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures). I have published CVEs many times. But what exactly is a CVE? I'll provide a basic understanding of CVEs and explain how to detect and handle vulnerabilities in OSS.
Next, let's discuss package managers. Package managers play a critical role in the OSS ecosystem. I'll explain how to manage library dependencies in your application.
I'll share insights into how the Ruby and RubyGems core team works to keep our ecosystem safe. By the end of this talk, you'll have a better understanding of how to safeguard your code.
HCL Notes und Domino Lizenzkostenreduzierung in der Welt von DLAUpanagenda
Webinar Recording: https://www.panagenda.com/webinars/hcl-notes-und-domino-lizenzkostenreduzierung-in-der-welt-von-dlau/
DLAU und die Lizenzen nach dem CCB- und CCX-Modell sind für viele in der HCL-Community seit letztem Jahr ein heißes Thema. Als Notes- oder Domino-Kunde haben Sie vielleicht mit unerwartet hohen Benutzerzahlen und Lizenzgebühren zu kämpfen. Sie fragen sich vielleicht, wie diese neue Art der Lizenzierung funktioniert und welchen Nutzen sie Ihnen bringt. Vor allem wollen Sie sicherlich Ihr Budget einhalten und Kosten sparen, wo immer möglich. Das verstehen wir und wir möchten Ihnen dabei helfen!
Wir erklären Ihnen, wie Sie häufige Konfigurationsprobleme lösen können, die dazu führen können, dass mehr Benutzer gezählt werden als nötig, und wie Sie überflüssige oder ungenutzte Konten identifizieren und entfernen können, um Geld zu sparen. Es gibt auch einige Ansätze, die zu unnötigen Ausgaben führen können, z. B. wenn ein Personendokument anstelle eines Mail-Ins für geteilte Mailboxen verwendet wird. Wir zeigen Ihnen solche Fälle und deren Lösungen. Und natürlich erklären wir Ihnen das neue Lizenzmodell.
Nehmen Sie an diesem Webinar teil, bei dem HCL-Ambassador Marc Thomas und Gastredner Franz Walder Ihnen diese neue Welt näherbringen. Es vermittelt Ihnen die Tools und das Know-how, um den Überblick zu bewahren. Sie werden in der Lage sein, Ihre Kosten durch eine optimierte Domino-Konfiguration zu reduzieren und auch in Zukunft gering zu halten.
Diese Themen werden behandelt
- Reduzierung der Lizenzkosten durch Auffinden und Beheben von Fehlkonfigurationen und überflüssigen Konten
- Wie funktionieren CCB- und CCX-Lizenzen wirklich?
- Verstehen des DLAU-Tools und wie man es am besten nutzt
- Tipps für häufige Problembereiche, wie z. B. Team-Postfächer, Funktions-/Testbenutzer usw.
- Praxisbeispiele und Best Practices zum sofortigen Umsetzen
Taking AI to the Next Level in Manufacturing.pdfssuserfac0301
Read Taking AI to the Next Level in Manufacturing to gain insights on AI adoption in the manufacturing industry, such as:
1. How quickly AI is being implemented in manufacturing.
2. Which barriers stand in the way of AI adoption.
3. How data quality and governance form the backbone of AI.
4. Organizational processes and structures that may inhibit effective AI adoption.
6. Ideas and approaches to help build your organization's AI strategy.
Have you ever been confused by the myriad of choices offered by AWS for hosting a website or an API?
Lambda, Elastic Beanstalk, Lightsail, Amplify, S3 (and more!) can each host websites + APIs. But which one should we choose?
Which one is cheapest? Which one is fastest? Which one will scale to meet our needs?
Join me in this session as we dive into each AWS hosting service to determine which one is best for your scenario and explain why!
Best 20 SEO Techniques To Improve Website Visibility In SERPPixlogix Infotech
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zkStudyClub - LatticeFold: A Lattice-based Folding Scheme and its Application...Alex Pruden
Folding is a recent technique for building efficient recursive SNARKs. Several elegant folding protocols have been proposed, such as Nova, Supernova, Hypernova, Protostar, and others. However, all of them rely on an additively homomorphic commitment scheme based on discrete log, and are therefore not post-quantum secure. In this work we present LatticeFold, the first lattice-based folding protocol based on the Module SIS problem. This folding protocol naturally leads to an efficient recursive lattice-based SNARK and an efficient PCD scheme. LatticeFold supports folding low-degree relations, such as R1CS, as well as high-degree relations, such as CCS. The key challenge is to construct a secure folding protocol that works with the Ajtai commitment scheme. The difficulty, is ensuring that extracted witnesses are low norm through many rounds of folding. We present a novel technique using the sumcheck protocol to ensure that extracted witnesses are always low norm no matter how many rounds of folding are used. Our evaluation of the final proof system suggests that it is as performant as Hypernova, while providing post-quantum security.
Paper Link: https://eprint.iacr.org/2024/257
TrustArc Webinar - 2024 Global Privacy SurveyTrustArc
How does your privacy program stack up against your peers? What challenges are privacy teams tackling and prioritizing in 2024?
In the fifth annual Global Privacy Benchmarks Survey, we asked over 1,800 global privacy professionals and business executives to share their perspectives on the current state of privacy inside and outside of their organizations. This year’s report focused on emerging areas of importance for privacy and compliance professionals, including considerations and implications of Artificial Intelligence (AI) technologies, building brand trust, and different approaches for achieving higher privacy competence scores.
See how organizational priorities and strategic approaches to data security and privacy are evolving around the globe.
This webinar will review:
- The top 10 privacy insights from the fifth annual Global Privacy Benchmarks Survey
- The top challenges for privacy leaders, practitioners, and organizations in 2024
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2. Dissemination of solar water heaters in South Africa
Keh-Chin Chang
Energy Research Centre, National Cheng Kung University
Wei-Min Lin
Department of Business of Administration, Tainan University of Technology
Greg Ross
Institute of International Management, National Cheng Kung University
Kung-Ming Chung
Energy Research Centre, National Cheng Kung University
Abstract Introduction
Global concern over a looming energy crisis, water The level of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions tak-
scarcity and man-made climate change are driving a ing place today is staggering and unprecedented.
huge demand for clean technologies, which focus Many scientists, geologists and academics believe
on preserving the earth’s resources. In South Africa, that global warming and climate change have
the economy is very energy-intensive with coal indeed reached their tipping point. In particular, the
being the main national energy supply. In view of level and momentum of polar ice sheet degradation
the growing depletion of fossil fuel, it is important has stunned scientists. Applications of renewable
for South Africa to adopt a more sustainable energy energy technologies represent an opportunity for
mix. This study examines the potential for wide- systemic change. They have the potential to
spread dissemination of solar water heaters (SWHs) empower governments and individuals to con-
in South Africa. Barriers and constraints to market tribute to mitigate climate change, while at the same
expansion are analyzed to determine strategies for time facilitate employment and skill creation.
overcoming these barriers. It is found that payback Among the applications, solar water heating is a rel-
period of a SWH is shorter than the life-span of the atively simple technology which has been around
system itself, indicating that SWHs are economical- for over fifty years but has demonstrated tremen-
ly viable even with low production cost of electrici- dous potential in reducing the level of GHG emis-
ty and thus represent a profitable investment propo- sions. Thus, SWHs are rapidly becoming an integral
sition for end users, manufacturers and distributors. part of worldwide measures to combat the effects of
However, the subsidy programs offered by the gov- climate change. In 2008, the total capacity in oper-
ernment of South Africa may not be sufficient to ation worldwide was 150 683 MWth, which corre-
facilitate diffusion. This is attributed to the high ini- sponded to 215 262,126 m2 of solar collector
tial capital cost of the system and low affordability of installed (Weiss et al., 2010).
the majority of the South Africa population with low Since South Africa is located in the subtropical
income. Alternative financing mechanisms are belt between latitude 22°S and 34°S, there is abun-
required. dant sunshine throughout the year. It has one of the
highest insolation rates in the world, between 4.5
Keywords: solar water heater, South Africa, subsidy kWh/m2 and 6.5 kWh/m2, and receives about 2 500
hours of sunshine a year (over 300 days of sunshine
per year in some provinces) (Munzhedzi et al.,
2009). This high level of solar radiation enables
solar water heating to be the least-cost method of
meeting the national target for increased use of
renewable energy technologies. However, it is
known that SWHs are more expensive than con-
ventional forms of hot water production by lique-
2 Journal of Energy in Southern Africa • Vol 22 No 3 • August 2011
3. fied petroleum gas (LPG), natural gas or electricity. 2009, the accessibility was at a high of 91.7% in the
Support mechanisms such as subsidies have the Free State (the second smallest province in number
effect of shortening the payback period, which of households) and a low of 69.8% in the Eastern
would make the investment more attractive and Cape (the third largest province in number of
therefore increase the likelihood of adoption. households). Note that 13.5% of households also
This study utilized complementary elements of had their electricity cut because of non-payment. In
both desk and field research. Data was acquired addition, electricity consumption in South African
through review of literature including journal households accounts for approximately 35% of
papers, official publications and websites. In addi- peak demand with hot water production constitut-
tion, a field survey was conducted using telephone ing 40% of that (Lumba et al., 2010). To alleviate
calls followed up by e-mail questionnaires to the burden on the national grid, Eskom launched a
approximately 20 SWH-related parties in South Demand Side Management Program in 2006. This
Africa, including manufacturers such as Suntank program, which is to facilitate a more sustainable
(Pty) Ltd, Solar Heat Exchangers cc, Genersys energy mix, focuses on reducing electricity demand
South Africa, Solar Harvest (Pty) Ltd, Kwikot (Pty) by 3 000 MW by 2012, and a further 5 000 MW by
Ltd amongst others, as well as governmental and 2025.
non-governmental institutions such as the
Department of Energy, the Central Energy Fund
(CEF), the Sustainable Energy Society of South National policy of South Africa on SWHs
Africa (SESSA) and Eskom. The survey aims to The government’s White Paper on Renewable
gain an in-depth understanding of barriers to wide- Energy Policy (2003) has supported the establish-
spread dissemination of SWHs in South Africa. ment of renewable energy technologies, targeting
Possible dissemination drivers are also proposed, the provision of 10 000 GWh of electricity (or 4% of
which would assist policy-makers in formulating projected electricity demand) from renewable
effective countermeasures and strategies. resources by 2013. SWHs could contribute up to
23% of this target. Note that currently less than 1%
Energy situation in South Africa of electricity generated in the country originates
The South African economy is very energy-inten- from renewable energy technologies (Visagie et al.,
sive and is dominated by the mining and manufac- 2006). According to the latest report by the
turing industries. The country uses a large amount International Energy Agency (IEA), Weiss et al.
of energy for every unit of output, requiring 0.24 (2010) mentioned that the total collector area
tons of oil equivalent to produce US$1 000 of GDP installed and operating in South Africa was 975 360
at purchasing power parity. Energy efficiency is thus m2 by the end of 2008 and the total capacity of all
a crucial part of energy planning. Further, the these systems combined was 682.8 MWth.
national energy supply in South Africa has been It is considered that the delivery of SWHs could
dominated by coal, which contributes to about 70% potentially reduce the overall national energy
of the primary energy supply and 92% of electricity demand and the load at critical peak times of the
production (Winkler et al., 2006). Between 2002 day in South Africa. The SWH industry, however, is
and 2006, South Africa alone raised its coal pro- faced with constraints in terms of standardization,
duction by more than half the world’s increase in awareness, affordability and financing which
the equivalent volume or primary energy from impede widespread dissemination. In particular, the
other forms of new renewable energy since 1990 high upfront capital cost of a system is of great con-
(Jefferson, 2008). However, the reliance on coal cerns. Thus, there is a significant body of knowl-
has resulted in high levels of GHG emission (379 edge in both industry and academia to support the
million tons of carbon dioxide equivalent per year, modelling and development of SWHs in South
or 8.61 tons per capita) (Banks et al., 2006 ), mak- Africa. In 2003, SolaSure (the solar water heating
ing South Africa one of the top 20 GHG emitters in division, SESSA) was established for the delivery of
the world. Moreover, Winkler et al. (2006) predict- services in the SWH industry. Several task groups
ed that future energy demand in South Africa will were initiated to address the following: (1) quality
double by the year 2050. This magnitude of expan- control and testing; (2) standards and testing facili-
sion in energy demand is neither feasible nor sus- ties/procedures; (3) marketing and membership; (4)
tainable. The state-owned power utility, Eskom, interaction with Eskom; (5) research and develop-
would no longer have excess capacity it had and is ment; and (6) interaction with international bodies
struggling to keep up with peak demand, not to (Visagie et al., 2006). The CEF also assisted
mention the great impact of fossil fuel consumption SolaSure in executing these tasks. Some initiatives
on the natural environment. were made to develop the skill base of the industry.
While electricity generated from coal in South These included in-house training by individual
Africa is among the cheapest in the world, its acces- companies and Eskom, and national programs
sibility is still a problem for many of its citizens. In granted by the Energy Sector Education and
Journal of Energy in Southern Africa • Vol 22 No 3 • August 2011 3
4. Training Authority (ESETA). lectors have always been 20%-30% those of
Since SWHs have considerable potential to unglazed solar collectors, as shown in Figure 1.
leverage electricity savings and reduce GHG emis- Presumably it was because unglazed solar collectors
sions, some promotion programs were initiated by have been used mainly in luxury swimming pool
some local governments, such as the Kuyasa low- applications. In 2008, the area of solar collector
cost housing project, the Johannesburg Climate installed was about 100 000 m2 and 21 000 m2 for
Legacy SWH project at Oude Molen, and the unglazed and glazed solar collectors, respectively.
Driftsands SWH housing project (Visagie et al., However, a greater impact on sales of unglazed
2006). Further, Eskom has granted rebates of up to solar collectors could be expected due to the recent
30% (the maximum incentive amount at ZAR 5 economic recession. Furthermore, the size of glazed
000) on accredited systems since 2008. Under the solar collector systems (domestic SWHs) is linked to
current initiative, each system is measured and allo- a hot water usage profile and the number of people
cated an amount of rebate calculated according to living in a household. Since electric auxiliary heat-
the energy footprint measured by the South African ing is usually not available in all areas, Holm (2005)
Bureau of Standards (SABS). To receive rebates, indicated that a weighted national average would
homeowners must take delivery of systems by offi- require 4.69 m2 of solar collector installed per
cial Eskom suppliers. To become an official Eskom household. This corresponds to the major market
supplier one must offer a five-year guarantee, have share of 200-litre SWHs (68%) in South Africa. In
a proven track record of viability, a certificate from 2009, the number of households was estimated to
the SABS and a membership with SESSA. It is be about 13 812 000 (SSA, 2010). For the poten-
noted the application process still foresees to have tial SWH demand, this would create a demand of
the customer pay the full cost of the system upfront about 64.8 million square metres (100% market
and claim the rebate thereafter. In 2010, Eskom penetration) or 19.4 million square metres (30%
announced an increase in rebates for high-pressure market penetration). However, for the real potential
solar thermal systems. The aim of this new program SWH market in South Africa, the dissemination
is to encourage as many South Africans as possible barriers (such as affordability) should be further
to move away from electric geysers (4.2 million in taken into account.
the country), and replace them with SWHs (76 873
operating units in 2009). Residential homeowners
or tenants could be granted a cash rebate of up to
ZAR 12 500. This would make SWHs more afford-
able to consumers, particularly for the rapid emer-
gence of a non-white middle class.
SWH market
A questionnaire survey was conducted by Eskom
(2009). It intended to gather technical, financial and
operational information about the SWH industry in
South Africa. Although there are over 100 suppliers
in SESSA, only 39 suppliers gave some inputs to
the process, revealing that many of the suppliers Figure 1: Area of solar collector installed per
were not active. From the historical data of the annum
SWH industry, significant growth took place during Source: IEA
the periods 1979-1983 and 2005-2008. The area of
solar collector installed hit the 100 000 m2 mark in Dissemination barriers
2008. However, the growth was accommodated by Dissemination of SWHs in South Africa is associat-
the industry with very little additional capital equip- ed with a number of factors, which include corpo-
ment apart from additional warehousing space for rate social responsibility (GHG emission and global
companies importing SWHs. climate change), consumer awareness (supporting
In the South African market, both glazed and education and information programs), economic
unglazed flat-plate solar collectors have been adopt- considerations (financial incentives, cost of electric-
ed for most SWHs. Domestic manufacturers can ity, capital cost, income and expenditure), technical
meet about 60% of the local demand in 2009. The support (training program, quality assurance and
evacuated tube solar collectors, which are mainly standards), strategic marketing (brand image and
imported from China and Germany, came on to the entire value chain) and regulations (housing proj-
market in 2005 and only accounted for slightly over ect) (Visagie et al., 2006; Eskom, 2009). In particu-
5% sales of glazed solar collectors. For the relation- lar, the economic feasibility of SWHs is considered
ship between glazed and unglazed solar collectors, vital for market expansion. For income sources,
a remarkable fact is that the sales of glazed solar col- most households in South Africa are dependent on
4 Journal of Energy in Southern Africa • Vol 22 No 3 • August 2011
5. salaries (a low of 49.1% in Eastern Cape and a high performance tests for SWHs with specified condi-
of 76.6% in Western Cape). However, grants also tions and apparatus. The SWH performance indi-
constituted another major income source. The cator is given as the ratio of incoming solar energy
national average was 43.7% in 2009 (a low of on solar collector area and useful heat absorbed by
28.9% in Gauteng and a high of 57.7% in a SWH. SWH products bearing the SABS
Limpopo). In some provinces (Eastern Cape, Approved Mark meet the required quality and min-
Limpopo, Northern Cape and Free State), grants imum performance. Further, thermal performance
were the main source of income for many house- of a SWH should be associated with quality of solar
holds (SSA, 2010). collectors. However, there are no South African
Sidiras and Koukios (2004) pointed out that one standards for quality testing of solar collectors at this
of the major dissemination barriers for SWHs moment. This could be a serious obstacle in devel-
among households is other investment priorities. If oping solar collector products for both local and
the capital cost is less than a specific fraction of fam- international markets. In addition, it is important to
ily income, the household might be willing to invest increase knowledge related to SWHs. Skill training
in the purchase of a SWH. In South Africa, expen- workshops for local SWH manufacturers and
diture on housing, transport and food dominated installers are required for quality products and
household consumption (close to 60% of the total), installation.
especially for low-income households which allocat-
ed a higher proportion of their expenditure to food, Financial analysis
non-alcoholic beverages, clothing and footwear As mentioned, the local market of SWHs in South
(SSA, 2008). Thus, a high initial capital cost of a Africa has been mainly impeded by the financial
SWH would be the biggest hurdle to market expan- barrier. The potential for widespread dissemination
sion. Visagie and Prasad (2006) indicated that the of SWHs is essentially associated with economic
housing plans made by the government of South profitability. Under this circumstance, some lesions
Africa should include extra grant for SWH installa- can be learned from Taiwan market development.
tion. Then SWHs could become affordable to the Indeed, the well orchestrated and concerted efforts
poor and fitted in new housing as well as retrofitted (the long-term subsidy programs, 1986-1991,
in old ones. The Clean Development Mechanism 2000-present) put forward by the government of
(CDM) also provides a financing mechanism. This Taiwan have played a significant role in market
could potentially make SWHs more accessible to expansion of SWHs during the last few decades
the less well-off majority of the population (Chang et al., 2011). Furthermore, payback period
Chang et al. (2009) indicated that the ownership is considered a critical element in the consumer
and architectural type of buildings would limit the adoption decision process. In this study, a net ener-
space available for SWH installation. Apartments gy analysis for SWHs by Sidiras and Koukios
and community housing are the major types of (2004) was adopted, in which the payback period is
housing in urban Taiwan. It would be difficult to calculated using the balance between the present-
install a standalone SWH in those types of build- time cost of the system (initial plus yearly costs
ings. In South Africa, the full and partial ownership including operation, repair and maintenance), and
of housing were 56.0% and 10.9% in 2009, respec- the benefits from conventional energy savings with
tively; with 20.9% of the households being rented reference to the present time. For the initial capital
(SSA, 2010). In terms of type of dwelling, most cost, the estimated unit price of a SWH (Eskom,
houses were built with bricks (63.5%) or traditional 2009) is shown in Figure 2.
materials (10.2%); and SWHs can thus be installed
on the roof of houses. Furthermore, it is also known
that there are many informal housing settlements
with a single water tap situated outside in South
Africa. This would be a significant barrier.
To reinforce a product’s intrinsic features in
South Africa, the SABS has issued the SABS
Approved Mark. An independent certification is
conducted by a third party. Thus, the mark is con-
sidered a highly recognizable symbol of credibility
and a powerful marketing tool. For SWHs, estab-
lishment of a standard is also one of the key factors
contributing to a positive acceptance of the con-
sumers. South African standard (SANS 6211-
2:2003) is in compliance with the existing local and Figure 2: Unit price of SWHs
international standards, which includes one-day Source: Eskom (2009)
outdoor and three one-day indoor basic thermal
Journal of Energy in Southern Africa • Vol 22 No 3 • August 2011 5
6. As can be seen the average unit price increases with Thus, the Government of South Africa should lead
tank size, particularly for the 300-litre system. This by example and have government buildings fitted
is not consistent with the study by Chang et al. with SWHs, to encourage the general populace to
(2009), in which the unit price of a SWH decreases adopt. The installation of SWHs should be made
with a larger area of solar collectors installed. Then mandatory in all housing being constructed by the
in terms of cost breakdown, Holm (2005) indicated government.
that the local manufacturers were reluctant to share
information. However, the average price of a glazed
solar collector system in South Africa was estimated
to be 3 736 ZAR/m2. Materials and labour account- Acknowledgements
ed for 31.2% and 16% of the price, respectively. In Special thanks go to Mr. John Murray (former Vice-
addition, the cost of distribution, installation and President of Newbridge Telecommunications Networks)
maintenance of systems represented almost a third for his kind assistance in this study. Sincere thanks also go
of the total installation cost. to Andrew Janisch, Sustainable Energy Society of South
The benefit of using a SWH (output energy of Africa (SESSA), for providing essential data on SWHs in
solar collectors) instead of traditional alternatives South Africa. This work was also supported by the
(fuel price) can be realized in terms of the monetary Bureau of Energy, Ministry of Economic Affairs, Republic
value of electricity saving. In South Africa, the aver- of China.
age annual domestic electricity consumption for hot
water heating was about 3 400 kWh. With the solar
insolation and sunshine duration taken into References
account, there could be about 60% of hot water Banks, D. and Schaffler J. (2006), The potential
production (approximately 2 000 kWh) covered by contribution of renewable energy in South
SWHs (Ross, 2010). However, due to low electrici- Africa, Sustainable Energy and Climate Change
ty cost, the yearly benefit is estimated to be only Project (SECCP).
about ZAR 1 100. Furthermore, the discount rate Chang, K.C., Lin, W.M., Lee, T.S. and Chung, K.M.
(2009), Local market of solar water heaters in
(cost of system less discount by subsidy or tax
Taiwan: Review and perspectives, Renewable
rebate) and inflation rate could be also included in and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Vol. 13, 2605-
the payback period calculation (Sidiras et al., 2612.
2004). Ross (2010) pointed out that the payback Chang K.C., Lin W.M., Lee T.S. and Chung K.M.
period of SWHs in South Africa is estimated be 4 (2011), Subsidy Programs on Diffusion of Solar
years while their lifetime could be up to 25 years, Water Heaters: Taiwan’s Experience. Energy
indicating the feasibility of SWH expansion in Policy Vol. 39, Issue 2, 563-567.
South Africa. However, the vast majority of South Eskom Distribution (2009). The South Africa solar
Africans with lower disposable incomes still cannot water heater industry.
afford the high capital cost of SWHs without sub- Holm, D. (2005). Market survey of solar water heat-
sidy. Thus, alternative financing methods need to ing in South Africa for the Energy Development
be implemented to make SWHs more accessible to Corporation (EDC) of the Central Energy Fund
the general public. For example, SWHs could be (CEF), SolaSure.
offered on a lease basis where repayments are less Jefferson, M. (2008), Accelerating the transition to
than the electricity savings, so effectively the end sustainable energy systems, Energy Policy, Vol.
36, 416-425.
user is getting a system for free or for a very small
Lumba, P and Sebitosi, A.B. (2010). Evaluating the
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monthly repayment sum.
impact of consumer behaviour on the perform-
Conclusions ance of domestic solar water heating systems in
This study aims to gain insight into what factors South Africa, Journal of Energy in Southern
influence the consumer adoption decision process, Africa, Vol. 21 No. 1; 25-34.
which in turn, determines possible dissemination of Munzhedzi, R. and Sebitosi A.B. (2009). Redrawing
SWHs in South Africa. As expected, economic con- the solar map of South Africa for photovoltaic
siderations are the key factors. Current subsidy pro- applications, Renewable Energy, Vol. 34, 165-
grams are not sufficient to facilitate diffusion. 169.
Alternative financing mechanisms such as third- Ross, G. (2010). Solar water heater diffusion in
party financing as well as low-interest loans and Taiwan and South Africa, Masters Thesis,
access to credit for SWH purchases should be con- Institute of International Management, National
sidered. This would make SWHs more competitive Cheng Kung University.
with traditional electric water heating systems. Sidiras, D.K and Kouhios, E.G. (2004). Solar sys-
tems diffusion in local markets, Energy Policy,
Indeed, the greatest benefit for South Africa is that
Vol. 32, 2007-2018.
SWHs can serve the greatest need. The challenge is
Statistics South Africa (SSA, 2008), Income and
how to make SWHs available to the people who expenditure of households 2005/2006: analysis
need it the most, the population with low income.
6 Journal of Energy in Southern Africa • Vol 22 No 3 • August 2011
7. of results, Report number 01-00-01.
Statistics South Africa (SSA, 2010). General house-
hold survey.
Visagie, E. and Prasad, G. (2006), South Africa:
Biodiesel and solar water heaters, Energy
Research Centre. University of Cape Town,
South Africa.
Weiss, W., Bergmann, I. and Faninger, G. (2010).
Solar heat worldwide: markets and contribution
to the energy supply, 2010 editions,
International Energy Agency.
Winkler, H., Davidson, O., Kenny, A., Prasad, G.,
Nkomo, J., Sparks, D., Howells, M, and Alfstad,
T. (2006), Energy policies for sustainable devel-
opment in South Africa, Energy Research
Centre. University of Cape Town, South Africa.
Received 3 September 2010; revised 3 January 2011
Journal of Energy in Southern Africa • Vol 22 No 3 • August 2011 7
8. The challenges and potential options to meet the peak
electricity demand in Mauritius
Khalil Elahee
Faculty of Engineering, University of Mauritius, Réduit, Mauritius
Abstract OEP: Outline Energy Policy
This paper reviews the current challenges facing MID: Maurice Ile Durable (Mauritius Sustainable
Mauritius in terms of meeting peak electricity Island) project
demand. As a fast-developing island-economy with SIPP: Small ondependent power producer
a very high population density, this is a crucial issue.
The more so that it imports 80% of its energy
requirements in terms of fossil fuels, relies signifi-
cantly on tourism and needs to protect its fragile 1. Introduction
ecosystems. The nature of the peak electricity As a fast-developing economy, Mauritius has to
demand and its evolution is firstly analysed. meet increasing energy demand, particularly in
Reference is made to past scenarios for electricity terms of peak electricity as shown in Figure 1.
supply, the obstacles to their implementation and In 2009, the peak demand attained 389 MW
their relevance in terms of sustainability. The fore- (Hansard, 2009a), representing an increase of 17 %
casts underpinning the latter scenarios are found to over the last 5 years. The peak occurs during sum-
be over-estimated. Demand-Side Management mer with the difference in the maximum demands
projects are discussed and their potential to promote between summer and winter increasing from 25
an alternative scenario based on revised forecasts MW in 2004 to 40 MW in 2008. This difference is
are discussed. Hence a new Maurice Ile Durable due to the massive use of ventilation, air-condition-
(Mauritius Sustainable Island, MID) scenario is pro- ing and refrigeration during the summer months,
posed in view of stabilising the peak demand, particularly during the recent years that have been
reducing the rate of increase of total electricity marked with high average temperatures and the
demand and making the capacity margin positive. construction boom in the residential, tourism and
The newly-devised scenario is not only more sus- services sectors.
tainable but also addresses several political and It has been demonstrated that the correlation
socio-economic issues to bring holistic win-win solu- coefficient between peak demand and atmospheric
tions. Institutional and regulatory reforms as well as temperature is above 0.9 (Badurally et al., 2009).
a relevant Business Framework are also important This is illustrated for 2008 in Figure 2. It is to be
in order to meet the challenges of MID. The new noted that both average humidity and number of
scenario relies only on existing technology with an hours of sunshine increase in summer and, hence,
excellent track-record and provides the transition to tend to increase the peak demand.
a more sustainable future.
1.1 Supply
Keywords: peak demand, electricity, Mauritius, Figure 3 illustrates how the peak demand is typical-
demand-side management, sustainability ly met at the supply end. From the bottom of the
chart upwards, electricity is generated from base-
load coal or bagasse power plants owned by inde-
Acronyms pendent power producers or IPPs (CTDS, Beau-
CEB Central Electricity Board Champ, FUEL, CTSAV and CTBV). The other
CSO Central Statistics Office plants are owned by the Central Electricity Board
DSM Demand-side management (CEB), the sole distributor and supplier of grid
DST: Daylight Saving Time power. It is to be noted that the CEB generates
GDP: Gross development product power from hydro (including Champagne), fuel oil
IPP: Independent power producer (Fort George, St Louis and Fort Victoria) and
8 Journal of Energy in Southern Africa • Vol 22 No 3 • August 2011
9. Figure 1: Peak electricity demand from 2004 to 2008
Source: CSO (2008a)
Figure 2. Impact of GDP, temperature, humidity
and number of hours of sunshine on peak Figure 3. Typical load supply curve of electricity from
electricity demand for 2008 power plants (listed from bottom first)
Source: Badurally et al. (2009) Source: Kassim (2010)
kerosene (Nicolay). The latter, using a 76 MW gas even more expensive when compared to bagasse at
turbine, is normally reserved for emergency pur- market prices. The latter is fully utilised but the effi-
poses and is occasionally run for peaking only, ciency of its conversion can be improved by the
given that its cost is at least four-fold higher. introduction of high pressure cogeneration plants.
It is to be noted that the distribution losses Together with the use of other biomasses like cane
amount to about 10% (CEB, 2008). The total tops and leaves, at least three times more electricity
installed capacity is now 504 MW, including can be produced using currently available technol-
allowance for maintenance, repairs and a 10% ogy (Autrey et al., 2006). This will ensure also a
spinning reserve (Hansard, 2009b). Currently more stronger substitution of coal, used during the inter-
than 60% of electricity is generated by the IPPs, the crop season, by renewable biomass. Figure 4 shows
CEB being responsible mostly for the semi-base the energy mix for power generation for 2008. The
and peak load power supply areas. Much of the wind power indicated is negligible and refers to the
CEB capacity is not fully exploited because of bind- island to Rodrigues.
ing contracts with IPPs to give priority to their base-
load supply and because of the dependence on 1.2 Demand-side management
rainfall for hydropower. In 2009, the amount of power generated was
It is to be noted that fuel oil and kerosene used almost the same as in 2008. Moreover, the peak
by CEB are more costly compared to coal, and demand moved to the morning during the summer
Journal of Energy in Southern Africa • Vol 22 No 3 • August 2011 9
10. Table 1: Power generation by source in 2008
understood that there is a growing awareness on
Source: CSO (2008b)
DSM resulting in an effective drop in power
Source of energy GWh % demand, particularly in the evening. It is difficult
Primary energy 108.4 4.2 to estimate its exact impact but it is possible that
Hydro (renewable energy) 108.0 4.2 it may reach as much as 15 MW occasionally,
comparable to the drop noted immediately after
Wind (renewable energy) 0.4 0.0
sharp rises in prices like in 2007.
Secondary energy 2 448.8 95.8
iv) As a pilot project, Daylight Saving Time (DST)
Gas turbine (kerosene) 6.6 0.3 was adopted from October 2008 to March 2009.
Diesel & fuel oil 827.1 32.3 The project has now been dropped primarily
Coal 1 128.7 44.1 because of public outcry related to social and
Bagasse (renewable energy) 486.4 19.0 cultural disruption, but also because the expect-
Total 2 557.2 100.0 ed energy savings were not achieved. The sum-
Of which: renewable energy mer of 2009-2010 had ended without DST and
(hydro, wind & bagasse) 594.8 23.3 there is no evidence to prove that the pilot proj-
ect had a significant positive impact. Above all,
since December 2008, but more regularly ever
after, the maximum peak electricity demand has
months, instead of occurring in the evening as usu- been occurring in the morning during weekdays
ally observed in the past. In fact, a plateau of about in summer. Nevertheless, it cannot be over-
380 MW was recorded in the morning and early looked that DST did reduce the evening peak.
afternoon during hot summer weekdays (Assirva- However, the actual amount may be much less
den, 2010). This confirms the trend noted recently than the 15 MW average that was been put for-
with the massive use of ventilation, air-conditioning ward by the CEB (Elahee, 2008).
and refrigeration in residential, touristic, commercial
and office buildings. 2. Forecasts
The stabilisation of the demand for electricity in In the light of the above, electricity demand fore-
2009, together with a peak demand growth of only casts were revised slightly downwards in 2009
2%, were the direct results of Demand-Side (Hansard, 2009d). Figures 4, 5 and 6 depict the ini-
Management (DSM) measures coupled with a slow- tial forecasted demands as from 2003 and the actu-
ing of the economic growth to 2.5% in 2009. The al figures up to 2008. As noted, the demand for
influence of GDP on peak electricity demand has 2009 is now known to be very close to that of 2008.
already been evoked above. The obvious deduction from the graphs is that
There were four DSM measures that interacted the forecasted CEB figures are well above actual
to achieve the situation in 2009. values. The difference for 2010 stands at 50 MW
i) Some 1 million Compact Fluorescent Lamps between the CEB forecast and the trend based on
(CFLs) were distributed at subsidized costs to the the recent values recorded. In 2015, this gap
general public from August 2008 to early 2009. increases to 100 MW. Even considering the latest
As a result, the Government estimates that an forecasted values made public in 2009, the differ-
average saving of 14 MW has been achieved ence is not less (Hansard, 2009d). The DSM impact
during the evening peak (Hansard, 2009c). discussed amounting to a total average drop of
Studies conducted at the University of Mauritius about 25 MW had not been considered in the CEB
on Energy Management in the residential sector forecasts in 2003 and in 2007.
indicates that the impact of CFLs was probably It can be argued that under the combined effect
even more significant, of up to 25 MW (Baha- (1) of sustained DSM to bring a total reduction of
door, 2009; Ramnarain, 2009). peak demand of 30 MW by 2012 and (2) of mod-
ii) More than 25 000 solar water heaters were erate economic growth of between 2 and 5 % of
installed in 2008 with the introduction of a direct GDP over the same period, the peak electricity
subsidy of Rs 10 000 (approx. USD 300) per demand is likely to stabilise at about 400 MW. This
unit. This has led to a reduced utilisation of elec- is close to the extrapolated trend shown in Figure 6.
tric water heaters. It is reasonable to estimate an Similarly, Figure 5 depicts a more realistic trend
average reduction of about 5 MW on the if DSM is pursued, along with moderate economic
evening peak resulting from the latter measure. growth as is now predicted to happen over the next
Iii) The Government introduced a national energy- few years by most specialists (EconomyWatch,
saving campaign under the Maurice Ile Durable 2010). In any event, one of the key objectives of
(MID) project focusing on all sectors. Sensitiz- DSM is to decouple GDP and energy requirement.
ation on peak demand reduction was the focus This is made easier by the ongoing transforma-
of a sustained campaign. Although the last tions in the economy of Mauritius as the services
increase in electricity prices was in 2007, it is sector grows and diversifies at the expense of the
10 Journal of Energy in Southern Africa • Vol 22 No 3 • August 2011
11. Figure 4: Forecast of peak electricity demand made in 2003
Source: CEB (2003)
Figure 5. Forecast of total electricity demand and comparison with actual
Source: CEB (2007a)
energy-intense manufacturing and agricultural sec- ensure energy efficient practices related to appli-
tors. ances and buildings respectively.
DSM can be the key to meeting the energy iii) Solar-water heating, including in air-condition-
demands, including morning peaks during week- ing and refrigeration, sustainable design of
days in summer, provided the following specific ori- buildings and energy-efficiency improvement in
entations are urgently adopted: industry and tourism should a full priority by the
i) The Energy Management Office to facilitate private sector.
DSM in all sectors, already announced by the iv) The onus should no more be on the CEB to pro-
Government in the 2010 Budget, should be set vide 100% of electricity needed by industrial,
up without delay (MoF, 2009). hotel and commercial promoters. The latter
ii) The Energy Efficiency Act under preparation and should be required to ensure optimal design and
the Building Code should be promulgated to energy use on their facilities, including the
Journal of Energy in Southern Africa • Vol 22 No 3 • August 2011 11
12. Figure 6. Forecast of peak electricity demand and comparison with actual
Source: CEB (2007b)
implementation of Energy Management pro- have had an estimated extra cost of 5%. The 15
grammes and recourse to renewable energy. MW coal/bagasse project scheduled for 2008 did
New cities and similar projects should be sub- not happen. Thus far, no project has been complet-
jected to strict environmental standards, includ- ed. The current intention of the CEB to promote the
ing energy use. The proposed Land-Based construction of a 110 MW coal-fired plant and to
Oceanic Industry (MLBOPL, 2009; MRC, 2010) invest in a 30 MW fuel oil-fired plant implies that
is an example of such a new approach where the Base Scenario is very much the one on course,
promoters are responsible for sustainable energy albeit with a delay of two, if not three years.
input. The Compromise Scenario would have also
v) Pricing policy for energy, including Time-of-Use included the closing down of the 20 MW Beau
Tariff for electricity and feed-in tariffs, as well Champ plant in 2009 and its replacement by an
energy taxes should be integrated within a MID equivalent power plant in FUEL in 2009. This did
Business Framework, together with incentive not happen. A 20 MW Waste-to-Energy project and
packages for sustainable energy. a 25 MW wind farm, concomitant with the
Compromise Scenario and expected to start oper-
3. New MID scenario ating in 2009, are also behind schedule. In fact, the
In 2007, the Outline Energy Policy (OEP 2007c)
, former has now been degraded to a 7 MW propos-
was published focusing on changing the depend- al and is subject to much controversy just like the
ence of the country on oil to one on coal. The coal-only power plant.
Compromise Scenario shown in Table 2 was the The concept of Maurice Ile Durable (Mauritius
one retained by the CEB. The All Sugar Cane Sustainable Island, MID) started to be formally
Scenario was rejected on the basis that it would implemented in 2008. At the heart of the MID
Table 2: Scenarios for power generation
Source: OEP (2007d)
Year Base Sugar cane Compromise
Scenario Scenario Scenario
2008 30 MW diesel 42 MW coal/bagasse 15 MW coal/ bagasse
2009 42 MW coal/bagasse 50 MW coal
2010 50 MW coal 42 MW coal/bagasse 50 MW cCoal
2011 42 MW coal/bagasse 15 MW coal/bagasse
2012 50 MW coal
12 Journal of Energy in Southern Africa • Vol 22 No 3 • August 2011
13. vision is the need to shift from fossil fuels, including top residues will be promoted. Biogas also can
coal, to renewables and to promote Demand Side be used. It favours the active and urgent imple-
Management (DSM). The vision is that in 2028, as mentation of the wind power projects. It
much as 65% of the energy mix for electricity gen- assumes the coming into operation of a 30 MW
eration in Mauritius should come from renewables fuel-oil power plant in 2010, as already pur-
(MID Fund, 2008). This was confirmed by the chased by the CEB. In the long term, this facili-
Prime Minister in December 2009 in Copenhagen ty should, however, switch to biofuels.
with an appeal to help Mauritius achieve its objec- ii) Small plants: It also envisages the emergence of
tive (IELS, 2009). Small Independent Power Producers (SIPPs)
The delays imply that the capacity margin is at producing electricity either for the grid or for
an extremely dangerous level of -70 MW currently local use (biogas, hydro, photovoltaic and wind
with respect to the initial planning made in 2007 power units of less than 50 kW). A number of
(OEP 2007e). Catastrophic black-outs would have
, higher capacity renewable power projects
happened had it not been for the success of the should also start within that scenario (e.g. bio-
DSM efforts explained earlier. Moreover, it has been gas, micro-cogeneration, trigeneration or
reported that CEB is stretching the use of its hydropower projects of up to 2 MW). Stored or
resources and this is not without undue risk. pumped hydropower will also be optimally
Possible accidents due to regular switching on-and- exploited to reduce peak demand.
off of generators designed to operate constantly iii) DSM: The peak reduction due to DSM should be
cannot be excluded (Bibi, 2009). Similarly, equip- sustained under the MID Scenario and consoli-
ment is being used beyond their normal lifetime. dated to reach a total of at least 30 MW by
The Sugar-Cane Scenario offers best safe-guard 2012. This corresponds to an annual growth in
in the medium-to-long term against negative capac- demand of 2 to 3 % as compared to the unsus-
ity margins. The argument that it would have cost tainable 5 % average noted over the past
5% more than the Compromise Scenario is not a decade.
sound one to justify, alone, its rejection. Moreover,
the re-engineering of the cane sector is a matter of Table 3: New MID Scenario
strategic importance for the country. 2010 30 MW fuel oil at Fort Victoria (confirmed, later
Figure 7 illustrates the consequent evolution of switch to biofuel)
the capacity margin in MW, including the benefit
2011 50 MW bagasse/coal cogeneration + 20 to
related to DSM, for a new MID Scenario that is 40 MW wind + SIPPs
described in Table 3. The initial planning with
2012 50 MW Bagasse/Coal Cogeneration + 50 MW
respect to the timely retirement of CEB old engines
wind + SIPPs
is retained in this scenario. The capacity margin is
the difference between the forecasted peak demand
and the available capacity, allowing for mainte- Whilst being more sustainable, the new MID sce-
nance, repairs and spinning reserve. The CEB initial nario also responds to immediate priorities related
forecast for demand is used as benchmark in this to energy security, the re-engineering of the cane
case. sector and ensuring availability of electricity. These
The new MID scenario rests on three pillars: projects are technically ready to be implemented,
i) Large plants: It replaces the controversial coal- some having lingered in the development stage for
fired power plant by bagasse-coal plants that more than five years. The new scenario paves the
operate in cogeneration with high efficiency in way towards reaching the key targets of the MID
the context of the re-engineering of the cane project. The Compromise scenario, and even more
industry. The use of other biomasses like cane- the Base Scenario, will drift the country away from
Figure 7. Capacity margin (MW ) for New MID Scenario
Journal of Energy in Southern Africa • Vol 22 No 3 • August 2011 13
14. that vision with the reliance on coal peaking at 54% towards implementing DSM (including institutional
for electricity generation by 2013 (MPU, 2007f; and regulatory measures) and introducing a coher-
MREPU, 2009). It is to be recalled that the price of ent Business Framework to favour the new MID
coal has known a rapid increase recently and that its Scenario for both centralized large plants and
access costs, as well as other hidden costs, are more decentralized small power producers. The survival
than 40% of the mine-to-user cost. Above-all in an of the cane industry as well as the opportunity of
era of global climate change, turning towards producing bioethanol from the latter industry are
imported coal at the expense of indigenous closely related to the implementation of efficient
resources is simply ridiculous. cogeneration plants where the use of bagasse, cane
The main obstacle to the new MID Scenario, tops and leaves as well as biogas is promoted.
however, is of a politico-administrative nature. A Sensitization, education and training should also
new partnership must be defined between the pub- not be neglected both for the sake of DSM as for the
lic and private sectors. The agreement reached by emergence of a green economy.
the Prime Minister with sugar cane-producers in The need of back-up for renewable energy proj-
December 2007 should serve as basis for innova- ects will be best handled through the integration of
tive win-win agreements between the two parties. intermittent sources as well as the combination of
The Cane Democratization Fund is an initiative in scattered decentralized units of diverse nature.
the right direction opening up the ownership of Storage of energy and the recourse to forecasting of
bagasse-coal cogeneration plants to all stakeholders output from intermittent sources will be extremely
in a spirit of equity (MLP 2 010).
, useful. Phased-out diesel or fuel-oil equipment as
The controversial and over-delayed projects for well as disused hydropower facilities can still be
a coal-only power plant and a Waste-to-Energy used to provide emergency response.
plant are discarded under the New MID Scenario This paper discusses the transition to a sustain-
and replaced by a more sustainable alternative. able energy future. After 2012, more ambitious
projects like photovoltaic parks or geothermal
4. Conclusion power can be considered in the context of a long-
The maximum peak electricity demand will still term energy master plan.
occur during week-days in summer, but in the To conclude, a holistic approach will have to be
morning rather than in the evening. Base and adopted putting politics and economy in the service
Compromise scenarios for electricity supply have of society and its environment. This is the essence
been proposed in the past based on overestimates of the MID project.
of actual demand. DSM opens the way to a New
MID Scenario favouring energy efficiency and the
use of renewables.
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Journal of Energy in Southern Africa • Vol 22 No 3 • August 2011 15
16. Outdoor testing of amorphous and crystalline silicon solar
panels at Thohoyandou
Eric Maluta
Vaithianathaswami Sankaran
University of Venda, South Africa
Abstract the community members generally resort to seeking
The use of solar panels is becoming one of the advice from us about the use and the installation of
options for some of the rural communities in solar panels to generate electricity. It has become
Limpopo Province, South Africa, to get electrical necessary to assist the rural community regarding
energy for their radio and television sets as the the optimal use and the maintenance of the photo-
national grid may not reach them in the near future. voltaic (PV) system that are usually available on the
Hence, dissemination of knowledge of how to use market. To provide a meaningful suggestion to the
the solar devices and their maintenance is crucial community, it is important to carry out field tests on
for these communities. This will be possible only if the suitability of the panels. Effecting a successful
there is appropriate information available for the comparison between two different types of PV
potential end-users, installers and extension work- modules, would require the determination of their
ers. With this in mind, an attempt has been made to outdoor performance at known irradiance and tem-
evaluate the performance of an amorphous and a perature. For this purpose, we need to measure the
crystalline solar panel at our experimental site. open circuit voltage (Voc) and short circuit current
Outdoor tests were conducted to measure solar (Isc), which will in turn, lead to the measurement of
radiation, open-circuit voltage, short circuit current, the output power of the modules. We will also
current-voltage (I-V) curve, fill-factor and conver- require the current-voltage (I-V) characteristics of
sion efficiency and hence to compare the perform- these modules to make a useful comparison of their
ance of the two types of panels. It was found that efficiency.
both types give a satisfactory performance for the The choice of a suitable PV module for a given
climate of this region. location is generally guided by the actual energy
output under outdoor conditions, the validity of the
Keywords: Amorphous and crystalline silicon solar data supplied by the manufacturer and the implica-
panels, solar radiation, peak power, I-V curve, con- tions on cost of installations. Though the power out-
version efficiency, standard testing condition put and the efficiency rating of the panel given by
the manufacture can be taken as the starting point,
it is important to test these panels under outdoor
conditions to access the validity of the data in a
given location.
1. Introduction 2. Experimental considerations
In the north-eastern Limpopo, a large number of The present study was carried out at Solar Research
villages are yet to be connected to the national elec- Site situated at the University of Venda, Thohoyan-
tricity grid. People living in these villages opt for dou, Limpopo Province, South Africa, latitude
solar panels to get power for their television and 22.95°S and longitude 30.48°E. The site has a
radio sets, which form a major source for accessing Delta-T Weather Station Mast, which was used to
information from the regional communication sta- obtain the solar radiation and the temperature data
tions about the events taking place in the country during the performance of the study.
and the world at large. The University of Venda is a In the present investigation an amorphous (a-Si)
tertiary institution situated in the rural area of the far and a crystalline (c-Si) PV module are considered
north of the Limpopo Province in South Africa and for evaluation and comparison. The module de-
16 Journal of Energy in Southern Africa • Vol 22 No 3 • August 2011
17. Table 1: Specifications of the solar panels
Specification Crystalline solar module Amorphous solar module
Manufacturer Astropower (AP-7105) Unisolar ( US-42-001416)
Peak power (Pmax) 75W 45W
Maximum power current (Imp) 4.4A 2.54A
Maximum power voltage (Vmp) 17.0V 16.5V
Short-circuit current (Isc) 4.8A 3.17A
Open-circuit voltage (Voc) 21.0V 23.8V
scriptions and the manufacturer data are given in (STC) (Treble, 1991).
Table 1. Module or array open-circuit voltage and mod-
The area of cross-section of each of the module ule cell temperature should be read concurrently,
is 0.63m2, so that the radiation (energy) falling on since open-circuit voltage is a function of cell tem-
the panels at any given time of the day is almost the perature. The module must be left in an open-circuit
same. The modules were purchased in South condition for a minimum of 15 minutes prior to the
Africa. taking of the open-circuit voltage reading to ensure
In order to evaluate the performance of the two representative cell temperature reading (Markvart,
panels under consideration, the solar radiation data 1994). Modules or arrays can contain cells, which
as well as the I-V curves are essential. Data Logger vary significantly in temperature throughout the
(Delta-T 2000) was used to measure the radiation module due to hot spot heating, caused by cracked
falling on the experimental location and to measure cells, mismatched cell or cell shading. Short-circuit
the temperature (daily and ambient temperature), currents should be measured immediately after the
while the DS tracer (DS Tracer 1996) was used to measurement of open-circuit voltage so that the test
record an I-V curve by varying the electrical imped- conditions are nearly identical (Markvart, 1994).
ance connected across the PV arrays terminals. Readings of the short-circuit current and irradiance
Varying the impedance from zero to infinity causes must be made concurrently to minimize errors. The
the array operating point to change from Isc to Voc. input signal (current-voltage to the DS Tracer) can
When the module is connected, the DS-Tracer also be used to calibrate the DS Tracer for radiation
accomplishes the impedance change through its and temperature. The input signals provide neces-
operating range and presents a set of current and sary details and after calibration they will be dis-
voltage values that form the I-V curves. played along with the I-V curve (DS Tracer 1996).
For designing and predicting the potential of any The calibration of the temperature can be carried
solar appliances at a location, we need monthly out by recording the ambient temperature of the
average daily solar radiation data on a horizontal panel using a thermometer and the details provided
surface. The operation and performance of PV could be utilized to get the temperature data on the
modules mainly depend on system configuration curve. Apart from those methods, the temperature
and weather conditions. Furthermore, the module of the solar cell can be determined by the equilibri-
temperature and solar irradiance determine the um between the sun’s radiation, the energy con-
module’s operational curve and the coupling of the verted to electrical energy and the energy re-radiat-
PV modules. In addition, the system components ed to cold space (Krishna et al., 2009)
determine where a system will operate on the PV
operational curve (Hecktheuer et al. 2004). It is 3. Results and discussion
desirable to operate a system near the maximum It is a generally accepted fact that the performance
power producing point on the module’s operational of crystalline silicon solar cells varies from location
curve either at all times (during the sunshine hours) to location (Lund et al., 2001). This variation is
or during worst-case operation condition (Fitz- caused by the difference in irradiation at different
patrick, 2004). locations, together with spectral response of the
The outdoor conditions under which a PV mod- solar cell, temperature effects, etc. For solar cells
ule is exposed are likely to be varying from the con- with a wide band gap (amorphous silicon solar cell)
ditions stipulated by the manufacturer. Hence, the it was observed that no long-term light induced
module may not perform at the desired points on degradation exists in the recent modules
the I-V curve in order to harness the maximum (Gottschalg et al., 2004). Lund et al., have studied
expected output. Commercially available PV mod- the stability of the amorphous silicon modules
ule rating and operating parameters are provided under outdoor conditions and reported that the effi-
with respect to the standards of American Society ciency of the amorphous solar cell is stabilized after
for Testing Materials (ASTM) at Standard Reporting the initial degradation. It was also deduced that
Condition (SRC) or Standard Testing Conditions under the actual working conditions the amorphous
Journal of Energy in Southern Africa • Vol 22 No 3 • August 2011 17
18. solar cell could generate electrical power more Commercially available panels are rated with a
steadily compared with the crystalline solar cell peak power, but it should be noted that generally
(Lund et al. 2001). this peak power (observed maximum powers) will
not be harnessed since the factory testing condition
and the outdoor conditions are not similar. The
observed maximum powers for the crystalline and
amorphous modules for different months are given
in Table 2. Though the sunshine duration is about
10 hours on a sunny day at the experimental site,
readings are only presented from 10H00 to 15H00.
From Table 2, it can be noted that the observed
maximum power increases until it reaches a maxi-
mum at mid-day and drops as it moves to the
evening. It is observed that a maximum of 60W is
obtained for crystalline against the rated value of
75W and 33W for amorphous against the rated
Figure 1: Solar radiation at 12H00 for a period value of 45W (Maluta & Sankaran. 2007). The vari-
of one year ation in the observed maximum power is more in
crystalline module.
3.1 Solar radiation characteristics and peak It may also be seen that the observed maximum
power power variation from the average value does not
For the evaluation and assessment of the perform- vary significantly in the case of amorphous. In this
ance of a photovoltaic module at a given location, work, we have compared the variation by looking
it is necessary to get an overview of the solar radia- at the difference between the hourly observed max-
tion characteristics. Measurements of solar radiation imum powers for each month. It can be observed
at different times of the day during a period of one from the data that the variations of the crystalline
year were made. Figure 1 represents the radiation at and amorphous for the whole year are almost simi-
12H00 for different months under study at the lar in magnitude. These results are consistent with
experimental site. It can be seen that an average earlier results observed for amorphous PV
maximum per month of 870 W/m2 was measured (Gottschlag et al., 2004).
on a horizontal plane.
Peak power is the maximum power, which is 3.2 I-V characteristics
generated by a solar panel in full sunshine. The other important electrical characteristics of a
Table 2: Observed maximum power for crystalline and amorphous PV modules
Observed maximum power for Observed maximum power for
crystalline module (in W)1 amorphous module (in W)2
Time of the day(in –H00) Time of the day(in –H00)
10 11 12 13 14 15 10 11 12 13 14 15
Jul 39 46 48 42 38 36 19 26 26 25 24 20
Aug 46 47 52 48 47 45 21 27 29 27 24 23
Sep 49 54 55 55 52 48 23 29 30 29 26 25
Oct 50 55 57 54 51 50 25 29 31 28 27 26
Nov 52 55 59 53 52 50 28 30 32 29 28 26
Dec 52 58 60 56 53 50 28 31 33 29 28 25
Jan 54 55 58 53 52 50 27 29 32 28 27 25
Feb 48 50 55 51 45 43 27 28 30 28 26 24
Mar 48 50 54 47 46 44 25 26 29 27 26 21
Apr 44 49 53 51 50 46 24 26 28 27 26 25
May 44 48 51 50 46 45 23 27 28 26 25 23
Jun 43 46 49 44 42 41 20 28 27 25 25 23
Notes:
1. The maximum rated output power for crystalline (c-Si) module is 75W.
2. The maximum rated output power for amorphous (a-Si) module is 45W (the data was taken from July 2003 until
June 2004)
18 Journal of Energy in Southern Africa • Vol 22 No 3 • August 2011
19. module are, short-circuit current (Isc), open-circuit
voltage (Voc) and maximum power point (Pmax). A
few sample curves obtained in the present study are
given in Figure 2. Maximum power is generated at
only one point on the I-V curve, at about the ‘knee’
of the curve, which represents the maximum effi-
ciency of the solar device in converting sunlight into
electricity.
The maximum Voc obtained for amorphous
Figure 2A1: for c-Si Figure 2A1: for a-Si solar panel is about 21.78V, whereas for the crys-
module (Oct) module (Oct) talline solar panel the maximum Voc obtained is
19.83V both in the month of December, when we
get the maximum radiation. The open-circuit volt-
age increases with an increase in the incident radia-
tion and time of the day. It can be noted from Table
3 that the values of Voc during mid-day for the
entire period of study for both modules do not vary
significantly.
Though variations in the values of the open-cir-
cuit voltage of an amorphous module and crys-
talline module are very small, it is noted that the Voc
Figure 2A1: for c-Si Figure 2A1: for a-Si is nearly the same for the amorphous module from
module (Nov) module (Nov) September to June. The maximum value for Isc,
obtained for amorphous solar panel is 2.736A,
while the maximum value for Isc obtained for the
crystalline panel is 4.566A. It is interesting to note
that these maximum values are recorded in
December 2003.
A sample curve of the variation of Isc with the
irradiation data collected for the month of May in
the present study is given in Figure 5. It may be
observed from this figure that as the irradiation
increases the short circuit current also increases.
Figure 2A1: for c-Si Figure 2A1: for a-Si This observation is concurrent with the observation
module (Dec) module (Dec) that the current generated by the solar energy is
proportional to the flux of photon with above-band-
Figure 2: Sample I-V curves for c-Si (crystalline) gap energy. This is because the irradiance increases
and a-Si (amorphous) modules for the months in the same proportion of the photon flux, which, in
of October, November and December, 2003 turn, generates a proportionately higher current
Table 3: Open-circuit voltage and short circuit voltage for both crystalline
and amorphous solar cells at 12H00
Radiation (Wm-2) Crystalline Amorphous
Voc (V) Isc (A) Voc (V) Isc (A)
Jul 2003 460 19.00 3.552 20.50 2.136
Aug 2003 500 19.30 4.268 21.78 2.220
Sep 2003 513 19.37 4.180 21.25 2.443
Oct 2003 500 19.42 4.468 21.59 2.642
Nov 2003 810 19.78 4.542 21.50 2.549
Dec 2003 870 19.83 4.566 21.10 2.736
Jan 2004 801 19.58 4.540 21.08 2.478
Feb 2004 792 19.32 4.455 21.70 2.378
Mar 2004 500 19.75 4.345 21.57 2.565
Apr 2004 510 19.54 4.435 21.56 2.363
May 2004 533 19.20 4.260 21.50 2.400
Jun 2004 490 19.30 3.752 21.70 2.236
Journal of Energy in Southern Africa • Vol 22 No 3 • August 2011 19
20. (Markvart, 1994). It must be noted that in this work, increases. It can be seen from equation (1), that as
only the solar radiation on a horizontal surface have the irradiation increases the parameters in the
been considered. Other factors such as the differ- numerator also increase and we generally expect an
ence in the spectral responses to irradiance at vary- increase in the conversion efficiency. As stated by
ing incidence angle, and to irradiance of varying Dinçer et al., the effect of increase in the cell tem-
spectral composition are not considered. perature also play a role on the conversion efficien-
cy as Voc will decrease at high cell temperature
(Dinçer et al., 20101). However, the increase in the
open-circuit voltage and hence the peak power, is
not remarkable while the irradiation increases.
Hence, it is generally expected that the conversion
efficiency decreases as the irradiation increases
(Gottschalg et al., 2004; Markvart, 1994 & Stone,
1993).
As evident from Figures 4 and 5, a similar trend
Figure 3A: Variation of ISC versus irradiation is observed in our calculation. The average conver-
for May 2004 for c-Si module sion efficiency of the crystalline module during our
present study is 15.3 whereas the amorphous mod-
ule conversion efficiency is 8. These values com-
pare favourably with the generally expected values
which are approximately 15-17 for crystalline mod-
ules and approximately 5-7 for amorphous mod-
ules (Valizadeh 2001; Graham & Ficher 1994).
Figure 3B: Variation of ISC versus irradiation
for May 2004 for a-Si module
3.3 Conversion efficiency
The conversion efficiency of a solar cell is the per-
centage of the solar energy shining on a PV device
that is converted into electrical energy. The efficien-
cy of energy conversion is still low, thus requiring
large areas for sufficient insulation and raising con-
cern about unfavourable ratios of energies required
for cell production versus energy collected (Dinçer Figure 4: Conversion efficiency of the
et al., 20101). Thus, not all energy from sunlight crystalline and amorphous module at different
reaching a PV cell is converted into electricity. This times of the day (July 2003–June 2004)
may be due to the reflection and scattering of solar
radiation in the afternoon and also the increase in
the cell temperature (Dinçer et al., 20101). Hence, 3.4 Transposing to standard testing
there is an increase in the amount of light reflected condition
away from the cell surface. Therefore, minimizing Commercially available solar panels generally list
the amount of light reflected away from the cell’s the data for short-circuit current, open-circuit volt-
surface can increase the module’s conversion effi- age at standard test condition (STC). When these
ciency. modules are exposed to the outdoor conditions at
The conversion efficiency can be computed an experimental site, it is generally not possible to
using the following relation (Markvart, 1994): get the same values for the module parameters.
Obviously the irradiation and temperature of the
(1) modules will not remain constant. Hence, an
attempt was made to transpose the values of Voc
and Isc obtained in the present investigation to the
The fill factor (FF), short-circuit current (Isc) and STC. For this purpose, the following two equations
open-circuit voltage (Voc) increase as the irradiation (Hammond Backsus, 1994) were used.
20 Journal of Energy in Southern Africa • Vol 22 No 3 • August 2011
21. i. (2) obtained using the conversion equations to trans-
pose the measured values of open-circuit voltage
and short-circuit current to STC did not compare
well with the manufacturers’ value at low irradiation
levels. The results of the peak power and conver-
ii. (3) sion efficiency measurements suggest that, with
proper installation and maintenance, both these
modules can be used by rural communities for cli-
where ns is number of series cells, Tc is measured mate in this region.
Temperature in 0C, Voc is the open circuit voltage,
Isc is the short circuit current and G is the measured
irradiance. References
The difference between transposed values and Delta-T Data Logger Dl2e, 2002, user manual, ver-
the manufacturer values are presented as ∆Voc and sion 2.02.
∆Isc for both amorphous and crystalline panels for Dinçer F. and Meral M. E. (2010). Critical Factors
different radiation in Table 4. It can be seen that the that Affect Efficiency of Solar Cells, Smart Grid
difference is minimum when the radiation is high. and Renewable Energy, Vol. 1, p 47-50.
The difference between the manufacturer’s value DS Tracer, 1996, I-V curve user manual, Daystar
Inc.
and the transposed values of Isc are significant for
Fitzpatrick, S. (2004). A method for predicting PV
the values of irradiance less than 600 W/m2.
Module and Array Performance at other than
From the results of the present investigation, it is Standard Reporting Conditions, North Carolina
noted that the equations (2) and (3) need some Solar Centre, NC 27695-7401.
modification for the type of modules under study Gottschalg, R., Belts T. R., Williams, S. R., Sauter,
and also for the present location as these equations D., Infield D.G. and Kearney M.J. (2004). A crit-
are developed for the northern hemisphere. We ical appraisal of factors affecting energy produc-
hope that due to the irradiation level and ambient tion from Amorphous Silicon Photovoltaic
temperature, latitude and climate, there will be a Arrays in Maritime Climate, Centre for Renew-
difference between the Northern and Southern able energy system technology, www.ati.survey.
hemisphere. ac.uk/print_docs/kearney2004sep15142827.pdf
Graham, W. R. and Ficher, J. E., (1994). Compari-
4. Conclusions son of single-crystalline, poly-crystalline and
A close perusal of the measured values of open-cir- amorphous silicon materials for solar cells, MSE
570, http://staff.ub.tuberline.de/~harloff/resint/
cuit voltage and short-circuit current for crystalline
engmat/solcel.pdf.
and amorphous modules reveals that these values
Hammond, R.L., and Backsus, C.E. (1994). Photo-
are very close to the values given by the manufac- voltaic System testing, Renewable Energy, Vol.
turer under STC. However, in the crystalline mod- 5, part 1, p 268-274.
ule the variation is more prominent in comparison Hecktheuer, L.A., Krenzinger, A. and Prieb, C.W.M.
with an amorphous module. The fill factor and the (2002). Methodology for Photovoltaic Modules
sharpness of the I-V curves are almost similar for the Characterization and Shading Effects Analysis,
crystalline and amorphous modules. The results J. Braz.Soc.Mech.Sci, Vol. 24 No 1.
Table 4: Difference between the transposed Voc and Isc from the manufacturer values
Radiation (Wm-2) Amorphous solar cell Crystalline solar cell
∆ Voc (V) ∆ Isc (A) ∆ Voc (V) ∆ Isc (A)
Jul 2003 460 1.75 1.473 1.53 2.767
Aug 2003 500 1.47 1.270 1.23 3.736
Sep 2003 513 1.98 1.592 1.12 3.723
Oct 2003 590 1.65 1.308 1.09 4.136
Nov 2003 810 1.64 0.023 0.64 0.810
Dec 2003 870 1.64 0.025 0.56 0.450
Jan 2004 801 1.51 0.080 0.87 0.868
Feb 2004 792 1.48 0.167 1.15 0.825
Mar 2004 500 1.60 1.960 0.70 3.890
Apr 2004 510 1.64 1.463 0.94 3.896
May 2004 533 1.76 1.333 1.30 3.192
Jun 2004 490 1.79 1.393 1.24 2.920
Journal of Energy in Southern Africa • Vol 22 No 3 • August 2011 21