This document provides information on various irrigation methods and designs, including surface irrigation methods like furrow irrigation and border irrigation, as well as sprinkler irrigation and drip/trickle irrigation. It describes the key design parameters for furrow irrigation systems, such as furrow shape and spacing, selection of advance stream size, and maximum furrow lengths. Evaluation methods for furrow and border irrigation systems are also outlined.
This document discusses different irrigation methods and designs. It focuses on surface irrigation methods like furrow and border irrigation. For furrow irrigation, it describes the key design parameters including furrow shape and spacing, selection of initial and cut-back water streams, field slope, and furrow length. It also provides details on how to evaluate an existing furrow irrigation system. For border irrigation, it outlines the design parameters such as strip width and slope, construction of levees, and selection of advance water stream. It emphasizes the importance of field testing to determine optimal design for local conditions.
The document discusses the design of surface drainage systems for agricultural areas. It covers estimating design surface runoff using methods like the Rational Method, considerations for layout of drainage networks including topography and minimizing costs, hydraulic design of surface drains using principles from open channel design, and provides an example problem to calculate design discharge capacities. Key aspects include sizing drains to carry peak runoff from drainage areas, using recurrence intervals to determine design storms, and factors that influence runoff generation from rainfall.
This document discusses different irrigation methods and designs for surface irrigation systems. The main irrigation methods covered are surface irrigation, sprinkler irrigation, drip/trickle irrigation, and sub-surface irrigation. Furrow irrigation and border irrigation are described as two common types of surface irrigation systems. The key design parameters for furrow irrigation systems include furrow shape and spacing, selection of initial and cut-back furrow streams, field slope, furrow length, and field widths. Design parameters for border irrigation systems include strip width and length. Evaluation procedures for furrow irrigation systems are also outlined.
The document discusses the hydraulic design of sprinkler irrigation systems, including selecting sprinkler types and spacing based on manufacturer specifications to achieve uniform water coverage, calculating sprinkler discharge rates and wetted area, and considering factors such as soil characteristics, crop water requirements, and wind conditions when designing the pipe network and layout of mainlines, submains, and laterals. The goal is to provide sufficient water flow and uniform distribution while maintaining pressure throughout the system.
Grassed waterways are constructed channels covered with vegetation that are used to safely transport excess runoff from fields to water outlets. They are designed based on expected runoff from a 10-year storm event using formulas to calculate discharge and velocity. The design includes determining the shape, size, and slope of the channel to ensure the velocity does not exceed permissible limits based on soil and vegetation type. Construction involves establishing grass cover before use to prevent erosion and maintenance of the grass over time.
This document provides a summary of a presentation on water drainage systems for a public works department in Gangapur City, India. It discusses the importance of adequate drainage for pavement design and protection. It then covers the design of surface drainage systems, including estimating runoff quantities using the rational formula and Manning's equation, and the design of side ditches and open channels. It also discusses the design of subsurface drainage systems, including lowering the water table, controlling seepage and capillary rise, and the design of appropriate filter materials.
Grassed waterways are vegetated channels designed to safely convey concentrated surface runoff from agricultural lands. They are typically constructed along slopes as outlets for terraces or graded areas. Well-designed and maintained grass waterways can prevent erosion and protect soil quality by slowing runoff velocities and absorbing the energy of flowing water. The key aspects of designing grass waterways include determining the channel shape, size, grade, and selecting appropriate grass species suitable for the location. Construction involves shaping the land, planting grass, and periodic maintenance to sustain the channel and prevent erosion over time.
surface irrigation systems and methods of irrigation inluding basine irrigation,border irrigartion,and furrow irrigation.there are alos presurizez irrigation systems such as drip irrigation and sprinler irrigation
This document discusses different irrigation methods and designs. It focuses on surface irrigation methods like furrow and border irrigation. For furrow irrigation, it describes the key design parameters including furrow shape and spacing, selection of initial and cut-back water streams, field slope, and furrow length. It also provides details on how to evaluate an existing furrow irrigation system. For border irrigation, it outlines the design parameters such as strip width and slope, construction of levees, and selection of advance water stream. It emphasizes the importance of field testing to determine optimal design for local conditions.
The document discusses the design of surface drainage systems for agricultural areas. It covers estimating design surface runoff using methods like the Rational Method, considerations for layout of drainage networks including topography and minimizing costs, hydraulic design of surface drains using principles from open channel design, and provides an example problem to calculate design discharge capacities. Key aspects include sizing drains to carry peak runoff from drainage areas, using recurrence intervals to determine design storms, and factors that influence runoff generation from rainfall.
This document discusses different irrigation methods and designs for surface irrigation systems. The main irrigation methods covered are surface irrigation, sprinkler irrigation, drip/trickle irrigation, and sub-surface irrigation. Furrow irrigation and border irrigation are described as two common types of surface irrigation systems. The key design parameters for furrow irrigation systems include furrow shape and spacing, selection of initial and cut-back furrow streams, field slope, furrow length, and field widths. Design parameters for border irrigation systems include strip width and length. Evaluation procedures for furrow irrigation systems are also outlined.
The document discusses the hydraulic design of sprinkler irrigation systems, including selecting sprinkler types and spacing based on manufacturer specifications to achieve uniform water coverage, calculating sprinkler discharge rates and wetted area, and considering factors such as soil characteristics, crop water requirements, and wind conditions when designing the pipe network and layout of mainlines, submains, and laterals. The goal is to provide sufficient water flow and uniform distribution while maintaining pressure throughout the system.
Grassed waterways are constructed channels covered with vegetation that are used to safely transport excess runoff from fields to water outlets. They are designed based on expected runoff from a 10-year storm event using formulas to calculate discharge and velocity. The design includes determining the shape, size, and slope of the channel to ensure the velocity does not exceed permissible limits based on soil and vegetation type. Construction involves establishing grass cover before use to prevent erosion and maintenance of the grass over time.
This document provides a summary of a presentation on water drainage systems for a public works department in Gangapur City, India. It discusses the importance of adequate drainage for pavement design and protection. It then covers the design of surface drainage systems, including estimating runoff quantities using the rational formula and Manning's equation, and the design of side ditches and open channels. It also discusses the design of subsurface drainage systems, including lowering the water table, controlling seepage and capillary rise, and the design of appropriate filter materials.
Grassed waterways are vegetated channels designed to safely convey concentrated surface runoff from agricultural lands. They are typically constructed along slopes as outlets for terraces or graded areas. Well-designed and maintained grass waterways can prevent erosion and protect soil quality by slowing runoff velocities and absorbing the energy of flowing water. The key aspects of designing grass waterways include determining the channel shape, size, grade, and selecting appropriate grass species suitable for the location. Construction involves shaping the land, planting grass, and periodic maintenance to sustain the channel and prevent erosion over time.
surface irrigation systems and methods of irrigation inluding basine irrigation,border irrigartion,and furrow irrigation.there are alos presurizez irrigation systems such as drip irrigation and sprinler irrigation
NABARD TRAINING PROGRAM_for NABARDDDMS.pdfssuserb170111
The document provides information about a NABARD training program on watershed projects. It begins with basic definitions related to watersheds and hydrology. It then discusses watershed management approaches, including area treatment, drainage treatment, capacity building, and implementation. Specific drainage line treatment measures are described such as gully plugs, check dams, sod flumes, and loose boulder check dams. Design principles, benefits and limitations of these structures are covered. Examples of designing loose boulder check dams are provided with details on spillway sizing and structure spacing.
Lec 9 Border irrigation – Design and hydraulics.pptpavik13
Border irrigation involves dividing land into long, parallel strips called borders separated by low ridges. Water is introduced at the top of each border strip and flows downhill in a shallow sheet confined by the ridges. As the water infiltrates into the soil, it moves down the strip. Proper design of border irrigation considers factors like strip width and length, soil type, irrigation stream size, and slope. Check basin irrigation uses bunds to form basins that hold water for infiltration until the soil is saturated. The size and shape of check basins depends on soil type and crop grown.
A presentation on border irrigation system by Mostafijur RahmanMostafijurRahman47
Border irrigation is an old system used in Bangladesh to irrigate crops like wheat. It involves putting a large volume of water in a defined border area at the top of a field to flush it down the slope in a uniform pattern. It works best on larger farms and fields with uniform slopes between 0.05-2%. There are two types - straight borders that run straight down slopes and contour borders that run along elevation contours. The system has advantages like earlier irrigation and less labor than flood irrigation. However, it requires setting up the water distribution across the top of fields and does not work as well on fields with side slopes.
This document discusses scheduling, depth, and methods of irrigation. It covers:
1) Scientific irrigation scheduling uses meteorological, crop, and soil data to calculate water requirements and optimize crop yields.
2) Criteria for scheduling include potential evapotranspiration, cumulative pan evaporation, and the ratio between irrigation water and pan evaporation.
3) Surface irrigation methods include wild flooding, border strip irrigation, check basin irrigation, contour ditch irrigation, and furrow irrigation. These methods vary in land and water requirements.
This document provides information on storm drainage design and subsurface drainage systems. It discusses the types and aims of drainage, as well as the design of surface drainage systems including estimation of peak flows using methods like the Rational Formula. It also covers the design of subsurface drainage systems using buried drains, including considerations like drainage coefficients, drain depth and spacing, diameters and gradients. Filters for tile drains are also discussed.
Dewatering is the process of removing water from construction sites to allow for excavation and construction in dry conditions below the water table. It is done through various techniques like sump pumping, well points, deep wells, and eductor systems. The main purposes of dewatering are to provide a dry excavation area, improve stability, and allow for efficient construction. Proper planning and techniques are needed to safely lower the water table and discharge water without causing erosion or other issues.
Dewatering is the process of removing water from construction sites to allow excavation work to be done safely and efficiently below the water table. There are several reasons why dewatering is needed, including providing a dry work area, improving stability, and increasing safety. Common dewatering techniques include sump pumping, well points, deep wells, and trenches. Each method has advantages and disadvantages depending on the site conditions and depth of water lowering required. Proper planning and design of a dewatering system is important to effectively control groundwater and allow construction work to progress smoothly.
Drainage engineering presentation work donepavik13
The document discusses agricultural drainage and its importance for crop growth. Excess water or high salt concentrations in soil can prevent plant roots from functioning properly and impact crop yields. The three main methods of drainage discussed are surface drainage, subsurface drainage using pipes, and vertical drainage with tube wells. Surface drainage systems remove excess water from the surface and include field drains, intermediate drains, and main drains to convey water to outlets. Common surface drainage systems for flat lands are the random drain system, parallel field drain system, parallel open ditch system, and bedding system. The design of open ditches and channels is also covered.
This document provides information about traditional and modern methods of irrigation. It begins by introducing the topic of irrigation engineering and some key traditional methods such as moats, chain pumps, dhekli, and rahat systems. It then summarizes various surface irrigation methods like flooding, border strips, check basins, basin flooding, contour farming, and the zig-zag method. Subsurface irrigation methods like natural and artificial systems are also introduced. The document concludes by describing modern sprinkler and drip irrigation techniques, and provides advantages and disadvantages of each.
The document discusses the design of tube wells, including analyzing particle size of aquifers, designing the housing pipe, casing, and well screen based on particle size analysis. Key steps include: 1) Analyzing aquifer particle size distribution to determine effective size and uniformity, 2) Designing housing pipe and casing based on pump size and desired flow rate, 3) Selecting strata to screen based on permeability as determined by effective size and uniformity.
This document discusses drainage systems for removing excess water from agricultural land. It describes two types of drainage: surface drainage, which involves removing water from the surface of the soil through ditches or land forming; and subsurface drainage, which uses buried drains or ditches to lower the water table. The key aspects of designing drainage systems are estimating water flows, determining appropriate drainage coefficients based on rainfall or irrigation rates, setting drain depth and spacing, and selecting drain diameters and gradients. Drainage is crucial for improving soil conditions for crop growth in both rain-fed and irrigated agricultural areas.
This document discusses drainage design for agricultural fields. It describes two types of drainage: surface drainage, which involves removing excess water from the soil surface using ditches or land forming; and subsurface drainage, which uses buried drains or ditches to lower the water table. Key considerations for drainage design include drainage coefficient, drain depth and spacing, drain diameter and gradient, and drainage filters. The Hooghoudt equation is used to calculate drain spacing based on soil properties and drainage coefficient.
This document summarizes the key components and design criteria for preliminary wastewater treatment. It discusses equalization to smooth flow fluctuations, flow measurement for plant operations, and influent channel design. Primary treatment components covered include bar screens to remove large solids, comminutors to reduce smaller solids, grit chambers to remove sand and grit, and primary clarifiers to settle settleable solids and scum. Design criteria for components like bar screens, grit chambers, and clarifiers focus on factors like approach velocities, overflow rates, and detention times. Sludge quantities from primary treatment are also addressed.
Irrigation Wter Measurement and Water Conveyance SystemsMd Irfan Ansari
This document discusses soil water and methods for measuring irrigation water. It contains the following key points:
1. Soil can hold water in three ways: gravitational water flows through large pores, capillary water is held in small pores and available to plants, and hygroscopic water forms a thin film around particles and is not available to plants.
2. Common methods to measure irrigation water include the volumetric method, float method, current meter method, and using measuring structures like weirs and orifices.
3. Weirs can be rectangular, trapezoidal, triangular, or broad crested. Water depth over the weir crest is called the head and is used to calculate discharge. Orif
The document discusses the design of grassed waterways. It defines grassed waterways as natural or manmade open channels protected with grasses or shrubs that are constructed along slopes to drain runoff from terraces or graded bunds. The key design parameters discussed include peak runoff rate, permissible flow velocity, waterway cross-sectional area, length, width, depth, grade, and shape. Equations for calculating time of concentration, rainfall intensity, and peak runoff rate using nomographs are also provided. A step-wise design procedure is outlined that involves sizing the waterway based on runoff calculations and checking the velocity using Manning's formula.
Terraces are designed and spaced to reduce soil erosion to a tolerable level. There are different types of terraces for different slopes. The key design considerations for terraces include spacing, channel length and grade, and capacity. Terraces must be maintained over time to remove sediment and maintain grade, as improper drainage can cause waterlogging and crop damage. New technologies using RTK guidance are being used to more accurately grade and maintain terraces.
Drainage Engineering (Drainage and design of drainage systems)Latif Hyder Wadho
This document provides information on drainage and the design of drainage systems. It discusses the following key points in 3 sentences:
Land drainage and field drainage are the two main types of drainage, with field drainage focusing on removing excess water from the root zone of crops. The main goals of field drainage are to bring soil moisture below saturation to allow for optimal plant growth and to improve soil structure and hydraulic conductivity. The different methods of field drainage include horizontal drainage methods like surface drainage and sub-surface drainage, as well as vertical drainage through tube wells.
This document discusses the design of drainage systems. It defines drainage as the removal of excess water from an area. There are two types: land drainage for large areas and field drainage for agriculture. The main aims of field drainage are to lower the soil moisture level, improve soil structure, leach salts, and allow for cultivation. Drainage design considers the drainage coefficient, drain depth and spacing, drain diameter and gradient, and drainage filters. The document provides methods to calculate peak rainfall flows, drainage coefficients for different rainfall and irrigation scenarios, and the Hooghoudt equation to determine optimal drain spacing.
This chapter is based on the book Hydraulics of Spillways and Energy Dissipators By Rajnikant M. Khatsuria ,concerned with the general procedure of an overall design. An evaluation of the basic data should be the first step in the preparation of the design. This includes the topography and geology as well as flood hydrography, storage, and release requirements.
Well point dewatering involves installing small diameter wells around an excavation area and connecting them to a pump via header pipes to drain permeable ground and allow excavation. It is commonly used for foundations, basements, tunnels and other underground construction. The well points must be properly spaced and installed, and the system regularly monitored, to safely and effectively lower the water table during excavation work within permitted timelines.
A review on techniques and modelling methodologies used for checking electrom...nooriasukmaningtyas
The proper function of the integrated circuit (IC) in an inhibiting electromagnetic environment has always been a serious concern throughout the decades of revolution in the world of electronics, from disjunct devices to today’s integrated circuit technology, where billions of transistors are combined on a single chip. The automotive industry and smart vehicles in particular, are confronting design issues such as being prone to electromagnetic interference (EMI). Electronic control devices calculate incorrect outputs because of EMI and sensors give misleading values which can prove fatal in case of automotives. In this paper, the authors have non exhaustively tried to review research work concerned with the investigation of EMI in ICs and prediction of this EMI using various modelling methodologies and measurement setups.
Redefining brain tumor segmentation: a cutting-edge convolutional neural netw...IJECEIAES
Medical image analysis has witnessed significant advancements with deep learning techniques. In the domain of brain tumor segmentation, the ability to
precisely delineate tumor boundaries from magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
scans holds profound implications for diagnosis. This study presents an ensemble convolutional neural network (CNN) with transfer learning, integrating
the state-of-the-art Deeplabv3+ architecture with the ResNet18 backbone. The
model is rigorously trained and evaluated, exhibiting remarkable performance
metrics, including an impressive global accuracy of 99.286%, a high-class accuracy of 82.191%, a mean intersection over union (IoU) of 79.900%, a weighted
IoU of 98.620%, and a Boundary F1 (BF) score of 83.303%. Notably, a detailed comparative analysis with existing methods showcases the superiority of
our proposed model. These findings underscore the model’s competence in precise brain tumor localization, underscoring its potential to revolutionize medical
image analysis and enhance healthcare outcomes. This research paves the way
for future exploration and optimization of advanced CNN models in medical
imaging, emphasizing addressing false positives and resource efficiency.
NABARD TRAINING PROGRAM_for NABARDDDMS.pdfssuserb170111
The document provides information about a NABARD training program on watershed projects. It begins with basic definitions related to watersheds and hydrology. It then discusses watershed management approaches, including area treatment, drainage treatment, capacity building, and implementation. Specific drainage line treatment measures are described such as gully plugs, check dams, sod flumes, and loose boulder check dams. Design principles, benefits and limitations of these structures are covered. Examples of designing loose boulder check dams are provided with details on spillway sizing and structure spacing.
Lec 9 Border irrigation – Design and hydraulics.pptpavik13
Border irrigation involves dividing land into long, parallel strips called borders separated by low ridges. Water is introduced at the top of each border strip and flows downhill in a shallow sheet confined by the ridges. As the water infiltrates into the soil, it moves down the strip. Proper design of border irrigation considers factors like strip width and length, soil type, irrigation stream size, and slope. Check basin irrigation uses bunds to form basins that hold water for infiltration until the soil is saturated. The size and shape of check basins depends on soil type and crop grown.
A presentation on border irrigation system by Mostafijur RahmanMostafijurRahman47
Border irrigation is an old system used in Bangladesh to irrigate crops like wheat. It involves putting a large volume of water in a defined border area at the top of a field to flush it down the slope in a uniform pattern. It works best on larger farms and fields with uniform slopes between 0.05-2%. There are two types - straight borders that run straight down slopes and contour borders that run along elevation contours. The system has advantages like earlier irrigation and less labor than flood irrigation. However, it requires setting up the water distribution across the top of fields and does not work as well on fields with side slopes.
This document discusses scheduling, depth, and methods of irrigation. It covers:
1) Scientific irrigation scheduling uses meteorological, crop, and soil data to calculate water requirements and optimize crop yields.
2) Criteria for scheduling include potential evapotranspiration, cumulative pan evaporation, and the ratio between irrigation water and pan evaporation.
3) Surface irrigation methods include wild flooding, border strip irrigation, check basin irrigation, contour ditch irrigation, and furrow irrigation. These methods vary in land and water requirements.
This document provides information on storm drainage design and subsurface drainage systems. It discusses the types and aims of drainage, as well as the design of surface drainage systems including estimation of peak flows using methods like the Rational Formula. It also covers the design of subsurface drainage systems using buried drains, including considerations like drainage coefficients, drain depth and spacing, diameters and gradients. Filters for tile drains are also discussed.
Dewatering is the process of removing water from construction sites to allow for excavation and construction in dry conditions below the water table. It is done through various techniques like sump pumping, well points, deep wells, and eductor systems. The main purposes of dewatering are to provide a dry excavation area, improve stability, and allow for efficient construction. Proper planning and techniques are needed to safely lower the water table and discharge water without causing erosion or other issues.
Dewatering is the process of removing water from construction sites to allow excavation work to be done safely and efficiently below the water table. There are several reasons why dewatering is needed, including providing a dry work area, improving stability, and increasing safety. Common dewatering techniques include sump pumping, well points, deep wells, and trenches. Each method has advantages and disadvantages depending on the site conditions and depth of water lowering required. Proper planning and design of a dewatering system is important to effectively control groundwater and allow construction work to progress smoothly.
Drainage engineering presentation work donepavik13
The document discusses agricultural drainage and its importance for crop growth. Excess water or high salt concentrations in soil can prevent plant roots from functioning properly and impact crop yields. The three main methods of drainage discussed are surface drainage, subsurface drainage using pipes, and vertical drainage with tube wells. Surface drainage systems remove excess water from the surface and include field drains, intermediate drains, and main drains to convey water to outlets. Common surface drainage systems for flat lands are the random drain system, parallel field drain system, parallel open ditch system, and bedding system. The design of open ditches and channels is also covered.
This document provides information about traditional and modern methods of irrigation. It begins by introducing the topic of irrigation engineering and some key traditional methods such as moats, chain pumps, dhekli, and rahat systems. It then summarizes various surface irrigation methods like flooding, border strips, check basins, basin flooding, contour farming, and the zig-zag method. Subsurface irrigation methods like natural and artificial systems are also introduced. The document concludes by describing modern sprinkler and drip irrigation techniques, and provides advantages and disadvantages of each.
The document discusses the design of tube wells, including analyzing particle size of aquifers, designing the housing pipe, casing, and well screen based on particle size analysis. Key steps include: 1) Analyzing aquifer particle size distribution to determine effective size and uniformity, 2) Designing housing pipe and casing based on pump size and desired flow rate, 3) Selecting strata to screen based on permeability as determined by effective size and uniformity.
This document discusses drainage systems for removing excess water from agricultural land. It describes two types of drainage: surface drainage, which involves removing water from the surface of the soil through ditches or land forming; and subsurface drainage, which uses buried drains or ditches to lower the water table. The key aspects of designing drainage systems are estimating water flows, determining appropriate drainage coefficients based on rainfall or irrigation rates, setting drain depth and spacing, and selecting drain diameters and gradients. Drainage is crucial for improving soil conditions for crop growth in both rain-fed and irrigated agricultural areas.
This document discusses drainage design for agricultural fields. It describes two types of drainage: surface drainage, which involves removing excess water from the soil surface using ditches or land forming; and subsurface drainage, which uses buried drains or ditches to lower the water table. Key considerations for drainage design include drainage coefficient, drain depth and spacing, drain diameter and gradient, and drainage filters. The Hooghoudt equation is used to calculate drain spacing based on soil properties and drainage coefficient.
This document summarizes the key components and design criteria for preliminary wastewater treatment. It discusses equalization to smooth flow fluctuations, flow measurement for plant operations, and influent channel design. Primary treatment components covered include bar screens to remove large solids, comminutors to reduce smaller solids, grit chambers to remove sand and grit, and primary clarifiers to settle settleable solids and scum. Design criteria for components like bar screens, grit chambers, and clarifiers focus on factors like approach velocities, overflow rates, and detention times. Sludge quantities from primary treatment are also addressed.
Irrigation Wter Measurement and Water Conveyance SystemsMd Irfan Ansari
This document discusses soil water and methods for measuring irrigation water. It contains the following key points:
1. Soil can hold water in three ways: gravitational water flows through large pores, capillary water is held in small pores and available to plants, and hygroscopic water forms a thin film around particles and is not available to plants.
2. Common methods to measure irrigation water include the volumetric method, float method, current meter method, and using measuring structures like weirs and orifices.
3. Weirs can be rectangular, trapezoidal, triangular, or broad crested. Water depth over the weir crest is called the head and is used to calculate discharge. Orif
The document discusses the design of grassed waterways. It defines grassed waterways as natural or manmade open channels protected with grasses or shrubs that are constructed along slopes to drain runoff from terraces or graded bunds. The key design parameters discussed include peak runoff rate, permissible flow velocity, waterway cross-sectional area, length, width, depth, grade, and shape. Equations for calculating time of concentration, rainfall intensity, and peak runoff rate using nomographs are also provided. A step-wise design procedure is outlined that involves sizing the waterway based on runoff calculations and checking the velocity using Manning's formula.
Terraces are designed and spaced to reduce soil erosion to a tolerable level. There are different types of terraces for different slopes. The key design considerations for terraces include spacing, channel length and grade, and capacity. Terraces must be maintained over time to remove sediment and maintain grade, as improper drainage can cause waterlogging and crop damage. New technologies using RTK guidance are being used to more accurately grade and maintain terraces.
Drainage Engineering (Drainage and design of drainage systems)Latif Hyder Wadho
This document provides information on drainage and the design of drainage systems. It discusses the following key points in 3 sentences:
Land drainage and field drainage are the two main types of drainage, with field drainage focusing on removing excess water from the root zone of crops. The main goals of field drainage are to bring soil moisture below saturation to allow for optimal plant growth and to improve soil structure and hydraulic conductivity. The different methods of field drainage include horizontal drainage methods like surface drainage and sub-surface drainage, as well as vertical drainage through tube wells.
This document discusses the design of drainage systems. It defines drainage as the removal of excess water from an area. There are two types: land drainage for large areas and field drainage for agriculture. The main aims of field drainage are to lower the soil moisture level, improve soil structure, leach salts, and allow for cultivation. Drainage design considers the drainage coefficient, drain depth and spacing, drain diameter and gradient, and drainage filters. The document provides methods to calculate peak rainfall flows, drainage coefficients for different rainfall and irrigation scenarios, and the Hooghoudt equation to determine optimal drain spacing.
This chapter is based on the book Hydraulics of Spillways and Energy Dissipators By Rajnikant M. Khatsuria ,concerned with the general procedure of an overall design. An evaluation of the basic data should be the first step in the preparation of the design. This includes the topography and geology as well as flood hydrography, storage, and release requirements.
Well point dewatering involves installing small diameter wells around an excavation area and connecting them to a pump via header pipes to drain permeable ground and allow excavation. It is commonly used for foundations, basements, tunnels and other underground construction. The well points must be properly spaced and installed, and the system regularly monitored, to safely and effectively lower the water table during excavation work within permitted timelines.
A review on techniques and modelling methodologies used for checking electrom...nooriasukmaningtyas
The proper function of the integrated circuit (IC) in an inhibiting electromagnetic environment has always been a serious concern throughout the decades of revolution in the world of electronics, from disjunct devices to today’s integrated circuit technology, where billions of transistors are combined on a single chip. The automotive industry and smart vehicles in particular, are confronting design issues such as being prone to electromagnetic interference (EMI). Electronic control devices calculate incorrect outputs because of EMI and sensors give misleading values which can prove fatal in case of automotives. In this paper, the authors have non exhaustively tried to review research work concerned with the investigation of EMI in ICs and prediction of this EMI using various modelling methodologies and measurement setups.
Redefining brain tumor segmentation: a cutting-edge convolutional neural netw...IJECEIAES
Medical image analysis has witnessed significant advancements with deep learning techniques. In the domain of brain tumor segmentation, the ability to
precisely delineate tumor boundaries from magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
scans holds profound implications for diagnosis. This study presents an ensemble convolutional neural network (CNN) with transfer learning, integrating
the state-of-the-art Deeplabv3+ architecture with the ResNet18 backbone. The
model is rigorously trained and evaluated, exhibiting remarkable performance
metrics, including an impressive global accuracy of 99.286%, a high-class accuracy of 82.191%, a mean intersection over union (IoU) of 79.900%, a weighted
IoU of 98.620%, and a Boundary F1 (BF) score of 83.303%. Notably, a detailed comparative analysis with existing methods showcases the superiority of
our proposed model. These findings underscore the model’s competence in precise brain tumor localization, underscoring its potential to revolutionize medical
image analysis and enhance healthcare outcomes. This research paves the way
for future exploration and optimization of advanced CNN models in medical
imaging, emphasizing addressing false positives and resource efficiency.
Optimizing Gradle Builds - Gradle DPE Tour Berlin 2024Sinan KOZAK
Sinan from the Delivery Hero mobile infrastructure engineering team shares a deep dive into performance acceleration with Gradle build cache optimizations. Sinan shares their journey into solving complex build-cache problems that affect Gradle builds. By understanding the challenges and solutions found in our journey, we aim to demonstrate the possibilities for faster builds. The case study reveals how overlapping outputs and cache misconfigurations led to significant increases in build times, especially as the project scaled up with numerous modules using Paparazzi tests. The journey from diagnosing to defeating cache issues offers invaluable lessons on maintaining cache integrity without sacrificing functionality.
Advanced control scheme of doubly fed induction generator for wind turbine us...IJECEIAES
This paper describes a speed control device for generating electrical energy on an electricity network based on the doubly fed induction generator (DFIG) used for wind power conversion systems. At first, a double-fed induction generator model was constructed. A control law is formulated to govern the flow of energy between the stator of a DFIG and the energy network using three types of controllers: proportional integral (PI), sliding mode controller (SMC) and second order sliding mode controller (SOSMC). Their different results in terms of power reference tracking, reaction to unexpected speed fluctuations, sensitivity to perturbations, and resilience against machine parameter alterations are compared. MATLAB/Simulink was used to conduct the simulations for the preceding study. Multiple simulations have shown very satisfying results, and the investigations demonstrate the efficacy and power-enhancing capabilities of the suggested control system.
CHINA’S GEO-ECONOMIC OUTREACH IN CENTRAL ASIAN COUNTRIES AND FUTURE PROSPECTjpsjournal1
The rivalry between prominent international actors for dominance over Central Asia's hydrocarbon
reserves and the ancient silk trade route, along with China's diplomatic endeavours in the area, has been
referred to as the "New Great Game." This research centres on the power struggle, considering
geopolitical, geostrategic, and geoeconomic variables. Topics including trade, political hegemony, oil
politics, and conventional and nontraditional security are all explored and explained by the researcher.
Using Mackinder's Heartland, Spykman Rimland, and Hegemonic Stability theories, examines China's role
in Central Asia. This study adheres to the empirical epistemological method and has taken care of
objectivity. This study analyze primary and secondary research documents critically to elaborate role of
china’s geo economic outreach in central Asian countries and its future prospect. China is thriving in trade,
pipeline politics, and winning states, according to this study, thanks to important instruments like the
Shanghai Cooperation Organisation and the Belt and Road Economic Initiative. According to this study,
China is seeing significant success in commerce, pipeline politics, and gaining influence on other
governments. This success may be attributed to the effective utilisation of key tools such as the Shanghai
Cooperation Organisation and the Belt and Road Economic Initiative.
Using recycled concrete aggregates (RCA) for pavements is crucial to achieving sustainability. Implementing RCA for new pavement can minimize carbon footprint, conserve natural resources, reduce harmful emissions, and lower life cycle costs. Compared to natural aggregate (NA), RCA pavement has fewer comprehensive studies and sustainability assessments.
Introduction- e - waste – definition - sources of e-waste– hazardous substances in e-waste - effects of e-waste on environment and human health- need for e-waste management– e-waste handling rules - waste minimization techniques for managing e-waste – recycling of e-waste - disposal treatment methods of e- waste – mechanism of extraction of precious metal from leaching solution-global Scenario of E-waste – E-waste in India- case studies.
Electric vehicle and photovoltaic advanced roles in enhancing the financial p...IJECEIAES
Climate change's impact on the planet forced the United Nations and governments to promote green energies and electric transportation. The deployments of photovoltaic (PV) and electric vehicle (EV) systems gained stronger momentum due to their numerous advantages over fossil fuel types. The advantages go beyond sustainability to reach financial support and stability. The work in this paper introduces the hybrid system between PV and EV to support industrial and commercial plants. This paper covers the theoretical framework of the proposed hybrid system including the required equation to complete the cost analysis when PV and EV are present. In addition, the proposed design diagram which sets the priorities and requirements of the system is presented. The proposed approach allows setup to advance their power stability, especially during power outages. The presented information supports researchers and plant owners to complete the necessary analysis while promoting the deployment of clean energy. The result of a case study that represents a dairy milk farmer supports the theoretical works and highlights its advanced benefits to existing plants. The short return on investment of the proposed approach supports the paper's novelty approach for the sustainable electrical system. In addition, the proposed system allows for an isolated power setup without the need for a transmission line which enhances the safety of the electrical network
ACEP Magazine edition 4th launched on 05.06.2024Rahul
This document provides information about the third edition of the magazine "Sthapatya" published by the Association of Civil Engineers (Practicing) Aurangabad. It includes messages from current and past presidents of ACEP, memories and photos from past ACEP events, information on life time achievement awards given by ACEP, and a technical article on concrete maintenance, repairs and strengthening. The document highlights activities of ACEP and provides a technical educational article for members.
2. IRRIGATION METHODS AND DESIGNS
•6.1 IRRIGATION METHODS
• a) Surface Irrigation: Just flooding water. About 90% of the
irrigated areas in the world are by this method.
• b) Sprinkler Irrigation: Applying water under pressure. About 5
% of the irrigated areas are by this method.
• c) Drip or Trickle Irrigation: Applying water slowly to the soil
ideally at the same rate with crop consumption.
• d) Sub-Surface Irrigation: Flooding water underground and
allowing it to come up by capillarity to crop roots.
3. 6.2 SURFACE IRRIGATION
• Water is applied to the field in either the controlled or
uncontrolled manner.
• Controlled: Water is applied from the head ditch and
guided by corrugations, furrows, borders, or ridges.
• Uncontrolled: Wild flooding.
• Surface irrigation is entirely practised where water is
abundant. The low initial cost of development is later
offset by high labour cost of applying water. There are
deep percolation, runoff and drainage problems
4. 6.2.1 Furrow Irrigation
•In furrow irrigation, only a part of the land surface
(the furrow) is wetted thus minimizing evaporation
loss.
•Furrow irrigation is adapted for row crops like corn,
banana, tobacco, and cabbage. It is also good for
grains.
• Irrigation can be by corrugation using small
irrigation streams.
•Furrow irrigation is adapted for irrigating on various
slopes except on steep ones because of erosion
and bank overflow.
5. Furrow Irrigation Contd.
• There are different ways of applying water to the furrow.
• As shown in Fig. 3.1, siphons are used to divert water from the
head ditch to the furrows.
• There can also be direct gravity flow whereby water is delivered
from the head ditch to the furrows by cutting the ridge or levee
separating the head ditch and the furrows (see diagram from
Gumb's book).
• Gated pipes can also be used. Large portable pipe(up to 450
mm) with gate openings spaced to deliver water to the furrows are
used.
• Water is pumped from the water source in closed conduits.
• The openings of the gated pipe can be regulated to control the
discharge rate into the furrows.
9. 6.2.1.1 Design Parameters of Furrow Irrigation
• The Major Design Considerations in Surface Irrigation Include:
• Storing the Readily Available Moisture in the Root Zone, if
Possible;
• Obtaining As Uniform Water Application As Possible;
• Minimizing Soil Erosion by Applying Non-erosive Streams;
• Minimizing Runoff at the End of the Furrow by Using a Re-use
System or a Cut -Back Stream;
• Minimizing Labour Requirements by Having Good Land
Preparation,
• Good Design and Experienced Labour and
• Facilitating Use of Machinery for Land Preparation, Cultivation,
Furrowing, Harvesting Etc.
10. Furrow Irrigation Contd.
•The Specific Design Parameters of Furrow
Irrigation Are Aimed at Achieving the Above
Objectives and Include:
•a) Shape and Spacing of Furrows: Heights
of ridges vary between 15 cm and 40 cm and
the distance between the ridges should be
based on the optimum crop spacing modified,
if necessary to obtain adequate lateral wetting,
and to accommodate the track of mechanical
equipment.
•The range of spacing commonly used is from
0.3 to 1.8 m with 1.0 m as the average.
11. Design Parameters of Furrow Irrigation
Contd.
•b) Selection of the Advance or Initial Furrow
Stream: In permeable soils, the maximum non-
erosive flow within the furrow capacity can be
used so as to enable wetting of the end of the
furrow to begin as soon as possible.
•The maximum non-erosive flow (Qm) is given
by: Qm = c/S where c is a constant = 0.6
when Qm is in l/s and S is slope in %.
•Example 1: For a soil slope of 0.1 %, the Qm is
0.6/0.1 = 6 l/s.
12. Design Parameters of Furrow Irrigation
Contd.
• The actual stream size should be determined by field tests.
• It is desirable that this initial stream size reaches the end of
the furrow in T/4 time where T is the total time required to
apply the required irrigation depth.
• c) Cut-back Stream: This is the stream size to which the
initial stream is reduced sometime after it has reached the
lower end of the field.
• This is to reduce soil erosion.
• One or two cutbacks can be carried out and removing some
siphons or reducing the size at the head of the furrow
achieves this.
13. Design Parameters of Furrow Irrigation
Contd.
•d) Field Slope: To reduce costs of land
grading, longitudinal and cross slopes should
be adapted to the natural topography.
•Small cross slopes can be tolerated.
• To reduce erosion problems during rainfall,
furrows (which channel the runoff) should have
a limited slope (see Table 3.1).
14. Table 6.1 : Maximum Slopes for Various Soil Types
Soil Type Maximum slopes*
Sand 0.25
Sandy loam 0.40
Fine sandy loam 0.50
Clay 2.50
Loam 6.25
Source: Withers & Vipond (1974)
•*A minimum slope of about 0.05 % is required
to ensure surface drainage.
15. Design Parameters of Furrow Irrigation
Contd.
• e) Furrow Length: Very long lengths lead to a lot of deep
percolation involving over-irrigation at the upper end of the
furrow and under-irrigation at the lower end.
• Typical values are given in Table 3.2, but actual furrow lengths
should be got from field tests.
16.
17. Design Parameters of Furrow Irrigation
Contd.
• e) Field Widths: Widths are flexible but should not be of a
size to enclose variable soil types.
• The widths should depend on land grading permissible.
18. 6.2.1.2 Evaluation of a Furrow Irrigation System
•The objective is to determine fairly accurately
how the system is used and to suggest
possible amendments or changes.
•Equipment: Engineers Level and Staff,
• 30 m Tape,
•Marker Stakes,
• Siphons of Various Sizes,
•Two Small Measuring Flumes,
•Watch with Second Hand and Spade.
19. Evaluation of a Furrow Irrigation System
Contd.
•Procedure
• a) Select several (say 3 or more) uniform test furrows which
should be typical of those in the area.
• b) Measure the average furrow spacing and note the shape,
condition etc.
• c) Set the marker stakes at 30 m intervals down the furrows.
• d) Take levels at each stake and determine the average slope.
• e) Set the flumes say 30 m apart at the head of the middle furrow.
• f) Pass constant flow streams down the furrows, using wide range
of flows. The largest flow should just cause erosion and
overtopping, the smallest might just reach the end of the furrow.
The median stream should have a discharge of about Q = 3/4 S
(l/s) where S is the % slope.
20. Evaluation of a Furrow Irrigation System
Contd.
• g) Record the time when flow starts and passes each marker in each flow(advance data).
• h) Record the flow at each flume periodically until the flows become practically constant.
This may take several hours on fine textured soils(Infiltration data).
• i) Check for evidence of erosion or overtopping.
• j) Move the flumes and measure the streams at the heads only of the other furrows.
•
• Results: To be presented in a format shown:
• ............................................................................................................
• Watch Opportunity time(mins)
• Station A Station B Losses
• Time A B C Depth Flow Depth Flow Diff Infil.
• (mm) ( L/s) (mm) (L/s) (L/s) (mm/h)
• ..............................................................................................................
•
21. 6.2.2. Border Irrigation System
• In a border irrigation, controlled surface flooding is
practised whereby the field is divided up into strips by
parallel ridges or dykes and each strip is irrigated
separately by introducing water upstream and it
progressively covers the entire strip.
• Border irrigation is suited for crops that can withstand
flooding for a short time e.g. wheat.
• It can be used for all crops provided that the system is
designated to provide the needed water control for
irrigation of crops.
• It is suited to soils between extremely high and very low
infiltration rates.
24. Border Irrigation Contd.
•In border irrigation, water is applied slowly.
•The root zone is applied water gradually down
the field.
•At a time, the application flow is cut-off to
reduce water loses.
•Ideally, there is no runoff and deep percolation.
•The problem is that the time to cut off the inflow
is difficult to determine.
25. 6.2.2.2 Design Parameters of Border Irrigation
System
• a) Strip width: Cross slopes must be eliminated by leveling.
• Since there are no furrows to restrict lateral movement, any cross
slope will make water move down one side leading to poor
application efficiency and possibly erosion.
• The stream size available should also be considered in choosing a
strip width.
• The size should be enough to allow complete lateral spreading
throughout the length of the strip.
• The width of the strip for a given water supply is a function of the
length (Table 3.5).
• The strip width should be at least bigger than the size of vehicle
tract for construction where applicable.
26. Design Parameters of Border
Irrigation System Contd.
• b) Strip Slope: Longitudinal slopes should be almost same as for
the furrow irrigation.
• c) Construction of Levees: Levees should be big enough to
withstand erosion, and of sufficient height to contain the irrigation
stream.
• d) Selection of the Advance Stream: The maximum advance
stream used should be non-erosive and therefore depends on the
protection afforded by the crop cover. Clay soils are less
susceptible to erosion but suffer surface panning at high water
velocities. Table 3.4 gives the maximum flows recommendable for
bare soils.
• e) The Length of the Strip: Typical lengths and widths for
various flows are given in Table 3.5. The ideal lengths can be
obtained by field tests.
27.
28.
29. 6.2.2.3 Evaluation of a Border Strip
• The aim is to vary various parameters with the aim of
obtaining a good irrigation profile.
• Steps
• a) Measure the infiltration rate of soils and get the
cumulative infiltration curve. Measurement can be by
double ring infiltrometer.
Depth of Water,
D (mm)
Time, T (mins)
D = KTn
Fig 3.5: Cumulative Infiltration Curve
30. Evaluation of Border Strip Contd.
• b) Mark some points on the border strip and check the
advance of water. Also check recession. For steep
slopes, recession of water can be seen unlike in gentle
slopes where it may be difficult to see. In border
irrigation, recession is very important because unlike
furrows, there is no place water can seep into after
water is turned off.
32. Evaluation of the Border System Contd.
• About two-thirds down the border, the flow is turned off
and recession starts.
• The difference between the advance and recession
curves gives the opportunity time or total time when
water is in contact with the soil.
• For various distances, obtain the opportunity times from
the advance/recession curves and from the cumulative
infiltration curve, obtain the depths of water.
• With the depth and distance data, plot the irrigation
profile depth shown below.
34. Evaluation of the Border System Contd.
• The depth of irrigation obtained is compared with the SMD (ideal
irrigation depth).
• There is deep percolation and runoff at the end of the field.
• The variables can then be changed to give different shapes of
graphs to see the one to reduce runoff and deep percolation. In
this particular case above, the inflow can be stopped sooner. The
recession curve then changes.
• The profile now obtained creates deficiency at the ends of the
borders (see graph: dotted lies above).
• A good profile of irrigation can be obtained by varying the flow,
which leads to a change in the recession curve, and by choosing a
reasonable contact time each time using the infiltration curve.
35. 6.2.3 Basin Irrigation System
• 3.2.3.1 Description: In basin irrigation, water is
flooded in wider areas. It is ideal for irrigating rice.
• The area is normally flat.
• In basin irrigation, a very high stream size is introduced
into the basin so that rapid movement of water is
obtained.
• Water does not infiltrate a lot initially.
• At the end, a bond is put and water can pond the field.
• The opportunity time difference between the upward
and the downward ends are reduced.
37. 6.2.3.2 Size of Basins
• The size of basin is related to stream size and soil type(See Table 3.6 below).
• Table 3.6: Suggested basin areas for different soil types and rates of water flow
• Flow rate Soil Type
• Sand Sandy loam Clay loam Clay
• l/s m3 /hr .................Hectares................................
• 30 108 0.02 0.06 0.12 0.20
• 60 216 0.04 0.12 0.24 0.40
• 90 324 0.06 0.18 0.36 0.60
• 120 432 0.08 0.24 0.48 0.80
• 150 540 0.10 0.30 0.60 1.00
• 180 648 0.12 0.36 0.72 1.20
• 210 756 0.14 0.42 0.84 1.40
• 240 864 0.16 0.48 0.96 1.60
• 300 1080 0.20 0.60 1.20 2.00
• ...........................................................................................
• Note: The size of basin for clays is 10 times that of sand as the infiltration rate for clay is low leading to higher irrigation
time. The size of basin also increases as the flow rate increases. The table is only a guide and practical values from an
area should be relied upon. There is the need for field evaluation.
38. 6.2.3.3 Evaluation of Basin System
• a) Calculate the soil moisture deficiency and irrigation depth.
• b) Get the cumulative infiltration using either single or double ring
infiltrometer.
I = c Tn
Time (mins)
Infiltered
Depth (mm)
39. Evaluation of a Basin System Contd.
• c) Get the advance curves using sticks to monitor rate
of water movement. Plot a time versus distance graph
(advance curve). Also plot recession curve or assume
it to be straight
• It is ensured that water reaches the end of the basin at
T/4 time and stays T time before it disappears. At any
point on the advance and recession curves, get the
contact or opportunity time and relate it to the depth-
time graph above to know the amount of water that has
infiltrated at any distance.
42. Evaluation of Basin Irrigation Concluded.
• Check the deficiency and decide whether improvements are
necessary or not. The T/4 time can be increased or flow rate
changed. The recession curve may not be a straight line but a
curve due to some low points in the basin.
43. 6.3 SPRINKLER IRRIGATION
• 3.3.1 Introduction: The sprinkler system is ideal in
areas where water is scarce.
• A Sprinkler system conveys water through pipes and
applies it with a minimum amount of losses.
• Water is applied in form of sprays sometimes simulating
natural rainfall.
• The difference is that this rainfall can be controlled in
duration and intensity.
• If well planned, designed and operated, it can be used
in sloping land to reduce erosion where other systems
are not possible.
46. 6.3.2 Types of Conventional Sprinkler
Systems
• a) Fully portable system: The laterals, mains, sub-
mains and the pumping plant are all portable.
• The system is designed to be moved from one field to
another or other pumping sites that are in the same
field.
• b) Semi-portable system: Water source and
pumping plant are fixed in locations.
• Other components can be moved.
• The system cannot be moved from field to field or from
farm to farm except when more than one fixed pumping
plant is used.
47. Types of Conventional Sprinkler Systems
Contd.
• c) Fully permanent system: Permanent laterals,
mains, sub-mains as well as fixed pumping plant.
• Sometimes laterals and mainlines may be buried.
• The sprinkler may be permanently located or moved
along the lateral.
• It can be used on permanent irrigation fields and for
relatively high value crops e.g. Orchards and vineyards.
• Labour savings throughout the life of the system may
later offset high installation cost.
48. 6.3.3 Mobile Sprinkler Types
•a) Raingun: A mobile machine with a big
sprinkler.
•The speed of the machine determines the
application rate. The sprinkler has a powerful
jet system.
•b) Lateral Move: A mobile long boom with
many sprinklers attached to them.
• As the machine moves, it collects water from a
canal into the sprinklers connected to the long
boom.
54. 6.3.4 Design of Sprinkler Irrigation System
• Objectives and Procedures
• Provide Sufficient Flow Capacity to meet the Irrigation Demand
• Ensure that the Least Irrigated Plant receives adequate Water
• Ensure Uniform Distribution of Water.
55. Design Steps
• Determine Irrigation Water Requirements and Irrigation Schedule
• Determine Type and Spacing of Sprinklers
• Prepare Layout of Mainline, Submains and Laterals
• Design Pipework and select Valves and Fittings
• Determine Pumping Requirements.
56. Choice of Sprinkler System
• Consider:
• Application rate or precipitation rate
• Uniformity of Application: Use UC
• Drop Size Distribution and
• Cost
57. Sprinkler Application Rate
• Must be Less than Intake Rates
Soil Texture Max. Appln. Rates
(mm/hr.)
Coarse Sand 20 to 40
Fine Sand 12 to 25
Sandy Loam 12
Silt Loam 10
Clay Loam/Clay 5 to 8
58. Effects of Wind
• In case of Wind:
• Reduce the spacing between Sprinklers: See table 6 in Text.
• Allign Sprinkler Laterals across prevailing wind directions
• Build Extra Capacity
• Select Rotary Sprinklers with a low trajectory angle.
59. System Layout
•Layout is determined by the Physical Features of the
Site e.g. Field Shape and Size, Obstacles, and
topography and the type of Equipment chosen.
•Where there are several possibilities of preparing
the layout, a cost criteria can be applied to the
alternatives.
•Laterals should be as long as site dimensions,
pressure and pipe diameter restrictions will allow.
•Laterals of 75 mm to 100 mm diameter can easily
be moved.
•Etc. - See text for other considerations
60. Pipework Design
• This involves the Selection of Pipe Sizes to ensure that adequate
water can be distributed as uniformly as possible throughout the
system
• Pressure variations in the system are kept as low as possible as any
changes in pressure may affect the discharge at the sprinklers
61. Design of Laterals
•Laterals supply water to the Sprinklers
•Pipe Sizes are chosen to minimize the pressure
variations along the Lateral, due to Friction and
Elevation Changes.
•Select a Pipe Size which limits the total pressure
change to 20% of the design operating pressure of
the Sprinkler.
•This limits overall variations in Sprinkler Discharge
to 10%.
62. Lateral Discharge
• The Discharge (QL) in a Lateral is defined as the flow at the head of
the lateral where water is taken from the mainline or submain.
• Thus: QL = N. qL Where N is the number of sprinklers on the lateral
and qL is the Sprinkler discharge (m3/h)
63. Selecting Lateral Pipe Sizes
•Friction Loss in a Lateral is less than that in a
Pipeline where all the flow passes through the
entire pipe Length because flow changes at every
sprinkler along the Line.
•First Compute the Friction Loss in the Pipe assuming
no Sprinklers using a Friction Formula or Charts and
then:
•Apply a Factor, F based on the number of Sprinklers
on the Lateral (See Text for F Values)
64. Selecting Lateral Pipe Sizes Contd.
•Lateral Pipe Size can be determined as follows:
•Calculate 20% of Sprinkler Operating Pressure (Pa)
•Divide Value by F for the number of Sprinklers to
obtain Allowable Pressure Loss (Pf)
•Use Normal Pipeline Head Loss Charts of Friction
Formulae with Calculated Pf and QL to determine
Pipe Diameter, D.
65. Changes in Ground Elevation
• Allowance must be made for Pressure changes along the Lateral
when it is uphill, downhill or over undulating land.
• If Pe1 is the Pressure Difference Due to Elevation changes:
downhill
laid
laterals
for
F
P
P
P
uphill
laid
laterals
for
F
P
P
P
eL
a
f
eL
a
f
2
.
0
2
.
0
66. Pressure at Head of Lateral
•The Pressure requirements (PL)where the Lateral
joins the Mainline or Submain are determined as
follows:
•PL = Pa + 0.75 Pf + Pr For laterals laid on Flat
land
•PL = Pa + 0.75 (Pf Pe) + Pr For Laterals on
gradient.
•The factor 0.75 is to provide for average operating
pressure (Pa) at the centre of the Lateral rather
than at the distal end. Pr is the height of the riser.
68. Selecting Pipe Sizes of Submains and
MainLines
•As a general rule, for pumped systems, the
Maximum Pressure Loss in both Mainlines and
Submains should not exceed 30% of the total
pumping head required.
•This is reasonable starting point for the preliminary
design.
•Allowance should be made for pressure changes in
the mainline and submain when they are uphill,
downhill or undulating.
69. Pumping Requirements
• Maximum Discharge (Qp) = qs N Where:
• qs is the Sprinkler Discharge and
•N is the total number of Sprinklers operating at one
time during irrigation cycle.
•The Maximum Pressure to operate the system (Total
Dynamic Head, Pp) is given as shown in Example.
70. 6.4 DRIP OR TRICKLE IRRIGATION
• 6.4.1 Introduction: In this irrigation system:
• i) Water is applied directly to the crop ie. entire field is not
wetted.
• ii) Water is conserved
• (iii) Weeds are controlled because only the places getting
water can grow weeds.
• (iv) There is a low pressure system.
• (v) There is a slow rate of water application somewhat
matching the consumptive use. Application rate can be as
low as 1 - 12 l/hr.
• (vi) There is reduced evaporation, only potential
transpiration is considered.
• vii) There is no need for a drainage system.
71. Components of a Drip Irrigation System
Control
Head
Unit
Wetting Pattern
Emitter
Lateral
Mainline
Or Manifold
72. Drip Irrigation System
• The Major Components of a Drip Irrigation System include:
• a) Head unit which contains filters to remove debris that may
block emitters; fertilizer tank; water meter; and pressure
regulator.
• b) Mainline, Laterals, and Emitters which can be easily
blocked.
73. 6.4.2 Water Use for Trickle Irrigation System
•The design of drip system is similar to that of
the sprinkler system except that the spacing of
emitters is much less than that of sprinklers and
that water must be filtered and treated to
prevent blockage of emitters.
•Another major difference is that not all areas
are irrigated.
• In design, the water use rate or the area
irrigated may be decreased to account for this
reduced area.
74. Water Use for Trickle Irrigation System
Contd.
• Karmeli and Keller (1975) suggested the
• following water use rate for trickle irrigation design
• ETt = ET x P/85
•
• Where: ETt is average evapotranspiration rate for crops under
trickle irrigation;
• P is the percentage of the total area shaded by crops;
• ET is the conventional evapotranspiration rate for the crop. E.g. If
a mature orchard shades 70% of the area and the conventional ET
is 7 mm/day, the trickle irrigation design rate is:
• 7/1 x 70/85 = 5.8 mm/day
• OR use potential transpiration, Tp = 0.7 Epan where Epan is the
evaporation from the United States Class A pan.
75. Emitters
• Consist of fixed type and variable size types.
The fixed size emitters do not have a
mechanism to compensate for the friction
induced pressure drop along the lateral while
the variable size types have it.
•Emitter discharge may be described by:
• q = K h x
•Where: q is the emitter discharge; K is
constant for each emitter ; h is pressure head
at which the emitter operates and x is the
exponent characterized by the flow regime.
76. Emitters Contd.
•The exponent, x can be determined by
measuring the slope of the log-log plot of head
Vs discharge.
• With x known, K can be determined using the
above equation.
• Discharges are normally determined from the
manufacturer's charts (see Fig. 3.7 in Note).
•
77. 6.4.4 Water Distribution from Emitters
• Emitter discharge variability is greater than that of
sprinkler nozzles because of smaller openings(lower
flow) and lower design pressures.
• Eu = 1 - (0.8 Cv/ n 0.5 )
• Where Eu is emitter uniformity; Cv is manufacturer's
coefficient of variation(s/x ); n is the number of emitters
per plant.
• Application efficiency for trickle irrigation is defined
as:
• Eea = Eu x Ea x 100
• Where Eea is the trickle irrigation efficiency; Ea is the
application efficiency as defined earlier.
78. 6.4.5 Trickle System Design
• The diameter of the lateral should be selected so
that the difference in discharge between emitters
operating simultaneously will not exceed 10 %.
• This allowable variation is same as for sprinkler
irrigation laterals already discussed.
• To stay within this 10 % variation in flow, the head
difference between emitters should not exceed 10
to 15 % of the average operating head for long-path
or 20 % for turbulent flow emitters.
79. Trickle System Design Contd.
• The maximum difference in pressure is the head loss between
the control point at the inlet and the pressure at the emitter
farthest from the inlet.
• The inlet is usually at the manifold where the pressure is
regulated.
• The manifold is a line to which the trickle laterals are
connected.
80. Trickle System Design Contd.
• For minimum cost, on a level area 55 % of the allowable head loss
should be allocated to the lateral and 45 % to the manifold.
• The Friction Loss for Mains and Sub-mains can be computed from
Darcy-Weisbach equation for smooth pipes in trickle systems when
combined with the Blasius equation for friction factor.
• The equation is:
• Hf = K L Q 1.75 D – 4.75
• Where: Hf is the friction loss in m;
• K is constant = 7.89 x 105 for S.I. units for water at 20 ° C;
• L is the pipe length in m;
• Q is the total pipe flow in l/s; and
• D is the internal diameter of pipe in mm.
81. Trickle System Design Contd
• As with sprinkler design, F should be used to compute head
loss for laterals and manifolds with multiple outlets, by
multiplying a suitable F factor
• (See Table 8 of Sprinkler Design section) by head loss.
• F values shown below can also be used.
82. Table 6.7: Correction Factor, F for Friction Losses in
Aluminium Pipes with Multiple Outlets.
• Number of Outlets F*
• 1 1.00
• 2 0.51
• 4 0.41
• 6 0.38
• 8 0.37
• 12 0.36
• 16 0.36
• 20 0.35
• 30 or more 0.35
• *Values adapted from Jensen and Frantini (1957
83. Example
•Design a Trickle Irrigation System for a fully matured
orchard with the layout below. Assume that the field is
level, maximum time for irrigation is 12 hours per day,
allowable pressure variation in the emitters is 15%, the
maximum suction lift at the well is 20 m, the ET rate is
7 mm/day and the matured orchard shades 70% of the
area; trickle irrigation efficiency is 80%. Sections 1 and
2 are to be irrigated at the same time and alternated
with sections 3 and 4. Each tree is to be supplied by 4
emitters.
85. Solution
• (1) ETt = ET x P/85
• Where: Ett is the average ET for crops under trickle irrigation
(mm/day)
• ET is nomal ET rate for the crop = 7 mm/day
• P is the percentage of total ares shaded by the crop = 70%
• ETt = 7 mm/day x 70/85 = 5.8 mm/day.
86. Solution Contd.
• (2) Discharge for each tree with a spacing of 4 m x 7 m
• = 4 m x 7 m x 5.8 x 10-3 m/day = 0.162 m3/day
• = 0.00675 m3/hr (24 hr. day)
• For 12 hours of opearation per day, discharge required
• = 0.00675 x 24/12 = 0.0135 m3/hr = 0.00375 L/s
• With an appliance efficiency of 80%, the required discharge
per tree is: 0.00375/0.8 = 0.0047 L/s
• The discharge per emitter, with 4 emitters per tree is then:
• = 0.0047/4 = 0.00118 L/s = 0.0012 L/s
87. Discharge of Each Line
Line No. of
Trees
No. of
Emitters
Required
Discharge
(L/s)
Half Lateral 12 48 0.0576
Half
Manifold
168 672 0.8060
Submain, A
to Section 1
336 1344 1.6130
Main, A to
Pump
672 2688 3.2260
88. Solution Contd.
• (4) From Fig. 21.6 (Soil and Water Conservation), select the medium
long-path emitter with K = 0.000073 and x = 0.63
• Substituting in equation q = K hx, with an average discharge of 0.0012
L/s,
• Log q = log K + x log h
63
.
0
000073
.
0
0012
.
0 Log
Log
x
K
Log
q
Log
h
Log
h = 87 kPa or 8.9 m ( or use Chart to obtain h). This is the
Average operating head, Ha.
89. Solution Contd.
•(5) Total allowable pressure loss of 15 % of Ha in
both the Lateral and Manifold = 8.9 x 0.15 =1.3 m
of which 0.55 x 1.3 = 0.7 m is allowed for Lateral
and 0.45 x 1.3 = 0.6 is for the Manifold.
•(6) Compute the Friction Loss in each of the Lines
from Equation:
•Hf = K L Q 1.75 D –4.75 by selecting a diameter to
keep the loss within the allowable limits of 0.7 m
and 0.6 m, already determined.
90. Selection of Diameters
Line Q (L/s) Pipe
Diameter
(mm)
L
(m)
F Hf’ (m)
Half
Lateral
0.0576 12.70 46 0.36 0.51
Half
Manifold
0.8060 31.75 45.5 0.36 0.68
Sub-Main,
A to
Section 1
1.6130 44.45 243 1 6.59
Main, A to
Pump
3.2260 50.80 60 1 2.90
91. Pressure Head at Manifold Inlet
•Like Sprinklers, the pressure head at inlet to the
manifold:
•= Average Operating Head = 8.9 m
•+ 75% of Lateral and Manifold head Loss = 0.75
(0.51 + 0.68)
•+ Riser Height = Zero for Trickle since no risers exist.
•+ Elevation difference = Zero , since the field is Level
• = 9.79 m
92. Solution Concluded
•Total Head for Pump
•= Manifold Pressure = 9.79 m
•+ Pressure loss at Sub-main = 6.59 m
•+ Pressure loss at Main = 2.90 m
•+ Suction Lift = 20 m
•+ Net Positive Suction head for pump = 4 m
(assumed)
•= 43.28 m
•i.e. The Pump must deliver 3.23 L/s at a head of
about 43 m.
93. 6.5 SUB-SURFACE IRRIGATION
•Applied in places where natural soil and
topographic condition favour water application
to the soil under the surface, a practice called
sub-surface irrigation. These conditions
include:
•a) Impervious layer at 15 cm depth or more
•b) Pervious soil underlying the restricting layer.
•c) Uniform topographic condition
•d) Moderate slopes.
94. SUB-SURFACE IRRIGATION Contd.
•The operation of the system involves a huge
reservoir of water and level is controlled by
inflow and outflow.
•The inflow is water application and rainfall while
the outflow is evapotranspiration and deep
percolation.
•It does not disturb normal farm operations.
Excess water can be removed by pumping.
95. 6.6 CHOICE OF IRRIGATION METHODS:
•The following criteria should be considered:
•(a) Water supply available
•(b) Topography of area to be irrigated
•c) Climate of the area
•(d) Soils of the area
• (e) Crops to be grown
•f) Economics
•(g) Local traditions and skills
•(For details see extract from Hudson's Field
Engineering).
96. 6.7 INFORMATION TO BE COLLECTED ON A VISIT TO
A PROPOSED IRRIGATION SITE.
• a) Soil Properties: Texture and structure, moisture
equilibrium points, water holding capacity, agricultural
potential, land classification, kinds of crops that the soil
can support.
• b) Water Source: Water source availability eg.
surface water, boreholes etc., hydrologic data of the
area, water quantity, water quality, eg. sodium
adsorption ratio, salt content, boron etc.; possible
engineering works necessary to obtain water.
• c) Weather data: Temperature, relative humidity,
sunshine hours and rainfall.
97. INFORMATION TO BE COLLECTED
• d) Topography e.g. slope: This helps to
determine the layout of the irrigation system and
method of irrigation water application suited for the
area.
• e) History of People and Irrigation in the area:
Check past exposure of people to irrigation and
land tenure and level of possible re-settlement or
otherwise.
• f) Information about crops grown in the area:
Check preference by people, market potential,
adaptability to area, water demand, growth
schedules and planting periods.