The document provides an overview of TCP/IP networking and introduces some key concepts. It discusses:
- The TCP/IP network model which consists of 5 layers - application, transport, internet, network interface, and hardware. Each layer adds encapsulation information to the data as it travels down the stack.
- Common network types like LANs, WANs, CANs, and MANs and provides definitions for each.
- The OSI reference model which also consists of 7 layers and describes similar layer functions as the TCP/IP model.
- The roles and responsibilities of each layer in the TCP/IP model. The hardware layer deals with physical hardware and signaling. The network interface layer adds
The transport layer in computer networking provides host-to-host communication services for applications. It provides functions like connection-oriented data streams, reliability, flow control, and multiplexing. Common transport layer protocols include TCP, UDP, SCTP, and SPX. The OSI transport layer defines five classes of connection-mode protocols: class 0 (unacknowledged mode), class 1 (acknowledged mode), class 2 (numbered mode), class 3 (alternate mode), and class 4 (unconfirmed mode).
The document provides an overview of computer networking concepts. It begins by defining what a computer network is and listing different types of networks, including PAN, LAN, WAN, MAN, SAN, and VPN. It then explains the OSI 7-layer model and TCP/IP model, describing each layer. Finally, it compares the OSI and TCP/IP models, noting differences in how layers are combined in each model. The document serves as an introduction to fundamental networking topics for someone learning about computer networks.
Networking involves connecting electronic devices like computers to share resources and communicate. It allows devices to share internet access, hardware like printers, files and folders, and play multiplayer games. Networks use various topologies like star, bus or mesh to connect devices via physical cables or wireless links, and network protocols allow the connected devices to communicate according to shared rules.
This document provides an overview of the Internet, including its history and evolution from ARPANET, networking models like OSI and TCP/IP, packet switching, methods of Internet access such as dial-up, ISP services, and protocols used on the Internet like HTTP, SMTP, FTP and others. It describes the layers of the OSI model and TCP/IP stack and classifies networks as LAN, MAN and WAN based on geographical range.
A network connects devices that exchange data over media. A host has a logical network address and can be devices like workstations, servers, printers. Protocols are agreed upon rules for network functions. The network topology refers to the physical layout, such as bus, star, or ring. Networks are LANs for small areas or WANs connecting multiple LANs over wide areas. Devices include routers, switches, bridges, firewalls, and more.
The document provides an overview of the Internet and how it works. It discusses that the Internet is a worldwide network connecting millions of computing devices and allowing communication globally. It evolved from earlier networks like ARPANET and is now a collection of hundreds of thousands of interconnected networks. The World Wide Web introduced a graphical interface making the Internet more accessible. The document then covers topics like network types (LAN, MAN, WAN), networking models (OSI, TCP/IP), packet switching, and Internet services.
The document provides an overview of networking concepts including:
1) A network consists of devices that exchange data over media, with hosts having logical addresses. Common host types include workstations, servers, and routers.
2) Protocols establish rules for network functions, while bandwidth refers to the amount of data that can be transmitted in a given time period.
3) Network topologies determine how devices are physically connected, with common types being bus, star, and ring configurations.
4) Networks are generally local area networks (LANs) or wide area networks (WANs) connecting multiple LANs across a wide geographic region.
Patton-Fuller Community Hospital Networking PaperJessica Tanner
Here are the answers to the questions in bold red typeface:
1. What is a WAN? **A WAN (Wide Area Network) is a geographically dispersed telecommunication network that interconnects multiple computer networks and LANs (Local Area Networks). WANs cover a broad area and usually span across multiple cities or even countries.**
2. What are some common WAN technologies? **Some common WAN technologies include Frame Relay, ATM, MPLS, DSL, Cable Modem, Fiber, Satellite, 4G/LTE, and 5G.**
3. What is the difference between circuit switching and packet switching? **Circuit switching establishes a dedicated physical circuit (or channel)
The transport layer in computer networking provides host-to-host communication services for applications. It provides functions like connection-oriented data streams, reliability, flow control, and multiplexing. Common transport layer protocols include TCP, UDP, SCTP, and SPX. The OSI transport layer defines five classes of connection-mode protocols: class 0 (unacknowledged mode), class 1 (acknowledged mode), class 2 (numbered mode), class 3 (alternate mode), and class 4 (unconfirmed mode).
The document provides an overview of computer networking concepts. It begins by defining what a computer network is and listing different types of networks, including PAN, LAN, WAN, MAN, SAN, and VPN. It then explains the OSI 7-layer model and TCP/IP model, describing each layer. Finally, it compares the OSI and TCP/IP models, noting differences in how layers are combined in each model. The document serves as an introduction to fundamental networking topics for someone learning about computer networks.
Networking involves connecting electronic devices like computers to share resources and communicate. It allows devices to share internet access, hardware like printers, files and folders, and play multiplayer games. Networks use various topologies like star, bus or mesh to connect devices via physical cables or wireless links, and network protocols allow the connected devices to communicate according to shared rules.
This document provides an overview of the Internet, including its history and evolution from ARPANET, networking models like OSI and TCP/IP, packet switching, methods of Internet access such as dial-up, ISP services, and protocols used on the Internet like HTTP, SMTP, FTP and others. It describes the layers of the OSI model and TCP/IP stack and classifies networks as LAN, MAN and WAN based on geographical range.
A network connects devices that exchange data over media. A host has a logical network address and can be devices like workstations, servers, printers. Protocols are agreed upon rules for network functions. The network topology refers to the physical layout, such as bus, star, or ring. Networks are LANs for small areas or WANs connecting multiple LANs over wide areas. Devices include routers, switches, bridges, firewalls, and more.
The document provides an overview of the Internet and how it works. It discusses that the Internet is a worldwide network connecting millions of computing devices and allowing communication globally. It evolved from earlier networks like ARPANET and is now a collection of hundreds of thousands of interconnected networks. The World Wide Web introduced a graphical interface making the Internet more accessible. The document then covers topics like network types (LAN, MAN, WAN), networking models (OSI, TCP/IP), packet switching, and Internet services.
The document provides an overview of networking concepts including:
1) A network consists of devices that exchange data over media, with hosts having logical addresses. Common host types include workstations, servers, and routers.
2) Protocols establish rules for network functions, while bandwidth refers to the amount of data that can be transmitted in a given time period.
3) Network topologies determine how devices are physically connected, with common types being bus, star, and ring configurations.
4) Networks are generally local area networks (LANs) or wide area networks (WANs) connecting multiple LANs across a wide geographic region.
Patton-Fuller Community Hospital Networking PaperJessica Tanner
Here are the answers to the questions in bold red typeface:
1. What is a WAN? **A WAN (Wide Area Network) is a geographically dispersed telecommunication network that interconnects multiple computer networks and LANs (Local Area Networks). WANs cover a broad area and usually span across multiple cities or even countries.**
2. What are some common WAN technologies? **Some common WAN technologies include Frame Relay, ATM, MPLS, DSL, Cable Modem, Fiber, Satellite, 4G/LTE, and 5G.**
3. What is the difference between circuit switching and packet switching? **Circuit switching establishes a dedicated physical circuit (or channel)
A computer network connects two or more computers together allowing them to share resources and exchange information. It allows for file sharing, printing, collaboration and more. The document discusses the different types of computer networks including local area networks and wide area networks. It describes the basic components of a network including routers, switches, cables and transmission media. The OSI model and its seven layers for network communication are also explained.
The document discusses network architecture and provides details on:
1) The key components of network architecture including topology, protocols, and the OSI model.
2) The four basic types of network topologies - point-to-point, bus, star, and ring.
3) A comparison of the OSI model and TCP/IP model, describing their layered structures and functions.
The document discusses routers and the OSI reference model. It provides details on each of the 7 layers of the OSI model and what they are used for. The physical layer deals with transmission of raw data while the upper layers like application layer deal with application-specific functions. Routers operate at layer 3 and use IP addressing to forward packets between different networks by using routing tables maintained by routing protocols.
This document discusses network architecture and provides details on:
- The four basic types of network topologies: point-to-point, bus, star, and ring.
- The seven layer OSI model and what each layer is responsible for in network communication.
- A comparison between the OSI model and the TCP/IP model, explaining their different approaches to network architecture and protocols.
The document discusses networking standards and the OSI model. It begins by defining what a network is as a group of connected computers that share information. It then provides an overview of the seven layers of the OSI model from physical to application layer, describing some of the key responsibilities and protocols associated with each layer. These include addressing, routing, encryption, compression, and making data visible and usable to end users. The OSI model helps explain how data is transferred through a network and the roles of different protocols at each layer of the model.
This document is a project report on computer networking prepared by Surender Singh for his summer training. It provides an introduction to networking and covers topics such as network types (LAN and WAN), network models (OSI model), networking cables, devices, IP addressing, routing, firewalls, wireless networks, and ISDN. The report defines what a computer network is, outlines the requirements and benefits of networking, and describes different network components and concepts at a high level.
This document provides information about computer networking including definitions, components, types, and concepts. It defines a computer network as two or more connected computers that allow people to share files, printers, and other resources. There are two main types of networks based on architecture: client-server networks with a dedicated server and peer-to-peer networks without hierarchy. Other key topics covered include network topologies (bus, star, ring, etc.), transmission media (guided, unguided), protocols, and modes of communication (simplex, half-duplex, full-duplex).
Power point presentation on osi model.
A good presentation cover all topics.
For any other type of ppt's or pdf's to be created on demand contact -dhawalm8@gmail.com
mob. no-7023419969
This document provides an overview of networking concepts including routing protocols. It begins with an introduction and explanation of common networking terms like routers, switches, servers and IP addressing. The document then focuses on routing protocols, describing different types like static, default, dynamic routing protocols and examples like RIP, EIGRP, OSPF. It provides details on each protocol's functionality and purpose in routing network traffic between devices.
The document discusses TCP/IP and the OSI model. It provides details on:
- TCP/IP consisting of rules for protocol used with IP to send data between computers over the Internet. IP handles delivery while TCP tracks data transmission.
- The 7-layer OSI model with layers grouped into physical/data link, network/transport, and application/presentation/session. Layers define communication details and encapsulation/decapsulation of data.
- Common data units including segments, packets, datagrams, frames, cells, and bits/bytes. Encapsulation adds headers at each layer.
- Other topics covered include IP addressing, domain name servers, URLs, wireless networks, Wi-Fi, WiMax
This document provides an overview of computer networking concepts including the OSI and TCP/IP models. It describes the seven layers of the OSI model from physical to application layer and their responsibilities. It also summarizes the four layers of the TCP/IP model from network interface to application layer. The document compares the two models and explains that while they cover similar topics, the TCP/IP model does so with fewer layers and is more practical for locating specific protocols.
This document provides an introduction to computer networks. It discusses the key components and layers of networks including local area networks (LANs), wide area networks (WANs), protocols, addressing, and models like OSI and TCP/IP. It explains how data is encapsulated as it travels from an application down the protocol stack and across physical networks. Key topics covered include network interfaces, protocols, addressing, data encapsulation, the OSI model layers, TCP/IP layers, and protocols like IP, TCP, UDP.
Computing and informatics class notes for amiePanduga Kumar
The document discusses the different types of computer networks categorized by the physical area they cover, including local area networks (LANs), wide area networks (WANs), and metropolitan area networks (MANs). It provides details on LANs and WANs, explaining that LANs connect devices over shorter distances within a single location, while WANs connect multiple LANs across large physical distances. The document also briefly introduces MANs, storage area networks, and system area networks.
"This presentation was created through wide-ranged research and is intended specially for everyone interested in network technology".
-BRIAN S. CUNAL
KALINGA-APAYAO STATE COLLEGE
IT Instructor.
This document provides an overview of computer networking basics for teachers. It defines what a network is as two or more connected computers that share information. Networks can range in size from a local area network (LAN) within an office or home to a wide area network (WAN) connecting multiple LANs together. The document discusses key networking components like protocols, topology, hardware, and cabling that allow devices to communicate on a network and exchange information. It provides examples of different network configurations and concludes that computer networks facilitate communication, sharing of hardware and files, running applications remotely, and more.
The Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) reference model was developed in 1977 by the International Organization for Standardization to establish a common framework for computer network architecture. The seven-layer OSI model describes the functions of a networking system without regard to specific technologies. It helped standardize network communication and allowed networks using different vendors to interconnect. The model defines the flow of data between two communicating entities and the functions of each layer, from the physical layer dealing with electrical signals to the application layer handling inter-process communication.
Bacis Concept of Communication and NetworkingSnehal Shahane
The document provides information on various topics related to computer networks and networking concepts:
It defines the OSI 7-layer model and describes the functions of each layer, from the physical layer (layer 1) that deals with physical connections, to the application layer (layer 7) that supports application-level processes.
It also discusses common network topologies like bus, star, ring, and mesh; protocols like TCP/IP; different types of computer networks from LAN to WAN; and networking devices like clients, servers, routers, and switches.
Finally, it gives examples of specific protocols, standards, and technologies that operate at each of the 7 layers of the OSI model, such as Ethernet, IP,
1. What is Data Communication?
2. What is a network?
3. What is Node?
4. What is a network interface card (NIC)?
5. Types of Computer Networks
6. What is a MAC Address?
7. What Types of Addressing?
8. What is a port?
9. What are the different port numbers?
10.What is Hub?
11.What is Router?
12.What is a Bridge?
13.What is Gateway?
14.What is Brouter?
15.What is OSI Model?
16.What is the OSI model (Open Systems Interconnection)?
17.7 layers of the OSI model?
18.What Is the TCP/IP Model?
19.What Is the TCP/IP Model?
20.Classification of IP address Addressing?
Nad710 Introduction To Networks Using Linuxtmavroidis
This document provides an overview of the course "NAD710 - Introduction to Networks Using Linux". The course will cover the history and architecture of networks like the Internet and ARPANET. It will teach students about networking protocols like TCP/IP, network devices, Linux network configuration and commands, DNS, NFS, Samba, routing, wireless networking, and tools for network monitoring and discovery. Students will be evaluated based on a midterm test, term assignments/labs, and a final exam.
The document provides an overview of computer networking concepts including:
- What is computer networking and the benefits of networking such as resource sharing.
- Types of networks including LAN, WLAN, MAN, and WAN.
- Data packets and how data is broken into packets for transmission.
- Network protocols and the OSI reference model which defines 7 layers of network communication.
A computer network connects two or more computers together allowing them to share resources and exchange information. It allows for file sharing, printing, collaboration and more. The document discusses the different types of computer networks including local area networks and wide area networks. It describes the basic components of a network including routers, switches, cables and transmission media. The OSI model and its seven layers for network communication are also explained.
The document discusses network architecture and provides details on:
1) The key components of network architecture including topology, protocols, and the OSI model.
2) The four basic types of network topologies - point-to-point, bus, star, and ring.
3) A comparison of the OSI model and TCP/IP model, describing their layered structures and functions.
The document discusses routers and the OSI reference model. It provides details on each of the 7 layers of the OSI model and what they are used for. The physical layer deals with transmission of raw data while the upper layers like application layer deal with application-specific functions. Routers operate at layer 3 and use IP addressing to forward packets between different networks by using routing tables maintained by routing protocols.
This document discusses network architecture and provides details on:
- The four basic types of network topologies: point-to-point, bus, star, and ring.
- The seven layer OSI model and what each layer is responsible for in network communication.
- A comparison between the OSI model and the TCP/IP model, explaining their different approaches to network architecture and protocols.
The document discusses networking standards and the OSI model. It begins by defining what a network is as a group of connected computers that share information. It then provides an overview of the seven layers of the OSI model from physical to application layer, describing some of the key responsibilities and protocols associated with each layer. These include addressing, routing, encryption, compression, and making data visible and usable to end users. The OSI model helps explain how data is transferred through a network and the roles of different protocols at each layer of the model.
This document is a project report on computer networking prepared by Surender Singh for his summer training. It provides an introduction to networking and covers topics such as network types (LAN and WAN), network models (OSI model), networking cables, devices, IP addressing, routing, firewalls, wireless networks, and ISDN. The report defines what a computer network is, outlines the requirements and benefits of networking, and describes different network components and concepts at a high level.
This document provides information about computer networking including definitions, components, types, and concepts. It defines a computer network as two or more connected computers that allow people to share files, printers, and other resources. There are two main types of networks based on architecture: client-server networks with a dedicated server and peer-to-peer networks without hierarchy. Other key topics covered include network topologies (bus, star, ring, etc.), transmission media (guided, unguided), protocols, and modes of communication (simplex, half-duplex, full-duplex).
Power point presentation on osi model.
A good presentation cover all topics.
For any other type of ppt's or pdf's to be created on demand contact -dhawalm8@gmail.com
mob. no-7023419969
This document provides an overview of networking concepts including routing protocols. It begins with an introduction and explanation of common networking terms like routers, switches, servers and IP addressing. The document then focuses on routing protocols, describing different types like static, default, dynamic routing protocols and examples like RIP, EIGRP, OSPF. It provides details on each protocol's functionality and purpose in routing network traffic between devices.
The document discusses TCP/IP and the OSI model. It provides details on:
- TCP/IP consisting of rules for protocol used with IP to send data between computers over the Internet. IP handles delivery while TCP tracks data transmission.
- The 7-layer OSI model with layers grouped into physical/data link, network/transport, and application/presentation/session. Layers define communication details and encapsulation/decapsulation of data.
- Common data units including segments, packets, datagrams, frames, cells, and bits/bytes. Encapsulation adds headers at each layer.
- Other topics covered include IP addressing, domain name servers, URLs, wireless networks, Wi-Fi, WiMax
This document provides an overview of computer networking concepts including the OSI and TCP/IP models. It describes the seven layers of the OSI model from physical to application layer and their responsibilities. It also summarizes the four layers of the TCP/IP model from network interface to application layer. The document compares the two models and explains that while they cover similar topics, the TCP/IP model does so with fewer layers and is more practical for locating specific protocols.
This document provides an introduction to computer networks. It discusses the key components and layers of networks including local area networks (LANs), wide area networks (WANs), protocols, addressing, and models like OSI and TCP/IP. It explains how data is encapsulated as it travels from an application down the protocol stack and across physical networks. Key topics covered include network interfaces, protocols, addressing, data encapsulation, the OSI model layers, TCP/IP layers, and protocols like IP, TCP, UDP.
Computing and informatics class notes for amiePanduga Kumar
The document discusses the different types of computer networks categorized by the physical area they cover, including local area networks (LANs), wide area networks (WANs), and metropolitan area networks (MANs). It provides details on LANs and WANs, explaining that LANs connect devices over shorter distances within a single location, while WANs connect multiple LANs across large physical distances. The document also briefly introduces MANs, storage area networks, and system area networks.
"This presentation was created through wide-ranged research and is intended specially for everyone interested in network technology".
-BRIAN S. CUNAL
KALINGA-APAYAO STATE COLLEGE
IT Instructor.
This document provides an overview of computer networking basics for teachers. It defines what a network is as two or more connected computers that share information. Networks can range in size from a local area network (LAN) within an office or home to a wide area network (WAN) connecting multiple LANs together. The document discusses key networking components like protocols, topology, hardware, and cabling that allow devices to communicate on a network and exchange information. It provides examples of different network configurations and concludes that computer networks facilitate communication, sharing of hardware and files, running applications remotely, and more.
The Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) reference model was developed in 1977 by the International Organization for Standardization to establish a common framework for computer network architecture. The seven-layer OSI model describes the functions of a networking system without regard to specific technologies. It helped standardize network communication and allowed networks using different vendors to interconnect. The model defines the flow of data between two communicating entities and the functions of each layer, from the physical layer dealing with electrical signals to the application layer handling inter-process communication.
Bacis Concept of Communication and NetworkingSnehal Shahane
The document provides information on various topics related to computer networks and networking concepts:
It defines the OSI 7-layer model and describes the functions of each layer, from the physical layer (layer 1) that deals with physical connections, to the application layer (layer 7) that supports application-level processes.
It also discusses common network topologies like bus, star, ring, and mesh; protocols like TCP/IP; different types of computer networks from LAN to WAN; and networking devices like clients, servers, routers, and switches.
Finally, it gives examples of specific protocols, standards, and technologies that operate at each of the 7 layers of the OSI model, such as Ethernet, IP,
1. What is Data Communication?
2. What is a network?
3. What is Node?
4. What is a network interface card (NIC)?
5. Types of Computer Networks
6. What is a MAC Address?
7. What Types of Addressing?
8. What is a port?
9. What are the different port numbers?
10.What is Hub?
11.What is Router?
12.What is a Bridge?
13.What is Gateway?
14.What is Brouter?
15.What is OSI Model?
16.What is the OSI model (Open Systems Interconnection)?
17.7 layers of the OSI model?
18.What Is the TCP/IP Model?
19.What Is the TCP/IP Model?
20.Classification of IP address Addressing?
Nad710 Introduction To Networks Using Linuxtmavroidis
This document provides an overview of the course "NAD710 - Introduction to Networks Using Linux". The course will cover the history and architecture of networks like the Internet and ARPANET. It will teach students about networking protocols like TCP/IP, network devices, Linux network configuration and commands, DNS, NFS, Samba, routing, wireless networking, and tools for network monitoring and discovery. Students will be evaluated based on a midterm test, term assignments/labs, and a final exam.
The document provides an overview of computer networking concepts including:
- What is computer networking and the benefits of networking such as resource sharing.
- Types of networks including LAN, WLAN, MAN, and WAN.
- Data packets and how data is broken into packets for transmission.
- Network protocols and the OSI reference model which defines 7 layers of network communication.
Strategies for Effective Upskilling is a presentation by Chinwendu Peace in a Your Skill Boost Masterclass organisation by the Excellence Foundation for South Sudan on 08th and 09th June 2024 from 1 PM to 3 PM on each day.
Main Java[All of the Base Concepts}.docxadhitya5119
This is part 1 of my Java Learning Journey. This Contains Custom methods, classes, constructors, packages, multithreading , try- catch block, finally block and more.
it describes the bony anatomy including the femoral head , acetabulum, labrum . also discusses the capsule , ligaments . muscle that act on the hip joint and the range of motion are outlined. factors affecting hip joint stability and weight transmission through the joint are summarized.
How to Build a Module in Odoo 17 Using the Scaffold MethodCeline George
Odoo provides an option for creating a module by using a single line command. By using this command the user can make a whole structure of a module. It is very easy for a beginner to make a module. There is no need to make each file manually. This slide will show how to create a module using the scaffold method.
Executive Directors Chat Leveraging AI for Diversity, Equity, and InclusionTechSoup
Let’s explore the intersection of technology and equity in the final session of our DEI series. Discover how AI tools, like ChatGPT, can be used to support and enhance your nonprofit's DEI initiatives. Participants will gain insights into practical AI applications and get tips for leveraging technology to advance their DEI goals.
Walmart Business+ and Spark Good for Nonprofits.pdfTechSoup
"Learn about all the ways Walmart supports nonprofit organizations.
You will hear from Liz Willett, the Head of Nonprofits, and hear about what Walmart is doing to help nonprofits, including Walmart Business and Spark Good. Walmart Business+ is a new offer for nonprofits that offers discounts and also streamlines nonprofits order and expense tracking, saving time and money.
The webinar may also give some examples on how nonprofits can best leverage Walmart Business+.
The event will cover the following::
Walmart Business + (https://business.walmart.com/plus) is a new shopping experience for nonprofits, schools, and local business customers that connects an exclusive online shopping experience to stores. Benefits include free delivery and shipping, a 'Spend Analytics” feature, special discounts, deals and tax-exempt shopping.
Special TechSoup offer for a free 180 days membership, and up to $150 in discounts on eligible orders.
Spark Good (walmart.com/sparkgood) is a charitable platform that enables nonprofits to receive donations directly from customers and associates.
Answers about how you can do more with Walmart!"
A workshop hosted by the South African Journal of Science aimed at postgraduate students and early career researchers with little or no experience in writing and publishing journal articles.
This presentation includes basic of PCOS their pathology and treatment and also Ayurveda correlation of PCOS and Ayurvedic line of treatment mentioned in classics.
A review of the growth of the Israel Genealogy Research Association Database Collection for the last 12 months. Our collection is now passed the 3 million mark and still growing. See which archives have contributed the most. See the different types of records we have, and which years have had records added. You can also see what we have for the future.
বাংলাদেশের অর্থনৈতিক সমীক্ষা ২০২৪ [Bangladesh Economic Review 2024 Bangla.pdf] কম্পিউটার , ট্যাব ও স্মার্ট ফোন ভার্সন সহ সম্পূর্ণ বাংলা ই-বুক বা pdf বই " সুচিপত্র ...বুকমার্ক মেনু 🔖 ও হাইপার লিংক মেনু 📝👆 যুক্ত ..
আমাদের সবার জন্য খুব খুব গুরুত্বপূর্ণ একটি বই ..বিসিএস, ব্যাংক, ইউনিভার্সিটি ভর্তি ও যে কোন প্রতিযোগিতা মূলক পরীক্ষার জন্য এর খুব ইম্পরট্যান্ট একটি বিষয় ...তাছাড়া বাংলাদেশের সাম্প্রতিক যে কোন ডাটা বা তথ্য এই বইতে পাবেন ...
তাই একজন নাগরিক হিসাবে এই তথ্য গুলো আপনার জানা প্রয়োজন ...।
বিসিএস ও ব্যাংক এর লিখিত পরীক্ষা ...+এছাড়া মাধ্যমিক ও উচ্চমাধ্যমিকের স্টুডেন্টদের জন্য অনেক কাজে আসবে ...
বাংলাদেশ অর্থনৈতিক সমীক্ষা (Economic Review) ২০২৪ UJS App.pdf
Introduction to TCP / IP model
1. 1
1
An Introduction to
TCP/IP
erhaps the greatest advantage of Linux (and UNIX, in general) is its flexibil-
ity, especially with respect to networking. It was designed to make access easy;
its use of Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) network-
ing is in harmony with that design perspective. In this chapter, we will take a
look at networking from an overview perspective and introduce the TCP/IP
model. We will also make a number of definitions and introduce a number of
concepts that we will use throughout this book.
Computer Networking
Networks connect things together. The collection of roads throughout the
United States comprises a network of paths by which vehicles can reach various
points. The purpose of a network of roads is to permit people to efficiently move
from one place to another. Computer networks consist of interconnected com-
puter systems. The purpose of networking these components together is to share
information and computing resources. An obvious example of a computer net-
work is the Internet, in which millions of people access information and com-
puter resources throughout the world. Most of the folks utilizing these resources
have little notion of how those resources are made available to them or what
tasks are required to provide such resources. That, after all, is the job of some
computer jockey−or more formally, a system and/or network administrator.
P
3222K-CH01.fm Page 1 Thursday, July 5, 2001 5:19 PM
2. 2 Chapter 1 ◗ AN INTRODUCTION TO TCP/IP
System and network administrators own the task of ensuring that computer
resources remain available. While the tasks of these two distinct roles often
overlap, it is the job of the network administrator to ensure that computers and
other dedicated network devices, such as repeaters, bridges, routers, and applica-
tion servers, remain interconnected. In order to accomplish this task, the net-
work administrator needs to be familiar with the software and hardware
employed to effectively connect the various components. This familiarity must
begin with the concept of network types and models.
Network Types
There are a number of terms used to describe different types of networks. Such
terms include local area network (LAN), wide area network (WAN), campus
area network (CAN), and metropolitan area network (MAN).
LAN LANs, generally speaking, are collections of interconnected nodes, all
of which are geographically nearby, such as in the same room or in the same
building. A node is any device which can be networked, like a computer (often
referred to as a system), a printer, an appliance (web server, NFS server, etc.), or a
black-box device (usually a router or switchwe define these later in this chap-
ter). It should be noted that with the advent of layer 2 routing (see Chapter 16
for a discussion of layer 2 routing or switching; layers are discussed in the next
section), the notion that the nodes within a LAN must be geographically close
becomes untrue.
WAN A WAN is a collection of interconnected and geographically disparate
nodes. Often, the major distinction between a LAN and a WAN is the use of
some form of high-speed media to interconnect the nodes. Such media includes
microwave, satellite, and telecommunications connections. WAN is a very gen-
eral term that is often applied to collections of LANs and other WANs as well as
collections of nodes. One example is the Internet, which is frequently described
as a WANin fact, the Internet interconnects both LANs and WANs.
CAN The term CAN is usually applied to LANs or WANs that comprise
the collection of interconnected nodes belonging to a single company or univer-
sity/college but whose interconnection extends across many buildings.
3222K-CH01.fm Page 2 Thursday, July 5, 2001 5:19 PM
3. Network Models 3
MAN This term is usually applied to the collection of nodes within a metro-
politan area that fall under the same corporate control such as that of a telecom-
munications company or independent service provider (ISP).
If you think that these definitions of LAN, WAN, CAN, and MAN are a bit
fuzzy, good! That’s because they are! Furthermore, it’s likely that they will get
fuzzier as time goes on and technology presses forward.
As a consequence of the fuzziness of these terms, we define the term local net-
work to mean the collection of all nodes connected via the same medium and
sharing the same network number. We formally define network number in “IPv4
Addressing” on page 108, but for now think of sharing the same network num-
ber as meaning that no hardware or software boundaries must be crossed. In
other words, nodes that share the same network number can communicate with
each other without requiring the services of a router (router is defined in “The
Internet Layer” on page 9). The definition of local network given here is synon-
ymous with the definition of link local scope (defined in Chapter 5) and is quite
similar to that of broadcast domain, which is defined in “Broadcast Addresses” on
page 117.
Network Models
Let’s start with a few definitions. A network model reflects a design or architecture
to accomplish communication between different systems. Network models are
also referred to as network stacks or protocol suites. Examples of network models
includes TCP/IP, Sequenced Packet Exchange/Internet Packet Exchange (SPX/
IPX) used by Novelle Netware, the Network Basic Input Output System (Net-
BIOS), which comprises the building blocks for most Microsoft networking and
network applications; and AppleTalk, the network model for Apple Macintosh
computers.
A network model usually consists of layers. Each layer of a model represents
specific functionality. Within the layers of a model, there are usually protocols
specified to implement specific tasks. You may think of a protocol as a set of
rules or a language. Thus, a layer is normally a collection of protocols.
There are a number of different network models. Some of these models relate
to a specific implementation, such as the TCP/IP network model. Others sim-
ply describe the process of networking, such as the International Organization
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4. 4 Chapter 1 ◗ AN INTRODUCTION TO TCP/IP
for Standardization/Open System Interconnection Reference Model (ISO/
OSI-RM, or more simply, OSI-RM).
OSI-RM
The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) is a worldwide body
that promotes standards internationally. In the late 1970s, ISO began work on
developing a standard for multivendor computer interconnectivity. The result,
published in the late 1980s, was the Open System Interconnection (OSI)
model. The OSI model incorporates protocols that can be used to implement a
network stack. These protocols are not used extensively largely due to the popu-
larity of the TCP/IP protocol suite. Consequently, the OSI model, with its well-
defined layers, is used primarily as a reference model, hence, OSI-RM. Many
network models are described by way of OSI-RM and so we provide a descrip-
tion of it here. The OSI-RM is depicted in Figure 1–1.
Figure 1–1 The OSI-RM
Application
Transport
Network
Data Link
Physical
Presentation
Session
Layer 7: The Application layer within which all network applications reside.
Layer 6: The Presentation layer provides data representation support.
Layer 5: The Session layer provides for data exchange through dialogs.
Layer 4: The Transport layer provides end-to-end communication.
Layer 3: The Network layer provides internetwork connectivity.
Layer 2: The Data Link layer provides protocols for transmitting and receiving
data between directly linked systems.
Layer 1: The Physical layer dictates the physical characteristics of communication.
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5. Network Models 5
As indicated in Figure 1–1, each of the layers are numbered 1 through 7 from
physical to application layer.
LAYER 7 All of the capabilities of networking begin in the Application layer.
File transfer, messaging, web browsing, and other applications are in this layer.
Each such application will appropriately invoke processing of data for transmis-
sion through well-defined interfaces to layer(s) below this one.
LAYER 6 The Presentation layer is responsible for data formatting. It takes
care of such things as bit and byte ordering and floating point representation.
Examples include External Data Representation (XDR) and Abstract Syntax
Notation (ASN).
LAYER 5 The Session layer handles the exchange of data through dialog pro-
cedures or chat or conversation protocols. This layer is largely designed for
mainframe and terminal communications. It has no relevance with respect to
TCP/IP networking.
LAYER 4 The Transport layer is responsible for the reliable transfer of data
between systems. It manages the communication session including flow control,
ordering of information, error detection, and recovery of data.
LAYER 3 The Network layer owns the responsibility of delivering data
between different systems in different interconnected networks (internets1
).
LAYER 2 The Data Link layer provides rules for sending and receiving data
between two connected nodes over a particular physical medium.
LAYER 1 The Physical layer defines the required hardware, such as cables
and interfaces, for a given medium of communication, such as electrical, radio
frequency, and light-based. In this way, methods for transmitting and receiving
bit-streams of information are defined.
1. The term Internet (upper case I) is used to reference the public internetwork. The term
internet (lower case i) is used to generally describe a collection of interconnected networks of
which the Internet is one example.
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6. 6 Chapter 1 ◗ AN INTRODUCTION TO TCP/IP
NOTE
There is a great deal more to the OSI model than we have discussed here.
For complete details on this standard, visit
http://www.iso.ch/cate/3510001.html
Also, see “For Further Reading” on page 15 for more resources on this topic.
Next, we discuss the TCP/IP model and begin our journey into the world of
TCP/IP networking. We will compare it with the OSI model at the end of the
next section.
The TCP/IP Network Model
The TCP/IP network model takes its name from two of its protocols, the Trans-
mission Control Protocol (TCP) and the Internet Protocol (IP). Figure 1–2 pro-
vides a five-layer2 representation of the TCP/IP Model. By utilizing a five-layer
model, the lower four layers are numbered identically to the lower four layers of
the OSI-RM model.
The lower four layers of the model represent functionality performed internally
by the Linux kernel.The Application layer includes commands and daemons.
The process of initiating a network communication, like executing telnet
hostname, causes the initiator (usually the client) to encapsulate application data,
beginning at the top of the model and moving down, for the network transmis-
sion. In other words, each layer wraps the data passed to it by the previous layer
with information used to determine where the packet is supposed to go and
which service needs to be invoked to handle the application data itself. The
information added by each layer is called a header when it is prefixed to the data
from the previous layer, and a trailer when it is suffixed. On the left-hand side of
Figure 1–2, you see an increasing number of rectangles as you scan down the
layers. The area in gray represents the information added by each layer.
The receiving system, normally the server, performs the same steps except in
reverse (bottom to top), deencapsulating the data. Each layer is responsible for
2. Many texts will use a four-layer representation, combining the Hardware and Network
Interface layers.
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7. Network Models 7
interpreting the header generated by the same layer on the sending system. This
process is known as peer-to-peer communication.
The information produced during encapsulation, or read during deencapsula-
tion by each layer is ascribed a name as shown in Figure 1–2. For Layer 5, if the
underlying Transport layer protocol is the TCP, then the data produced or read
by Layer 5 is called a stream; if the underlying Transport layer protocol is the
User Datagram Protocol (UDP), then it is called a message. For Layer 4, if the
protocol used is TCP, then the data produced or read by Layer 4 is called a seg-
ment. Otherwise, if it is UDP, then it is called a packet. The data of Layer 3 is
called a datagram; of Layer 2, a frame or cell; and of Layer 1, a signal.
NOTE
The term packet is commonly used instead of signal and/or frame.
In the following sections, we will briefly review the information generated by
each layer and its purpose.
Figure 1–2 The TCP/IP Model
Transport Layer
Header (TLH)
Application
Layer 5
Transport
Layer 4
Internet
Layer 3
Network Interface
Layer 2
Hardware
Layer 1
data
Encapsulation
Internet Layer
Header (ILH) data
Net I’face Layer
Header (NILH)
Preamble
data
data CRC
TLH
CRC
ILH
ILH
TLH
TLH
frame
signal
datagram
TCP=stream
UDP=message
TCP=segment
UDP=packet
NILH
data
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8. 8 Chapter 1 ◗ AN INTRODUCTION TO TCP/IP
The Hardware Layer
The Hardware layer is responsible for exactly thathardware. This includes
cables, interface cards, and repeaters. It accepts the data passed to it by the Net-
work Interface layer and prefixes something called the Preamble, which is a well-
known sequence of 64 bits used for synchronization purposes. When it finishes
its work, it generates a signal to be submitted to the media (electrically-based
cables in most cases). The Hardware layer also imposes the maximum transfer
unit (MTU) used by the Internet layer to ensure that the Hardware layer does
not get frames3 that are too large or too small. For Ethernet, the MTU for the
signal is 1526 octets, and the minimum signal size is 72 octets.4
There are two hardware devices which operate at this layer: repeaters and
amplifiers. A repeater is a device with a number of ports (usually four or more)
that is capable of receiving signals, filtering out noise (phenomena not related to
the communication at hand), and repeating the signals to every port except the
ingress (incoming) port. Amplifiers perform the same task, except that they do
not filter noise. Consequently, repeaters are employed in electrical communica-
tions environments and amplifiers are employed in light-based communications
environments. These devices are often called hubs or concentrators. We will dis-
cuss this layer in greater detail in Chapter 2.
The Network Interface Layer
You may think of the Network Interface layer as a collection of device drivers.
Its responsibility is to prepare the data passed to it from the Internet layer for
signaling. It does this by prefixing its header (indicated as NILH in Figure 1–2),
computing a Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRCa 32-bit checksum), appending
the CRC to the datagram, and passing this information to the device (interface)
for signaling in what is called a frame. In particular, this layer understands phys-
ical addresses (often referred to as Media Access Control [MAC] addresses).
When using Ethernet, this is often called an Ethernet address. Physical
3. The data of the Network Interface layer is called a frame when it varies in size. More for-
mally, when using Ethernet, it should be called an Ethernet frame. Fixed size data at this layer,
such as that used by Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM), is called a cell.
4. MTU is further discussed throughout the next several chapters, but note that it is more
common to quote the Ethernet frame MTU, which is 1518 octets. The minimum Ethernet
frame size is 64 octets. Note that frames occur at the Network Access layer. Here we are describ-
ing the Hardware layer.
3222K-CH01.fm Page 8 Thursday, July 5, 2001 5:19 PM
9. Network Models 9
addresses are local and only need to be unique within the local network. For
Ethernet interface chipsets, they are 48-bit addresses permanently written into
the programmable read-only memory (PROM).
The Network Interface layer writes both the destination and source physical
address into its header during encapsulation. Consequently, it is at this layer
that, during deencapsulation, initial decisions are made about whether or not to
continue processing an incoming frame up the stack. This is discussed in detail
in Chapter 2.
There is one device associated with this layer. It is a switch. Switches look very
much like repeaters, a piece of hardware with at least two network ports, but are
more intelligent than repeaters. Since they operate at the Network Interface
layer, they are able to make decisions based on physical addresses. Switches are
sometimes called hubs or bridges or layer 2 routers.
NOTE
Switches are sometimes called bridges (or the other way around, if you
like). Bridge is an older term that is not commonly used today. Unfortu-
nately, the terms switching, layer 2 switching, and layer 3 switching all con-
found the issue of what is really being described. Most of the variation in
the base term “switch” comes from vendors of switches and routers. An
argument could be made that the proper term for the layer 2 device that is
capable of making packet-forwarding decisions based on physical
addresses is “bridge.” A similar argument could be made for the term
switch. I could coin a new term, say swidge, but I haven’t got the courage,
and, besides, it would probably make matters worse. After all, companies
like Cisco aren’t likely to change their terminology just because I say so.
I had to make a decision about which term to use. So I decided to use
switch. Throughout this book, I will make no distinction between bridge
and switch and will use the term switch to mean a layer 2 device that is capa-
ble of making packet-forwarding decisions based on physical addresses.
The Internet Layer
The Internet layer is responsible for a variety of tasks. In order to accomplish
these tasks it uses three principal protocols. The Internet Protocol (IP), the
Internet Control Messaging Protocol (ICMP), and the Internet Group Man-
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10. 10 Chapter 1 ◗ AN INTRODUCTION TO TCP/IP
agement Protocol (IGMP). The IP is responsible for routing and fragmentation.5
The ICMP generates error messages, assists routing through redirection, may
implement rudimentary flow control, supports the ping command, supports
router discovery, and may generate timestamp and netmask queries and
responses. The IGMP supports Internet Layer multicasting. Each of these pro-
tocols has two available versions: 4 and 6.
The device that operates at this layer is a router. Routers are nodes that imple-
ment the intelligence of the Internet layer protocols and forward datagrams to the
appropriate networks or subnetworks (discussed in Chapter 4) based on IP addresses
and the routing algorithm (described in Chapter 6). Routers are sometimes called
layer 3 switches. Unfortunately, routers are also sometimes called hubs.
The Internet layer produces or reads the Internet layer header. The header
contains a lot of information and, in particular, includes the source and destina-
tion IP address associated with the packet. There are two versions of the proto-
cols in this layer: version 4 and version 6. IPv4 addresses are 4 octets while IPv6
addresses are 16 octets. These are global addresses, meaning that all nodes
throughout a collection of networks that are interconnected (internet) must be
uniquely identified by this address. Data is passed through such an internet by
the process of routing. Routing is performed by examining a portion of an IP
address in order to determine to which network the data needs to be sent (effec-
tively the purpose of the routing algorithm). Linux systems can act as routers.
This header, together with the overall functionality of the Internet layer, is
largely discussed in Chapters 4, 5, and 6. Additional details of the Internet layer
and Linux router functionality are given in the last six chapters of this book.
The Transport Layer
The Transport Layer is responsible for the end-to-end flow of data. There are
two primary protocols used within this layer (TCP and the UDP). An applica-
tion will use one or the other of these protocols for a given communication.
These protocols, the headers they produce or read, and the Transport layer are
described in Chapter 7.
5. Fragmentation applies to IP version 4 only.
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11. Network Models 11
The Application Layer
This is the layer where all the applications live. These applications are responsi-
ble for understanding the data format as well as interpreting the data. Example
applications include the Domain Name Service (DNS), the Dynamic Host
Configuration Protocol (DHCP), the Network File System (NFS), Samba,
electronic mail (e-mail), the file transfer protocol (FTP), and the telnet utility.
The Application layer is discussed in Chapter 8.
The device that operates at this layer is the gateway. Unfortunately, gateway is
a term, somewhat like hub, that is used in many ways. We generally define it to
mean a link between distinct and/or different computer networks. Often, it is
used to refer to a system that is capable of converting from one network protocol
stack to another, such as a system that is interconnected into both a TCP/IP
network and a Netware network. Gateway is often used to refer to a system that
interconnects an internal internetwork and an external network such as the
Internet. Other uses of the term gateway are described as they arise.
OSI-RM and TCP/IP Model Comparison
Figure 1–3 depicts the relationship between the OSI-RM and the TCP/IP
model.
The relationship between these two models at Layers 1, 2, and 3 is identical.
While the diagram in Figure 1–3 shows a one-to-one correspondence at Layer
4, it should be noted that UDP does not perform all of the functions required by
the OSI-RM Transport layer; we will explore this fact further in Chapter 7.
The Application layer of the TCP/IP model assumes responsibility for the
Session, Presentation, and Application layer of the OSI-RM. This relationship
will be detailed further in Chapter 8 and numerous subsequent chapters.
One of the advantages of depicting the TCP/IP model as a five-layer model is
that we can refer to Layer 1, 2, and 3 of both models. We will do so throughout
this book.
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12. 12 Chapter 1 ◗ AN INTRODUCTION TO TCP/IP
The Client-Server Model
It may be rather like stating the obvious, but we define the terms server and cli-
ent. A server is a network node that makes compute or data resources available.
A client is a network node that utilizes server resources. Of course, for clients
and servers to interact, they must be interconnected.
Nodes may act in one, both, or neither capacity of server and client. Generally
speaking, from the Linux perspective, the client is the system upon which a
command invoking a network-based application is executed. The server is the
system on which a daemon is running. A daemon is a special program that
responds to and handles resource requests. Throughout this book we will deal
with, and further refine, these terms.
Request for Comment
The vast majority of the protocols and standards that we discuss throughout this
book are embodied in a Request for Comment (RFC), more specifically, an
Figure 1–3 OSI-RM and TCP/IP Comparison
OSI-RM
Application
Transport
Network
Data Link
Physical
Presentation
Session
TCP/IP
Transport
Internet
Network Interface
Hardware
Application
Layer 4
Layer 3
Layer 2
Layer 1
Layer 7
Layer 6
Layer 5
Layer 5
}
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13. Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) 13
RFC developed and/or maintained by the Internet Engineering Task Force
(IETF).
The overall controlling entity for Internet standards is the Internet Society
(ISOC). The Internet Architecture Board (IAB) and the IETF both fall under
the ISOC. The IETF does the actual technical work while the IAB handles a
lot of the administrative details. The Internet Engineering Steering Group
(IESG), also part of the ISOC, provides technical direction for the IAB and the
IETF. Our interest is with the work of the IETF and, in particular, with RFCs
that provide a standard that is implemented in TCP/IP networking. In addition
to standards track RFCs (RFCs that have been approved as standards or are
becoming standards), the IETF also produces informational and best current
practice RFCs that provide details about the implementation and use of some
technology without being a standard. You can learn more about the IETF and
the associated organizations discussed in this paragraph at
http://www.ietf.org/
For complete details about IETF RFCs, please see the site
http://www.ietf.org/rfc.html
A search engine for RFCs can be found at
http://www.rfc-editor.org/
Where appropriate, we will discuss specific RFCs at various points in this
book.
There is another type of RFC maintained by an organization called the Open
Group. The Open Group RFCs also define standards and protocols, but are less
common. For further information regarding the Open Group RFCs, please visit
http://www.opengroup.org/rfc/
Throughout this document, all RFCs are IETF RFCs unless specifically
identified as an Open Group RFC.
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE)
The IEEE is a non-profit technical organization that, among other things, pro-
motes standards for a variety of computing technologies, largely at layers 1 and 2
of the TCP/IP stack. We will be referring to their standards throughout this
text. You can learn more about IEEE at their home and standards pages:
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14. 14 Chapter 1 ◗ AN INTRODUCTION TO TCP/IP
http://www.ieee.org/
http://standards.ieee.org/
Throughout this book we will reference a variety of standards from the IEEE.
Table 1–1 lists the high-level IEEE standard number and its general coverage of
each standard number.
For complete coverage of these standards, see the IEEE Web sites referenced
above.
There is an excellent write-up of the topics discussed in the last six chapters of
this book, including the relationship between IEEE standards and the lower
layer ISO standards, at
http://www.cs.herts.ac.uk/~simon/networks1/node1.html
Table 1–1 IEEE High-Level Standards
STANDARD
NUMBER
DESCRIPTION
802.1 High-level architectural overview
802.2 Logical link control (LLC)
802.3 Ethernet with CSMA/CD
802.4 Token bus
802.5 Token ring
802.6 MANs
802.7 Broadband LANs
802.8 Fiber optic LANs
802.9 Data and voice network integration
802.10 Security and privacy
802.11 Wireless networking
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15. The Internet, TCP/IP, and Other Stacks 15
The Internet, TCP/IP, and Other Stacks
Only a few short years ago you would have been hard-pressed to find 10 people
outside of the computer industry who knew about the Internet. Today, it is
nearly taken for granted.
The Internet is a global collection of WANs and LANs that are all intercon-
nected. Participation in the Internet ultimately requires TCP/IP capability in
the form of a node acting as an Internet gateway or portal. From that perspec-
tive, TCP/IP is the network stack of the Internet. There are other network
stacks at play within the Internet, and indeed, in a variety of roles throughout
the computer industry.
Summary
In this chapter we introduced the OSI-RM and TCP/IP model, briefly
described each of their layers, and compared the two models. Additionally, we
introduced the client-server model and RFCs. We also defined a number of
terms that we will use throughout this text.
For Further Reading
Listed below are books and WWW resources that provide further information
about the topics discussed in this chapter.
Books
Comer, Douglas E., Internetworking with TCP/IP Vol I: Principals, Protocols,
Architecture, 3rd. ed., Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, Prentice Hall, 1995.
Huitema, Christian, Routing in the Internet, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, Prentice
Hall PTR, 1995.
Perlman, Radia, Interconnections, Second Edition: Bridges, Routers, Switches, and
Internetworking Protocols, Reading, Massachusetts, Addison-Wesley, 2000.
Stevens, W. Richard, TCP/IP Illustrated, Volume 1: The Protocols, Reading,
Massachusetts, Addison-Wesley, 1994.
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16. 16 Chapter 1 ◗ AN INTRODUCTION TO TCP/IP
WWW Resources
You will find OSI information at the ISO home page:
http://www.iso.ch/
IETF RFCs can be found at
http://www.ietf.org/rfc.html
and Open Group RFCs at
http://www.opengroup.org/rfc/
For IEEE standards and information, see their home page or standards page:
http://www.ieee.org/
http://standards.ieee.org/
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