The document provides an introduction to research, discussing its significance, definitions, and methodological approaches. It highlights the importance of systematic inquiry in finding answers to various questions and the categorization of research into types like quantitative, qualitative, and applied research. Key concepts include validity, ethics, and the structure of research, underscoring the need for organization and objectivity in the research process.

1. Introduction to
Introduction to
Research
Research

2. Issues...
Issues...
 Why are we interested in research?
Why are we interested in research?
 What is research?
What is research?
 Key concepts and issues
Key concepts and issues
 Introduction to validity
Introduction to validity

3. Why must we understand research?
Why must we understand research?
 help make informed decisions
help make informed decisions
 need to produce research in career
need to produce research in career
 evaluating research in the media
evaluating research in the media
 assist in classes
assist in classes

4. Why is research a valued source of
Why is research a valued source of
knowledge?
knowledge?
 Common ways of knowing…
Common ways of knowing…
 personal experience/intuition
personal experience/intuition
 experts/traditions/authority
experts/traditions/authority
 scientific method
scientific method

5. WHY UNDERTAKE
WHY UNDERTAKE
RESEARCH
RESEARCH
• To investigate some existing situation or problem.
To investigate some existing situation or problem.
• To provide solutions to a problem.
To provide solutions to a problem.
• To explore and analyse more general issues.
To explore and analyse more general issues.
• To construct or create a new procedure or system.
To construct or create a new procedure or system.
• To explain a new phenomenon.
To explain a new phenomenon.
• To generate new knowledge.
To generate new knowledge.
• A combination of two or more of any of the above.
A combination of two or more of any of the above.
(Hussey and Hussey 1997)
(Hussey and Hussey 1997)

6. What is Science, the Scientific Method,
What is Science, the Scientific Method,
and Research?
and Research?
 Science…
Science…
 a body of established knowledge
a body of established knowledge
 the observation, identification, investigation, and
the observation, identification, investigation, and
theoretical explanation of natural phenomenon
theoretical explanation of natural phenomenon
usually the ultimate goal is theory
generation and verification

7. 7
RESERACH
RESERACH
 Re
Re ----------------
---------------- Search
Search
 Re
Re means
means (once more, afresh,
(once more, afresh,
anew)
anew) OR
OR (back; with return to a
(back; with return to a
previous state)
previous state)
 Search
Search means
means (look thorough or go
(look thorough or go
over thoroughly to look something)
over thoroughly to look something) OR
OR
(examine to find anything concealed)
(examine to find anything concealed)

8. 8
Research?
Research?
Research is an
Research is an ORGANIZED
ORGANIZED
and
and SYSTEMATIC
SYSTEMATIC way of
way of
FINDING ANSWERS
FINDING ANSWERS to
to
QUESTIONS
QUESTIONS.
.

9. 9
 SYSTEMATIC
SYSTEMATIC
because there is a definite set of procedures and
because there is a definite set of procedures and
steps which you will follow. There are certain
steps which you will follow. There are certain
things in the research process which are always
things in the research process which are always
done in order to get the most accurate results.
done in order to get the most accurate results.

10. 10
 ORGANIZED
ORGANIZED
in that there is a structure or method in going
in that there is a structure or method in going
about doing research. It is a planned procedure,
about doing research. It is a planned procedure,
not a spontaneous one. It is focused and limited
not a spontaneous one. It is focused and limited
to a specific scope.
to a specific scope.

11. 11
 FINDING ANSWERS
FINDING ANSWERS
is the end of all research. Whether it is the answer
is the end of all research. Whether it is the answer
to a hypothesis or even a simple question,
to a hypothesis or even a simple question,
research is successful when we find answers.
research is successful when we find answers.
Sometimes the answer is no, but it is still an
Sometimes the answer is no, but it is still an
answer.
answer.

12. 12
 QUESTIONS
QUESTIONS
are central to research. If there is no question, then
are central to research. If there is no question, then
the answer is of no use. Research is focused on
the answer is of no use. Research is focused on
relevant, useful, and important questions.
relevant, useful, and important questions.
Without a question, research has no focus, drive,
Without a question, research has no focus, drive,
or purpose.
or purpose.

13. 13
Defining Research
Defining Research
1). A collection of methods and
1). A collection of methods and
methodologies that researchers apply
methodologies that researchers apply
systematically to produce scientifically
systematically to produce scientifically based
based
knowledge about the social
knowledge about the social world.
world.
(Neuman)
(Neuman)

14. Any honest attempt to study a problem systematically or to
add to man’s knowledge of a problem may be regarded as
research. (Theodorson and Theodorson 1969 cited in
Reber 1995, p.663)
The aim, as far as I can see, is the same in all sciences.
Put simply and cursorily, the aim is to make known
something previously unknown to human beings. It is to
advance human knowledge, to make it more certain or
better fitting
. . . the aim is, as I have said, discovery. (Elias 1986, p.20)

15. Quality research is the lifeblood of any
scientific discipline. Without it,
disciplines would stagnate, failing to
advance past their current limits and
understanding.
(Wann 1997 p.17)

16. 16
Alternative to Research
Alternative to Research
 Authority
Authority
 Tradition
Tradition
 Common sense
Common sense
 Media myths
Media myths
 Personal experience
Personal experience

17. 17
1). Authority
1). Authority
 When you accept something as true just because
When you accept something as true just because
someone in a position of authority says it is true
someone in a position of authority says it is true
or it is an authoritative publication, you are using
or it is an authoritative publication, you are using
authority
authority as basis of knowledge.
as basis of knowledge.
 Parents, Teachers, Books.
Parents, Teachers, Books.

18. 18
2). Tradition
2). Tradition
 Tradition is a special case of authority-the
Tradition is a special case of authority-the
authority of the past. It means you accept
authority of the past. It means you accept
something as being true because “it’s the way
something as being true because “it’s the way
things have always been.
things have always been.

19. 19
3). Common Sense
3). Common Sense
 You rely on what everyone knows and what
You rely on what everyone knows and what
“just makes sense”.
“just makes sense”.
 It is about ordinary reasoning.
It is about ordinary reasoning.
 It can originate from tradition
It can originate from tradition

20. 20
4). Media Myths
4). Media Myths
 Media tends to perpetuate the myths of a
Media tends to perpetuate the myths of a
culture.
culture.

21. 21
5). Personal Experience
5). Personal Experience
 If something happens to you, if you personally
If something happens to you, if you personally
experience it or see it, you accept it as true.
experience it or see it, you accept it as true.

22. Characteristics of Research
Characteristics of Research
 objective
objective
 precise
precise
 verifiable
verifiable
 parsimonious
parsimonious
 empirical
empirical
 logical
logical
 probabilistic
probabilistic

23. 23
Types of Research
Types of Research
1.
1. Quantitative Research
Quantitative Research
2.
2. Basic Research
Basic Research
3.
3. Applied Research
Applied Research
4.
4. Longitudinal Research
Longitudinal Research
5.
5. Qualitative Research
Qualitative Research
6.
6. Descriptive Research
Descriptive Research
7.
7. Classification Research
Classification Research

24. 24
Types of Research
Types of Research
1.
1. Comparative Research
Comparative Research
2.
2. Explorative Research
Explorative Research
3.
3. Explanatory Research
Explanatory Research
4.
4. Causal Research
Causal Research
5.
5. Theory-testing Research
Theory-testing Research
6.
6. Theory-Building Research
Theory-Building Research
7.
7. Action Research
Action Research

25. 25
1). Quantitative Research
1). Quantitative Research
 It is based on methodological principals of
It is based on methodological principals of
positivism and neo-positivism
positivism and neo-positivism
 It adheres to standards of strict research design.
It adheres to standards of strict research design.
 Statistical analysis is used in it.
Statistical analysis is used in it.

26. 26
2). Basic Research
2). Basic Research
 Purpose of gaining knowledge
Purpose of gaining knowledge
 It advanced understanding about social
It advanced understanding about social
world
world
 Help in supporting & rejecting existing
Help in supporting & rejecting existing
hypothesis & theories
hypothesis & theories

27. 27
3). Applied Research
3). Applied Research
 Aims at solving specific problems
Aims at solving specific problems
 Aims at establishing policy programs that will
Aims at establishing policy programs that will
help to improve social life
help to improve social life
 Types of applied research are action research,
Types of applied research are action research,
social impact studies, cost-benefit analysis,
social impact studies, cost-benefit analysis,
evaluation research
evaluation research

28. 28
4). Longitudinal Research
4). Longitudinal Research
 It involves study of sample at more than one
It involves study of sample at more than one
point in time or occasion
point in time or occasion
 e.g. Trend studies, Panel studies
e.g. Trend studies, Panel studies

29. 29
4A). Cross sectional Research
4A). Cross sectional Research
 It involves study of many cases at one point in
It involves study of many cases at one point in
time or occasion
time or occasion

30. 30
5). Qualitative Research
5). Qualitative Research
 It is based on methodological principals of
It is based on methodological principals of
phenomenology, symbolic interactionism,
phenomenology, symbolic interactionism,
hermeneutics.
hermeneutics.
 It aims at exploration of social world.
It aims at exploration of social world.
 Lazarsfeld: following elements are
Lazarsfeld: following elements are
there….exploration, relationship discovery,
there….exploration, relationship discovery,
establishing construct, testing hypothesis.
establishing construct, testing hypothesis.

31. 31
6). Descriptive Research
6). Descriptive Research
 Usually it forms preliminary study of a research
Usually it forms preliminary study of a research
project.
project.
 It aims at describe social events, relations and
It aims at describe social events, relations and
events.
events.
 It provides background information about an
It provides background information about an
event in question.
event in question.

32. 32
7). Classification research
7). Classification research
 It aims at categorization of units into groups
It aims at categorization of units into groups
 To demonstrate differences
To demonstrate differences
 To explain relationships
To explain relationships

33. 33
8). Comparative Research
8). Comparative Research
 To identify similarities and differences between
To identify similarities and differences between
units at all levels.
units at all levels.

34. 34
9). Exploratory Research
9). Exploratory Research
 It aims at gaining information about an issue in
It aims at gaining information about an issue in
hand.
hand.

35. 35
10). Explanatory Research
10). Explanatory Research
 It aims at explaining social relations and events.
It aims at explaining social relations and events.
 To build, test or revise a theory.
To build, test or revise a theory.

36. 36
11). Causal Research
11). Causal Research
 It aims at establishing cause and effect
It aims at establishing cause and effect
relationship among variables.
relationship among variables.

37. 37
12). Theory testing Research
12). Theory testing Research
 It aims at testing validity of a theory
It aims at testing validity of a theory

38. 38
13). Theory building Research
13). Theory building Research
 To establish and formulate theory
To establish and formulate theory

39. 39
14). Action Research
14). Action Research
 It is application of fact findings to practical
It is application of fact findings to practical
problem solving in a social situation with a view
problem solving in a social situation with a view
to improve quality of action within it, involving
to improve quality of action within it, involving
collaboration and cooperation of researchers,
collaboration and cooperation of researchers,
practitioners and laymen.
practitioners and laymen.
 It can be situational (diagnose a problem and
It can be situational (diagnose a problem and
attempts to solve it), collaborative, participatory
attempts to solve it), collaborative, participatory
(researcher take part in implementation of
(researcher take part in implementation of
findings) and self-evaluation (it involves
findings) and self-evaluation (it involves
constant evaluation and adjustment of research
constant evaluation and adjustment of research
and practice)
and practice)

40. Key Concepts and Issues
Key Concepts and Issues
 time in research
time in research
 variables
variables
 types of relationships
types of relationships
 hypotheses
hypotheses
 types of data
types of data
 fallacies
fallacies
 structure or research
structure or research
 deduction and induction
deduction and induction
 ethics
ethics
 validity
validity

41. Time in Research
Time in Research
repeated measures time series
cross-sectional vs. longitudinal

42. Variables
Variables
 variable…
variable…
 any observation that can take on different values
any observation that can take on different values
 attribute…
attribute…
 a specific value on a variable
a specific value on a variable

43. Examples
Examples
Variable Attribute
age

44. Examples
Examples
Variable Attribute
age 18, 19, 20, etc...

45. Examples
Examples
Variable Attribute
Gender or sex

46. Examples
Examples
Variable Attribute
Gender or sex Male, female

47. Examples
Examples
Variable Attribute
satisfaction

48. Examples
Examples
Variable Attribute
satisfaction 1 = very satisfied
2 = satisfied
3= somewhat satisfied
4 = not satisfied
5 = not satisfied at all

49. Types of Variables
Types of Variables
 independent variable (IV)…
independent variable (IV)…
 what you (or nature) manipulates in some way
what you (or nature) manipulates in some way
 dependent variable (DV)…
dependent variable (DV)…
 what you presume to be influenced by the IV
what you presume to be influenced by the IV

50. Examples
Examples
IV DV
exercise
participation

51. The
The purpose of the study
purpose of the study was
was
to…
to…
 test whether the K-12 curriculum is effective in
test whether the K-12 curriculum is effective in
promoting moral development in youth
promoting moral development in youth
 examine the relationship between age and maturity.
examine the relationship between age and maturity.
 test whether there are gender differences the value
test whether there are gender differences the value
placed on sport participation
placed on sport participation
 determine whether students’ perceptions of the
determine whether students’ perceptions of the
amount of positive, negative, and informational
amount of positive, negative, and informational
feedback provided by their teachers is predictive of
feedback provided by their teachers is predictive of
their self-esteem and level of achievement
their self-esteem and level of achievement
IV, DV?

52. Types of Relationships
Types of Relationships
 correlational vs. causal relationships
correlational vs. causal relationships
correlation does not imply causation!
(it’s necessary but not sufficient)
variables perform in a
synchronized manner
one variable causes the
other variable

53. Types of Relationships
Types of Relationships
 patterns of relationships…
patterns of relationships…
 no relationship
no relationship
 positive relationship
positive relationship
 negative relationship
negative relationship
 curvilinear relationship
curvilinear relationship

54. -
- +
+
-
-
+
+
resting HR
fitness
-
- +
+
-
-
+
+
vocabulary
fitness
-
- +
+
-
-
HR
exercise
intensity
-
- +
+
-
-
arousal
performance
+
+ +
+

55. Hypotheses
Hypotheses
 hypothesis…
hypothesis…
 a specific statement of prediction
a specific statement of prediction
 types of hypotheses
types of hypotheses
 alternative vs. null
alternative vs. null
 one-tailed vs. two-tailed
one-tailed vs. two-tailed

56. Hypotheses
Hypotheses
 alternative hypothesis (HA)…
alternative hypothesis (HA)…
 An effect (that you predict)
An effect (that you predict)
 null hypothesis (HO) …
null hypothesis (HO) …
 Null effect
Null effect

57. Hypotheses
Hypotheses
hypothesis there is a relationship between age
and exercise participation
HA there is a relationship
HO there is not a relationship
this is a two-tailed hypothesis as no
direction is predicted

58. Hypotheses
Hypotheses
hypothesis an incentive program will increase
exercise participation
HA participation will increase
HO participation will not increase or
will decrease
this is a one-tailed hypothesis as a
specific direction is predicted

59. Types of Data
Types of Data
 quantitative vs. qualitative
quantitative vs. qualitative

60. Research Fallacies
Research Fallacies
 fallacy…
fallacy…
 an error in reasoning (logic or premise)
an error in reasoning (logic or premise)
 types of fallacies described by Trochim
types of fallacies described by Trochim
 ecological
ecological
 exception
exception

61. Structure of Research
Structure of Research
begin with broad questions
narrow down, focus in
operationalize
OBSERVE
analyze data
reach conclusions
generalize back to questions
The "hourglass" notion of research
The "hourglass" notion of research

62. Deduction and Induction
Deduction and Induction
Deduction
Induction

63. Ethics in Research
Ethics in Research
 balance between protecting participants vs. quest for
balance between protecting participants vs. quest for
knowledge
knowledge
 IRB (independent ethics committee aka independent
IRB (independent ethics committee aka independent
ethics committee) provides one mechanism
ethics committee) provides one mechanism
 informed consent/assent
informed consent/assent
 confidentiality and anonymity
confidentiality and anonymity
 justification of procedures
justification of procedures
 right to services
right to services
 http://www.rsp.ilstu.edu/policy/IRB/IRB_policy.pdf
http://www.rsp.ilstu.edu/policy/IRB/IRB_policy.pdf

64. Practice Questions
Practice Questions
1.
1. Is the study descriptive, relational, or causal?
Is the study descriptive, relational, or causal?
2.
2. Is the study cross-sectional or longitudinal?
Is the study cross-sectional or longitudinal?
3.
3. What is (are) the IV (IVs)?
What is (are) the IV (IVs)?
4.
4. What is (are) the DV (DVs)?
What is (are) the DV (DVs)?
5.
5. What are the alternative and null hypotheses?
What are the alternative and null hypotheses?

65. Practice Questions
Practice Questions
A. The purpose of the study was to examine the
A. The purpose of the study was to examine the
link between age and physical fitness levels in
link between age and physical fitness levels in
terms of muscular strength and endurance. It
terms of muscular strength and endurance. It
was hypothesized that older and younger adults
was hypothesized that older and younger adults
would demonstrate significantly different fitness
would demonstrate significantly different fitness
levels.
levels.

66. Practice Questions
Practice Questions
B. The purpose of the study was to determine
B. The purpose of the study was to determine
whether track athletes trained to use mental
whether track athletes trained to use mental
imagery performed superior to athletes who did
imagery performed superior to athletes who did
not receive the mental imagery training. We
not receive the mental imagery training. We
expected those athletes receiving the training
expected those athletes receiving the training
would perform significantly better than the
would perform significantly better than the
untrained athletes.
untrained athletes.

67. Practice Questions
Practice Questions
C. The study examined the effects of an acute
C. The study examined the effects of an acute
bout of resistance training on participants’
bout of resistance training on participants’
mood and cognitive functioning at 1, 6 and 12
mood and cognitive functioning at 1, 6 and 12
hours post exercise. It was expected that the
hours post exercise. It was expected that the
positive effects on mood and cognitive function
positive effects on mood and cognitive function
would decline over time.
would decline over time.

68. Practice Questions
Practice Questions
D. Participants at the 2009 Chicago Marathon
D. Participants at the 2009 Chicago Marathon
were polled to determine their satisfaction with
were polled to determine their satisfaction with
the course. The race officials hoped for positive
the course. The race officials hoped for positive
reactions on the part of the runners.
reactions on the part of the runners.

69. Practice Questions
Practice Questions
E. A researcher was interested in the role of
E. A researcher was interested in the role of
caffeine in sports performance. In cooperation
caffeine in sports performance. In cooperation
with her University’s baseball team, she
with her University’s baseball team, she
randomly assigned players to one of two
randomly assigned players to one of two
conditions: (1) no caffeine or (2) low dose
conditions: (1) no caffeine or (2) low dose
(100mg). She then used performance on a
(100mg). She then used performance on a
batting machine as a test. She speculated that
batting machine as a test. She speculated that
caffeine would positively affect performance.
caffeine would positively affect performance.

70. Introduction to Validity
Introduction to Validity
 validity…
validity…
 the best available approximation to the truth of a
the best available approximation to the truth of a
given proposition, inference, or conclusion
given proposition, inference, or conclusion

71. Introduction to Validity
Introduction to Validity
 types of validity…
types of validity…
 conclusion
conclusion
 internal
internal
 construct
construct
 external
external
types of validity are cumulative

72. Introduction to Validity
Introduction to Validity
 for each type of validity there are typical threats,
for each type of validity there are typical threats,
and ways to reduce them
and ways to reduce them
 this provides our framework for critiquing the
this provides our framework for critiquing the
overall validity
overall validity (= worth)
(= worth) of studies
of studies

73. Additional Information
Additional Information
 Describing Refereed Articles
Describing Refereed Articles
 Sharing Research Findings with Clients
Sharing Research Findings with Clients

75. The Validity Questions Are
The Validity Questions Are
Cumulative
Cumulative...
...

76. The Validity Questions Are
The Validity Questions Are
Cumulative
Cumulative...
...
In this study
In this study Is there a relationship between
the cause and effect?

77. The Validity Questions Are
The Validity Questions Are
Cumulative
Cumulative...
...
Conclusion
Conclusion
Is there a relationship between
the cause and effect?
Is the relationship causal?
In this study
In this study

78. The Validity Questions Are
The Validity Questions Are
Cumulative
Cumulative...
...
In theory
In theory
Is there a relationship between
the cause and effect?
Is the relationship causal?
Can we generalize to
the constructs?
Conclusion
Conclusion
Internal
Internal

79. The Validity Questions Are
The Validity Questions Are
Cumulative
Cumulative...
...
Construc
Construc
t
t
Is there a relationship between
the cause and effect?
Is the relationship causal?
Can we generalize to
the constructs?
Can we generalize to
other persons,
places, times?
In theory
In theory
Conclusion
Conclusion
Internal
Internal

80. The Validity Questions are
The Validity Questions are
cumulative
cumulative...
...
Is there a relationship between
the cause and effect?
Is the relationship causal?
Can we generalize to
the constructs?
Can we generalize to
other persons,
places, times?
External
External
Validity
Validity
Conclusion
Conclusion
Internal
Internal
Construct
Construct

81. Validity Questions are
Validity Questions are Cumulative
Cumulative
Is there a relationship between
the cause and effect?
Is the relationship causal?
Can we generalize to
the constructs?
Can we generalize to
other persons,
places, times?
External
External
Validity
Validity
Conclusion
Conclusion
Internal
Internal
Construct
Construct