The inner ear consists of the bony labyrinth and membranous labyrinth contained within it. The bony labyrinth includes the vestibule, semicircular canals, and cochlea. The membranous labyrinth contains the cochlear duct, utricle, saccule, three semicircular canals, and endolymphatic duct within the bony structures. The organ of Corti located in the cochlear duct contains hair cells that detect sound vibrations and transmit signals to the cochlear nerve. Perilymph fluid fills the spaces between the bony and membranous labyrinths while endolymph fills the membranous structures
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Cardiac conduction defects can occur due to various causes.
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Title: Sense of Smell
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the primary categories of smells and the concept of odor blindness.
Explain the structure and location of the olfactory membrane and mucosa, including the types and roles of cells involved in olfaction.
Describe the pathway and mechanisms of olfactory signal transmission from the olfactory receptors to the brain.
Illustrate the biochemical cascade triggered by odorant binding to olfactory receptors, including the role of G-proteins and second messengers in generating an action potential.
Identify different types of olfactory disorders such as anosmia, hyposmia, hyperosmia, and dysosmia, including their potential causes.
Key Topics:
Olfactory Genes:
3% of the human genome accounts for olfactory genes.
400 genes for odorant receptors.
Olfactory Membrane:
Located in the superior part of the nasal cavity.
Medially: Folds downward along the superior septum.
Laterally: Folds over the superior turbinate and upper surface of the middle turbinate.
Total surface area: 5-10 square centimeters.
Olfactory Mucosa:
Olfactory Cells: Bipolar nerve cells derived from the CNS (100 million), with 4-25 olfactory cilia per cell.
Sustentacular Cells: Produce mucus and maintain ionic and molecular environment.
Basal Cells: Replace worn-out olfactory cells with an average lifespan of 1-2 months.
Bowman’s Gland: Secretes mucus.
Stimulation of Olfactory Cells:
Odorant dissolves in mucus and attaches to receptors on olfactory cilia.
Involves a cascade effect through G-proteins and second messengers, leading to depolarization and action potential generation in the olfactory nerve.
Quality of a Good Odorant:
Small (3-20 Carbon atoms), volatile, water-soluble, and lipid-soluble.
Facilitated by odorant-binding proteins in mucus.
Membrane Potential and Action Potential:
Resting membrane potential: -55mV.
Action potential frequency in the olfactory nerve increases with odorant strength.
Adaptation Towards the Sense of Smell:
Rapid adaptation within the first second, with further slow adaptation.
Psychological adaptation greater than receptor adaptation, involving feedback inhibition from the central nervous system.
Primary Sensations of Smell:
Camphoraceous, Musky, Floral, Pepperminty, Ethereal, Pungent, Putrid.
Odor Detection Threshold:
Examples: Hydrogen sulfide (0.0005 ppm), Methyl-mercaptan (0.002 ppm).
Some toxic substances are odorless at lethal concentrations.
Characteristics of Smell:
Odor blindness for single substances due to lack of appropriate receptor protein.
Behavioral and emotional influences of smell.
Transmission of Olfactory Signals:
From olfactory cells to glomeruli in the olfactory bulb, involving lateral inhibition.
Primitive, less old, and new olfactory systems with different path
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TEST BANK for Operations Management, 14th Edition by William J. Stevenson, Verified Chapters 1 - 19, Complete Newest Version.pdf
TEST BANK for Operations Management, 14th Edition by William J. Stevenson, Verified Chapters 1 - 19, Complete Newest Version.pdf
6. Utricle
Posterior part of
vestibule.
5 openings of
semicirular ducts.
Macula
Utricosaccular duct.
7. Saccule
lies anterior to utricle
opposite the stapes
footplate in the bony
vestibule.
Saccule is connected
to the cochlea via a
thin reunion duct.
13. Macula is a gelatinous matrix into which hair cells project
and which is studded with tiny calcium carbonate
granules called otoconia.
14.
15. Arrangement of stereocilia
Each row of
stereocilia is taller
than the next. The tip
of each stereocilium is
linked to the side of
the stereocilium
behind it by a tip link.
17. Types of Hair cells
Type 1 Hair cells = flask
shaped cells with a rounded
base, narrow neck.
Nucleus is basal, surrounded
by mitochondria
With supranuclear Golgi
complex, occasional cisternae
of RER & small vesicles.
With 50-100 sterocilia on free
surface. Tallest hair is 10um
near kinocilium & shortest is
1um on the opposite side.
Type ll Hair cells = more
columnar, kinocilium, sterocilia,
cytoplasmic roganelles are
similar to type 1.
Golgi complex is larger, small
vesicles found in great
numbers in cytoplasm.
Synaptic ribbons are found in
the peripheral cytoplasm
opposite the plasmalemma of
terminal boutons.
Some endings contain clear
synaptic vesicles (non
granulated vesicles) carry
afferent nerves info to brain.
18. Semicircular Canals
Three semicircular
canals-
Lateral (Horizontal)
Superior ( Anterior
vertical)
Posterior ( Posterior
vertical)
19. Horizontal semicircular canal
The lateral or horizont
al canal (external
semicircular canal) .
shortest of the three
canals.
Movement of fluid
within this canal
corresponds to
rotation of the head
around a vertical axis
(i.e. the neck).
20. Projects as rounded bulge in middle ear, aditus &
antrum
Makes an angle of 30 with horizontal plane.
It measures from 12 to 15 mm., and its arch is
directed horizontally backward and laterally; thus
each semicircular canal stands at right angles to
the other two.
21. Superior semicircular canal
> detects rotation of the
head around a rostral-
caudal (anterior-
posterior) axis, or in
other words rotation in
the coronal plane.
> example, when you
move your head to
touch your shoulders.
>15 to 20 mm in length,
is vertical in direction.
22. Its lateral extremity is
ampullated, and
opens into the upper
part of the vestibule;
the opposite end joins
with the upper part of
the posterior canal to
form the crus
commune, which
opens into the upper
and medial part of the
vestibule.
23. Posterior semicircular canal
The posterior
semicircular
canal detects
rotations of the head
in around the lateral
axis. This occurs, for
example, when
nodding your head.
24. It detects rotations of
the head in
the sagittal plane.
Nodding of head.
18 to 22 mm.
26. Trautmann’s triangle.
The triangle bounded by the bony labyrinth, sigmoid
sinus, and superior petrosal sinus is known as
Trautmann’s triangle.
27. Cochlea
Snail shaped coiled tube.
2.5 to 2.75 turns round a
central pyramid of bone
called modiolus.
30 mm long
5 mm from base to apex & 9
mm around its base Anterio
medial to vestibule.
28. Modiolus
Central pyramid of
bone around which
cochlea forms
The base of modiolus
directed towards
internal acoustic
meatus
Transmits vessels and
nerves to cochlea
29. Promontary
A bony bulge in
the medial wall of
middle ear ,
represents the
basal coil of
cochlea.
31. Osseous spiral lamina
A thin plate of bone
winds spirally around
modiolus .
This bony lamina gives
attachment to the
basilar membrane and
divides the bony
cochlea tube into three
compartments.
32. Basilar membrane =
thin sheet extending
from spiral lamina to
spiral ligament of
cochlea. Movement of
the the basilar
membrane by pressure
changes induced by
stapes footplate motion
at the oval window
33. Vestibular membrane
= 2nd partition from soft
tissue ridge of spiral
lamina to the spiral
ligament.
• Reissner’s membrane
= outer surface of
vestibular membrane,
lined by thin squamous
perilymphatic cells.
34. Lumen of cochlear
canal is partitioned into
3 spiral chambers:
1. scala vestibuli
(above)
2. scala media
(between)
3. scala tympani (below)
35. Rosenthal’s canal
Spiral ganglions are
situated in this canal
which runs along the
osseous spiral lamina.
36. Scala vestibuli
This uppermost
channel is
continuous with
vestibule and closed
at oval window by
stapes footplate
37. Scala tympani
This lowermost channel is
closed by secondary TM
of round window
38. Scala media
Bind coiled tube,
connected to the
saccule via ductus
reunions.
40. Aqueduct of cochlea
Scala tympani is
connected with
subarachnoid
space via
aqueduct of
cochlea.
It is thought to
regulate perilymph
& pressure in
bony labrynth
41. Basilar membrane
>Has 2 zones:
Zona arcuata = thin,
extends from
medial attachment
to base of outer
most cells of organ
of Corti. Supports
the organ of Corti.
Zona pectinata=
thicker from organ of
Corti to spiral
ligament.
42. Tectorial membrane
Secreted at the
upper surface of
interdental cells,
forms a cuticular
layer over these
cells
Composed of fine
filaments embedded
in gelatinous matrix
rich in
mucopolysaccharide
s.
43.
44. Organ Of Corti
The end organ of
hearing
Inner hair cells -
broad base, resting
on the basilar
membrane, slender
and conical, nucleus
is basal.
Outer hair cells -
longer and more
oblique, leaning to the
inner pillars.with
broad thin base.
45. Tunnel of corti-
wide triangular
intercellular space
continuous through
cochlear length.
Bounded above
converging inner
and outer pillar cells.
46. Deiters cells -the
supporting cells for
the 3 -4 rows of
outer hair cells.
Base is columnar
with cup shaped
upper end. The apex
does not reach the
free surface of the
organ of Corti.
47. Inner phalangeal cells - arranged in a row on the inner side of the
inner pillar cells. Contiguous with slender Border cells marking the
inner boundary of the organ of corti. Lining epithelium is low cuboidal
or squamous cells.
Cells of Hensen - delimit the outer border of the organ of Corti
arrange in rows decreasing in height continuous with the cells of
Claudius.
49. Reticular lamina
The reticular lamina is
a solid surface at the
tops of the hair cells,
so the tops of the hair
cells are in endolymph
and the bottom of the
hair cells are in
perilymph.
52. The spiral ganglion
The cell bodies of the neurons
that form the auditory nerve are
located within the cochlear
modiolus. The collection of cell
bodies is called the spiral
ganglion.
54. Venous drainage
Internal auditory vein
Vein of cochlear aquaduct
Vein of vestibular aquaduct
Drain into inferior
petrosal and
sigmoid sinuses
55. Internal auditory canal
About 1 cm long
Passes into petrous
part of temporal
bone in a lateral
direction
Lined by dura
56.
57.
58. At its lateral end (fundus) IAC is
closed by a vertical cribriform
plate of bone that seperates it
from labrynth
A transverse crest divides this
plate into smaller upper and
larger lower part
Upper part is again divided into
ant & post part by a vertical
crest called BILL’S BAR.
59. IAC - Contents
Vestibulocochlear Nerve
Facial nerve including nervus intermedius
Internal auditory artery and vein
60. Inner ear fluids
perilymph endolymph
Resembles ECF Resembles ICF
Rich in sodium ions Rich in pottasium ions