Implicit bias among teachers is a significant contributor to the disproportionate out of school suspension rates in american schools (autosaved)

Running head: IMPLICIT BIAS AMONG TEACHERS 1
Implicit Bias among Teachers is a Significant Contributor to the Disproportionate out of School
Suspension Rates in American Schools
Dissertation Proposal
Submitted to:
Graduate Faculty of the School of………..
In Partial Fulfillment of the Degree of…….
By
Name:
Month, Year

IMPLICIT BIAS AMONG TEACHERS 2
Table of Contents
Chapter Two: Literature Review ..........................................................................................................3
2.0.1: Introduction..........................................................................................................................3
2.0.2: A Summary of the purpose of the study..................................................................................3
2.0.3: Documentation .....................................................................................................................3
2.1.0: Theoretical Framework..........................................................................................................4
2.1.1: Implicit Theories ................................................................................................................4
2.1.2: Connectionist theories .......................................................................................................7
2.1.3: Dual process theory of implicit bias.....................................................................................8
2.2: Themes....................................................................................................................................9
2.2.1: Racism...............................................................................................................................9
2.2.2: Cultural Background.........................................................................................................11
2.2.3: Schools Transition............................................................................................................13
2.2.4: Gender............................................................................................................................15
2.2.5 Substance Abuse...............................................................................................................17
2.2.6: Lifestyle...........................................................................................................................18
2.2.7: Favoritism........................................................................................................................21
2.2.8: Entertainment.................................................................................................................24
2.3: Suspension incidences associated with implicit bias .................................................................27
2.4: The effects of implicit bias ......................................................................................................31
2.5: Possible solutions to the incidences of implicit bias..................................................................35
2.6: Summary ...............................................................................................................................37
References.......................................................................................................................................39

Chapter Two: Literature Review
2.0.1: Introduction
In this chapter, there shall be the review of the theoretical aspect of the field under study.
There shall be the focus on the past study on the topic under research from not only a global but
also an American perspective. There shall also be the addressing of the objectives of the study
while also evaluating the theoretical aspect of the topic under research.
2.0.2: A Summary of the purpose of the study
The study aims at proving implicit bias as a factor contributing to the disproportionate
rates of school suspension in America. Implicit bias among teachers is an underlying issue that
should not be ignored. It amounts to students being racially biased along other factors such as
ethnic group, obesity, and even disability. The aftermath is that they end up being wrongly
judged and in other cases branded as being violent due to the held perception of high aggression.
As a means of reinforcing behavior in schools, they end up being suspended. Some students end
up suffering despite them being innocent. In such unfair cases of suspensions, not only does the
student suffer but also the society in its entirety. One thing that stands out is that the rate of
suspensions from the American schools is relatively higher among the minority groups. Implicit
bias has a hand in the disproportionate suspensions in these schools. Despite there being genuine
cases deserving suspensions, not all cases deserve such a punishment.
2.0.3: Documentation
This section proved instrumental in the gathering of information on the topic under study.
The employed strategy in the search of the relevant literature was the use of the main terms in the

topic under study. These terms are such as the implicit bias among teachers and even the
disproportionate out of school suspension rates in the American schools. Through the
employment of this strategy, a lot of research was unearthed hence helping in the building of the
themes that were relevant to the exploration of the research topic. As such, most of the
employed materials were books and even the peer reviewed journals. On the other hand, the
employed search engine was Google and the Ebscohost database. The former helped in the
location of the books while the latter helped in the unearthing of the peer-reviewed articles. All
the used sources were in the APA format.
2.1.0: Theoretical Framework
2.1.1: Implicit Theories
In their text, Devine and Plant (2012) sought to explore how the implicit theories are the
starting point of the prejudice and even an interruption of people in intergroup relate irrespective
of their low susceptibility to prejudice. In their work, there was also the review of the implicit
theories on people’s and groups’ malleability and fixedness that shall form the base in the
understanding of how intergroup relate. Devine and Plant (2012) defined the implicit theories as
being the beliefs that people hold pertaining to the behaviors and attributes of human beings. One
thing that stands out is that people are often different concerning the beliefs that they hold on the
human characteristics. Despite most people agreeing on the basic principles forming the
foundation of the physical world such as gravity, there is a great variation in people’s beliefs on
the principles of the social world concerning subjects such as the attributes of people and the
world (Devine & Plant 2012).

According to Devine and Plant (2012), as cited by Dweck (1999), the implicit theories
narrow down to the belief that people have the ability to change, grow and even develop. On the
other hand, the author voiced that the entity theories share in the belief that the human
characteristics are fixed in nature. On the other hand, the incremental theorists believe that there
could be a change and development in the human characteristics. However, as Devine and Plant
(2012) stressed, there is the need to highlight that for the incremental theory, it does not bear the
implication that everyone begins with a similar talent or even potential, or even that everyone is
predisposed to unlimited potential. Characteristically, the implicit theories do not share in the
belief of the characteristics being stable, or even their spontaneous variation and non-variation
over the passage of time. Instead, the implicit theories hold the beliefs that people can be able to
control or even change their attributes as long as they are motivated, and have the right
opportunities and instructions in place. For those with the entity and incremental theory, there
could be the tendency to believe that there are those who start off with more talent compared to
the others and that as they age, there could be deterioration in their aptitude.
In exploring the general effects of the implicit theories, Devine and Plant (2012) strived
to portray how these theories are attributed to shaping the motivations, perceptions, and
behaviors outside the vicinity of the intergroup relations. It stands out that the entity and
incremental theories are essential to the understanding of the behaviors of human beings because
the people’s theories influence various aspects of psychology. Through the study of the implicit
theories, there is a deeper understanding of the perceptions and even reasoning that people have
towards each other especially concerning their inference on traits and even labeling of
individuals (Devine & Plant 2012).

According to Wurthman (2017), the implicit theories are often the knowledge structures
are organized and narrowing down to a particular domain. These structures are used by people on
a daily base for the purpose of drawing some bits of data while coming up with inferences from
events and reality from a social aspect. The implicit theories of personality are essential in the
motivation that people have in dealing with prejudice head-on. The author voiced that according
to research on the theories, people often have a minimal orientation towards one of the polar
extremes pertaining to the implicit theories and even the personal attributes. One thing for sure
is that people may disagree in an equal measure on the bias expression but still respond
differently on their base of the implicit theory.
There are the prejudiced target holding onto the belief that others can change (Wurthman
2017), they stand a higher chance of speaking up when they face explicit bias as a means of
enlightening the speaker hence eliciting a possibility of growth opportunity for people making
biased comments. According to the author, the inability to change is associated with the entity
theory. For the incremental theory, the belief is that malleability is an aspect of the personal
characteristics and hence people can change as long as they have the motivation and make the
required effort. On the other hand, for those who do not share in the belief of the possibility of
others changing and who uphold the entity theory, they may have minimal to no motivation to
stand up to people or instances of prejudice.
Wurthman (2017) further cited studies offering a suggestion that the moral beliefs and
the implicit theories of a person are in an organization of systems with coherent meanings.
Moreover, the author voiced that the research by Chiu and other colleagues had a proposition
followed by evidence stipulating that people aligned to the entity theory seem to have moral

beliefs that are duty-based while for those inclined to the instrumental theories, their moral
beliefs are right-based. One of the major difference between these beliefs orientation is that
while the duty-based moral beliefs prioritizes conformity to the absolute standards, the right-
based moral beliefs prioritizes the sense of independence and even the thoughts of a person as
the aspects o determining whether an action is moral or not (Wurthman 2017). Another theory
falling in the classification of the implicit theories is the information processing theory.
According to Blake and Cannon (2014), this theory presupposes the varying modes of
information storage and organization in the long-term memory as a mode of biasing attention,
and even how to encode and retrieve information. As such, this theory affects subsequent
behaviors among individuals. Blake and Cannon (2014) noted that the storage and organization
of information in the memory is dependent on the early life experiences of an individual and
hence the variation from one person to another.
2.1.2: Connectionist theories
Over the years, there has been lots of research in the fields of social psychology and
cognition seeking to delve deeper on outcomes of the implicit, automatic and even the intergroup
stereotypes and even the held attitudes. Ramsey, Rumehart and Stich (2013) highlighted that in a
connectionist perspective, there are nodes that are interconnected. The authors further noted that
there are instances where for a node, the characterizing aspect is the form of activation. The
connectionist theory as an aspect of the social psychology and a means of understanding implicit
bias helps in gaining a deeper insight of the social behaviors and even cognition. Even in the face
of continued research, there has been a conflict on the analogies of social identity and social
behavior, the connectionist approach in the field of social psychology helps in the understanding

of prejudices and even stereotypes. The model on connectionist theory pertaining learning and
memory (Ramsey, Rumehart and Stich 2013) helps in discerning social perception and
stereotyping.
2.1.3: Dual process theory of implicit bias
There has been the discussion of the implicit bias under the context of the dual-process
theory and hence the reason it could be different from other theories. Brownstein and Saul
(2016) outlined that the theories of dual-processes have been proposed in various fields among
them deductive reasoning, decision making, social judgment among others. This theory has
many varieties and hence the many challenges it could face with the example being pointing out
the attributes that could be important for each process. Brownstein and Saul (2016) highlighted
that there has been the ranking of the dual-level theory as one of the non-standard forms of the
dual processes theory. For the type 2 processes, they have been associated with the explicit and
the intentional reasoning that entail the manipulation of the sensory aspects and even the
processes associated with the implicit reasoning processes.
The authors outlined that for the explicit processes, they are not only slow but also
effortful as they involve sensory imagery manipulation (Brownstein & Saul 2016). For the
implicit processes, they are not associated with intentional reasoning and are often faster, with
minimal effort and nonconscious. There are three outstanding debates falling under the wagon of
implicit bias. There is the type 1 processes termed as automatic and the type 2 processes which is
controlled. For the dual-level theory, the version of contrast it holds is that the explicit processes
have an intentional sense of control while the implicit bias does not have the same.

2.2: Themes
There are numerous studies that have delved deeper into the topic of implicit bias among
teachers and its relation to the various aspects of diversity among the various aspects of life.
There shall be an exhaustive exploration of these factors along with the relationship between the
implicit bias and the rates of suspensions in the American schools. Characteristically, there shall
be a thorough evaluation of the cases of suspensions in the American schools that were related to
implicit bias along with the adverse effects that the implicit bias could be having on the students
and the students alike. There shall also be an evaluation of the possible solutions to the cases of
implicit bias.
2.2.1: Racism
In accordance with Rudd (2015), the number of African Americans who were expelled in
the past decade appeared to be more as compared to the white students. Also, the number of
Latin Americans who were expelled from school for no apparent reason appeared to be higher as
compared to white students. In a survey done in the year 2009 to 2010, it concluded that around
72000 of the students expelled from schools were of African American origin. The survey was
conducted between Kindergarten and High school students (Rudd 2015). In a span of one year,
only 18 percent of the students were enrolled while 52 percent were whites. 33 percent consisted
of Latin Americans. This clearly indicates the rate of racial discrimination in a majority of the
American schools (Rudd 2015).
However, in schools where there is a higher number of African American students as
compared to whites appeared to experience quite a lower number of discrimination cases. In

states such as Miami, there are approximately 3 to 10 of implicit bias in schools reported as a
result of racism. Ironically, African American students who appeared to be very active were
more likely to be suspended than white students (Scialabba 2017). In the California states, there
were 710000 suspensions experienced within the year 2011 to 2012. 48 percent of these
incidents involved small acts by the students which did not deserve tough suspension
punishments. Ironically, a higher number of white students who were caught on the wrong side
of the law received minor punishments (Scialabba 2017).
To reduce the rate at which discrimination and racism have affected various students, the
government seemed to create punishable measures to the teachers who were found guilty. These
measures would include expelling the teachers from their respective workplaces. However, apart
from expelling the students, teachers were also responsible in that they would face wrath from
the law. The types of wrath they would face include being locked up in jail for a number of years
(Scialabba 2017). In 1998, the state of Ohio ensured that all the schools adhered to the newly
amended laws. Another factor that seemed to increase the rate of suspension cases in schools
among the African Americans was by employing more police officers around the school
compound. This was viewed as an easy route towards school to prison. Hence, more African
Americans were punished and suspended unlawfully as a result of their racial background (Rudd
2015).
Moreover, teachers needed to be trained in specific ways on how to avoid racial
discrimination among various races. Through this, schools especially students are guaranteed fair
and just treatment. Recently, there have been several cases where principals of schools educate
their students on the importance of freedom and right to speech (Rudd 2015). By offering a

friendly environment for communication, the school is assured to be a safe learning place for all
the students. The principal, therefore, emphasizes on investigating and following up issues
before a student is expelled from the school. Due to the increase in racism and suspension of
students, various schools have taken different measures in ensuring that the rate of implicit bias
has reduced (Rudd 2015).
There are other ways through which schools ensure that they reduce the increase in
suspension of students as a result of racial discrimination. Schools ensure that they employ
teachers who have undergone a course with a background in cultural competency. In Portland-
based schools, a majority of schools have established programs through which are used to
educate the teachers on the importance of just treatment to all students (Rudd 2015). Also, the
schools teach the teachers concerning the consequences each one is bound to undertake after
unfair and unjust treatments to the students. To reduce the rate of suspension among African and
Latin American students, School heads have created mechanisms through which teachers have to
notify them concerning the certain issues. Rather than suspending students, various schools have
come up with strategies through which they are able to punish their students (Rudd 2015).
2.2.2: Cultural Background
From a cultural perspective, teachers are often said to overlook on the students'
background hence resulting in severe disciplinary measures. For instance, a majority of the
students were suspended due to minor issues in the school. Some of these minor issues included
refusing to take off caps during class hours, failure to switching off mobile phones (Scialabba
2017). In most cases, rich students who did not adhere to teachers instructions did not appear to
be punished. Hence, their background appears to be more appealing to a teacher. In the past

decades, the poor in a majority of the American states were viewed to be violent, arrogant to the
society. This is one factor through which teachers have been viewed as taking on implicit biases
in schools (Staff 2017).
As a result of different cultural diversity, students from poor backgrounds are often
discriminated by the white students who are the majority in most American students. Often, in
such cases, students tend to fight each other at some point in time. In a fight between a rich and
poor student, the rich student tends to be favored most hence the suspension of the poor student
from school (Staff 2017). When a student from a rich background is suspended, there is a higher
chance that the parents will report to higher authorities. Thus, the teachers face the wrath of the
law. In a school where there is a higher rate of suspension cases, most teachers appear to favor
students in regards to their racial backgrounds. Also, teachers who are of the similar cultural
backgrounds with a student seem to offer favors. To stop the rate of cultural discrimination,
schools have been encouraged to create programs emphasize fair treatments in regards to the
cultural background (Staff 2017).
When teaching subjects about wars in different classes, teachers tend to be carried away
by the historical events. During history classes where a teacher discusses the negative effects of
certain cultures like the Chinese, African, Russian or Mexican, American students tend to make
fun of their fellow students regarding their culture. Through this, a majority of the foreign
students are forced to report such cases to their teachers. The American teachers appear to side
with their American students more hence leading to the foreign counterparts taking action. The
students of a different cultural background are forced to take action and fight their fellow
students after which they get expelled for disciplinary act. As outlined by Staff (2017), in order

to reduce the rate at which students face suspension, parents are encouraged to always follow up
on the schools' previous results and discipline. If a majority of the students who excel are of only
one cultural background, then there is a higher possibility that students are culturally
discriminated (Staff 2017).
2.2.3: Schools Transition
As highlighted by Ferreira et al (2013), mobility or transition of students from one school
to another is a major contributor towards suspension. In the year 2011, 70 percent of the
suspension cases were linked to students who had newly moved into other schools. Parents and
teachers were in the forefront when it came to pointing out the implicit bias involved in their
suspension cases. In accordance with Sparks (2016), there was a high number of school turnouts
in rural schools as compared to schools in the urban towns. Through this, it was evident how the
social status of their families plays a major role (Sparks 2016).
Other major factors which relate to the transition of students within various schools is on
the fact of the quality of education offered. In California, it was considered that a majority of the
schools with fewer teachers seemed to experience an increase in transition cases (Ferreira et al
2013). However, the transition affects other schools in that they experience an increase in the
number of students. Thus, they are forced to employ more qualified personnel. However, this
transition norm seems to also affect other schools in that well-trained teachers experience a
decrease in salary income. This occurs as a result of low student turnout hence little to no money
for financing their salaries (Ferreira et al 2013).

Some of the causes relating to school mobility and transition include residential
relocation. In a survey, it was concluded that 60 percent of school transitions happen due to
student’s home relocation (Ferreira et al 2013). Students who had parents who did not own their
own homes were the major contributors to school mobility. In most cases, the majority of
students who transferred from one school to another were considered to be either African or
Latin Americans. Students who were homeless were considered to transition from one school to
another almost twice in a year (Ferreira et al 2013). Even though a majority of the homeless
students found their permanent homes, they were still more likely to transition from a school to
another (Sparks 2016).
The transition of schools has been studied to affect students in various ways. First,
Students tend to lose a lot of classes in the process leading to failure academically. Students who
have transitioned from various schools have been considered to have poor performance. Due to
poor grades especially in subjects such as Mathematics, the transition phase has been linked with
a number of school drop-out cases (Sparks 2016). In a recent study, it was observed that 6 out of
10 students were affected thus dropped out of school in the 8th and 9th grade. In the early stages
of a students' education, mobility has been studied to have a more negative impact (Ferreira et al
2013).
In relation to implicit bias in schools, teachers have been known to suspend a majority of
the students associated with various transitions. Moreover, the mobility of students has always
been linked to bad behavior. Teachers have always had the mindset that a student has always
transitioned from one school to another due to misconduct. Also, mobility has always been
linked to sever suspensions from previous schools (Ferreira et al 2013). To curb implicit bias

involved with new students, several schools have come up with measures through which track
down on the reasons that led the student transfer schools. Also, schools have come up with ways
through which might help the affected students not to miss out on classes during the transition
period (Sparks 2016).
2.2.4: Gender
In the American society, men have always been viewed as the toughest and stubborn in
comparison with their female counterparts. Through this, it has always been duplicated in almost
every teacher's head that men are always known to cause problems. In several states, in 10 cases,
7 of the incidents have always been regarded as caused by male students (Morris 2016).
However, women have only been punished and suspended due to cases such as refusing to
adhere to the teachers' instructions and even ignorance. Suspension of the male gender has
always been associated with both minor and major issues. The issues tend to range from the use
of mobile phones, poor grades and also not adhering to instructions while in class (Morris 2016).
In the American history, girls of the African American origin were viewed to be more
superior as compared to white and Latin American females. In a context by Morris (2016), a
majority of the African American women were expelled from schools due to their hairstyles.
Ironically, in states such as Georgia, African American women were regarded to have a bad
behavior in comparison with their white counterparts. Moreover, the African American women
were suspended frequently as compared to African American male counterparts. In the East
Coast of the United States, African American females were suspended ten times than the
Caucasian girls (Crenshaw et al 2018).

In the Eastern parts of the United States, it has been regarded as the home for the African
Americans. This is due to the fact the ratio of African Americans to whites is 3 is to 1. The black
women have always been put to the test especially when they get expelled from school in that
they get involved in irrelevant activities (Crenshaw et al 2018). Some of these activities lead the
girls to have early childhood pregnancies and an increase in school drop-outs. Even after the
United States of America, president Barrack Obama introduced the legislation by the name My
Brother's Keeper, the rate of school suspension among black American girls have not reduced.
To reduce the increase in suspension cases, a majority of the schools have been able to
discourage several tasks (Crenshaw et al 2018).
First, in a majority of schools experiencing low performance, there have been cases of
students being frisked by police officers using metal detectors. The presence of police officers in
schools especially in the East Coast has always led to the misbehaving of students. In reality,
students never feel secure whenever there is a strict authority or even rules (Crenshaw et al
2018). As a matter of fact, there certain things which seem to be a norm in the modern society.
Issues such as girl fights have been there and will always be there. In such scenarios, the better
option has always been offering to counsel both parties rather than involving policemen or even
offering suspension (Crenshaw et al 2018).
In states such as Boston, there are many factors that resulted in an increase in school
drop-outs among the black American girls. Apart from out-of-school suspensions, most girls in
low performing schools are either expelled or referred to the law enforcement. Referrals to the
law enforcement have been considered among the major factors that have led to school drop-outs
and early pregnancies (Crenshaw et al 2018). It has majorly affected the African American

community even in their workplaces. To curb this menace, the government have always notified
such schools on discouraging the presence of the police in that they are considered to bridge the
school to prison pipeline (Crenshaw et al 2018).
2.2.5 Substance Abuse
In Georgia State, it was revealed that a majority of the cases found in schools were
related to drug abuse. Male students were viewed as the major perpetrators of drug usage
although Mexicans were being viewed as the main sellers (Wilson & Kolander 2011). This
perception leads to out-of-school suspension. In the case of an 18-year-old student at Crenshaw
who was expelled from school for no apparent reason. After the follow up of the case, it was
concluded that there was no evidence whether he was in involved in the drug deal (Wilson &
Kolander 2011). Historically, drug abuse in the United States had been mainly linked with Latin
Americans.
In September 1999, there were several incidences which appeared to occur as a result of
drug usage. During the incident, two boys entered the school with firearms and bombs leading to
a mass destruction through which they killed twelve students and one teacher before committing
suicide. In a post-mortem, it was revealed that one of the killers was prescribed for some anti-
depressant drugs (Wilson & Kolander 2011). Such cases are often linked to drug abuse. In recent
studies, a majority of the victims of drug abuse in Los Angeles were of Mexican origin. It was
considered that in schools around the state of California experienced out-of-school suspensions
which involved mainly Latino-Americans due to the norm of the state. President Obama
administration placed more measures against discrimination. These measures would protect

honest students from being suspended as a result of their race and background (Wilson &
Kolander 2011).
For the rate of unfair and unjust treatment put against Latino-Americans to diminish,
schools were being encouraged on the importance of investigation. Nowadays, schools have been
able to come up with programs through which they only aim at tackling drug-related issues (Roth
& Finch 2013). Schools have introduced social training skills which have been proved to be the
most effective. The social skills help the students to know the ways and how to avoid peer
pressure. As stated by Roth & Finch (2013) peer pressure is the most common cause of drug
abuse among students. Another strategy which schools have put in place to reduce drug usage is
helping students know about stress management.
The school programs have been designed in such a way that it equips the students with
problem-solving and decision-making skills. By having these skills, a student might be able to
come up with suitable ways through which he might avoid peer-pressure at all costs. The schools
can also create activities which might assist the student to think and look for suitable options.
Hence, sharpen the decision-making skills (Kearney 2015). Teachers and parents play a major
role towards the reduction of drug abuse in schools. Rather than suspending students, teachers
should focus more on educating on the negative effects of drug usage. Also, teachers should be
able to know when a student is being affected by drug usage. Some of the signs associated with
drug use among students include redness of the eyes, hair being untidy all over sudden. In some
cases, hair starts to become brown in color (Roth & Finch 2013).
2.2.6: Lifestyle

In the American history, there are various ways as to which the African Americans are
used to carry on with their day to day activities. For instance, in the state of California, there are
gang groups which have been known to co-exist for more than two decades. Practically, when a
child is brought up in such environments where there are gang activities, he is forced to adapt to
the lifestyle. Hence, the child gets used to the gangs' way of communicating. In accordance with
Diepen (2013), gang groups have been studied as a major influence in the African American
community. For the last two decades, there have been cases through which students have been
found to threaten their teachers using weapons. However, as a result of strict out-of-school
suspensions and the introduction of law enforcement, there has been a decrease in the number of
cases (Diepen 2013).
As highlighted by Diepen (2013), in some instances, students are forced to join such
groups in which in real sense death is the only way out. To curb the gang from the American
schools, teachers were encouraged to report any strange behavior to the authority. As a result of
implicit bias, African American out-of-school suspension rates were viewed to increase in states
such as California and Chicago. When there were certain cases of drugs being found in
classrooms and the school in general, the first suspects were always African American males.
The bloods and crips are always known for using drugs especially marijuana which helps them in
taking dangerous acts and violence. In states where there a higher number of white gangs
appeared to also have a higher number of out-of-school suspensions relating to African
Americans (Diepen 2013).
To curb gang menace in schools, various state governments have come up with different
problems which would protect the students against gangs. California which has been considered

to be the home of a large number of gang members introduced a gang prevention program
(Howell 2011). The Gang Risk Intervention Program is one of the programs funded by the
California government. The role of the program is to ensure that the students are aware of the
methods the gangs use to lure them. The program is known to be effective in only 15 counties
out of the 50 counties in California. School counselors, gang specialists, and police are some of
the professionals involved in the program. The program encourages individuals through activities
such as sports and job training. Job training is important for the program in that they believe that
a majority of the gangs use the money to recruit jobless individuals (Howell 2011).
The Gang Resistant Education and Training is another program used in all the 50 states.
The program was introduced by the Phoenix Police Department to help the stude3nts gain
knowledge about various gang groups. The Gang Resistant Education and Training programs'
main aim and the objective are to ensure that the students get familiar with how the gangs lure
their targets (Healy 2014). For the program to be effective, it has been incorporated in all school
curriculums. This helps the students familiarize themselves with how the gangs operate and the
consequences of being involved in their activities. Since the introduction of the Gang Resistant
Education and Training program, there has been a decline in the number of school-related
threats. Also, the number of students recruited by the gangs has been considered to decline by 42
percent (Healy 2014).
In the United States cities, 3820 students from 31 different schools were examined. Half
of the students were assigned to the Gang Resistant Education and Training program. The other
half of the students was not introduced to any program. After a period of four years, the
researchers were able to come up with some conclusions. First, those enrolled in the programs

had a less chance of being recruited as compared to the individuals who were not enrolled in any
programs (Healy 2014). Students enrolled in the problem were also viewed to be more
corporative with the police. In accordance with Healy (2014), it was studied that a higher number
of students enrolled in the program needed their parents' intervention to make a difference. The
course did not work effectively for students who enrolled in the program but did not experience
parents’ intervention.
In relation to implicit bias in schools, a higher number of African American boys have
been the major target in schools when it comes to suspension. In Seattle state, it was considered
that it was almost impossible to find Black men and women in classrooms due to the
inappropriate suspensions offered by the teachers. To reduce this, the United State government
came up with different alternatives as to which would help the students rather than suspensions
(Howell 2011). A majority of the states have encouraged on the role of the programs to educate
students against joining gang groups. Also, the transition of schools has been discouraged hence
gangs might use students to look for recruits in new schools.
2.2.7: Favoritism
As stated by Fuglei (2017), there are many cases which have been reported in a variety of
schools concerning favoritism. The major favoritism issue is on the matter of poor students
getting good grades in schools. According to a recent survey, it was concluded that a majority of
the cases of favoritism were as a result of student-teacher friendships (Fuglei 2017). In states
where there were more whites than African Americans, the total number of favoritism cases was
66 percent. The percentage was higher in the fact there still existed racial discrimination. In most

high schools, the total number of African Americans who got successful grades were half the
number of whites who went on to the University level (Fuglei 2017).
In some cases, the length of the writing and neatness led to good grades. This seemed to
act as a discrimination against the students who were slow writers. Logically, it has been proved
in most cases that long stories do not make enough sense as compared to short written stories
which are easier when it comes to critiquing. In order to avoid these issues, schools have come
up with various measures on how such cases might be reduced (Fuglei 2017). This kind of
implicit bias has always caused doubts in internal assessment tests. There have been plans by the
government in ensuring that out-of-school suspensions as a result of poor grading are solved.
Some of the suggestions by various school committees have been highlighted through which
have been considered effective. Grading in teams is one of the suggestions. This will help mostly
when it comes to an accurate marking of papers hence reducing the rate of implicit bias in
schools (Fuglei 2017).
Another way implicit bias occurs in schools is by teachers referring to introvert students
as stupid. In many instances, introvert students find themselves on the wrong side of the law.
They are the major suspects when it comes to poor grading. According to research, it was
considered that out every 50 people 16 are introverts. Since there is no basic evidence that proves
introverts are poor performers, the government is faced with a huge task of ensuring that all
introverts are treated equally. As stated by Fuglei (2017), it was considered that a majority of the
introverts were whites while African Americans were considered to be the most talkative. In
group discussions, introverts were seen to be quiet hence they do not play a vital role. In such
scenarios, teachers mistake their silence to unintelligence (Fuglei 2017).

To end this stalement, various schools have come with measures through which teachers
might get some ideas on how to ensure the introverts get active. During the group presentations,
a majority of the schools have come up with a way through which the introverts can participate
more. The introverts are often chosen to lead the groups in class presentations thus force them to
talk more (Fuglei 2017). As outlined by Stark (2017), some of the characteristics of introverts
include acting slow, listen more than they talk and are quick-tempered. They also tend to devote
their time more with friends and relatives rather than talk to strangers. Interestingly, introverts
have been known to express themselves better in writing as compared to talking. There has been
poor grading of an introvert and shy students hence leading to out-of-school suspensions (Stark
2017).
One of the ways through which schools have formulated to help keep introverts active is
by pairing an introvert with a more active student. By this, the teacher asks a question after
which encourages the student who are paired to discuss the possible answers (Stark 2017). This
leads to the introvert being active in giving opinions with the paired member. After some time,
the teacher then adds another student into the pair and asks another question through which they
discuss. As a result, the introvert becomes more and more active hence gaining confidence bit by
bit (Stark 2017). These group discussions help the introvert in being able to share his thoughts
with others. Therefore, the level of confidence and morale increases. In the modern world,
people are often found in public places as to which they are supposed to give opinions on certain
issues at hand (Stark 2017).
As a result, introverts have been known to always suffer in silence. Mostly, they are
always moving from one school to another looking for the best environment. Schools are

responsible for ensuring that introverts are always comfortable in the learning environment and
are treated in a just and fair manner. In relation to the European, Asian and African countries, the
introverts in the United States of America have been considered to the most affected (Stark
2017). Their grades have been studied to be poor in a majority of the American states as
compared to European countries. Americans have always considered shy people to lack
leadership skills and interest in certain leadership positions. Parents have been considered to play
a pivotal role in ensuring that the teachers know of the children quietness. this helps the teacher
not to give fake conclusions about the child's characteristics (Stark 2017).
2.2.8: Entertainment
Entertainment has been a major way as to which the students get influenced. The
behavior of the students mainly depends on their role models. If a particular student’s interest is
in action or terror kind of movies, then it is most likely that there will be some form of negativity
in him. In several cases, students at some point are viewed to practice and copy on their role
models behavior (Hurd et al 2010). For instance, if a particular students' role model is a doctor,
then there is a higher possibility that he prefers studying. If a students' role model is a hip-hop
rapper, then there is a higher chance that his behavior relates to music and fashion. Through this,
teachers have been able to suspend black students who in the real sense have been considered to
be more into music (Hurd et al 2010).
In various American schools, teachers have been made to know that one can be able to
tell what kind of a person a child is depending on his role model. As stated by Al Khalidi (2015),
62 percent of the African Americans' role models were rappers and film actors. In reality,
entertainers have always been considered to possess a negative impact to the society. First, since

the introduction of music genres like hip-hop, it has been associated with crime especially gangs
and drugs (Al Khalidi 2015). In this perspective, teachers have in the past offered out-of-school
suspension to a majority of the African Americans. Between the year 1995 to early 2000's, out-
of-school suspensions in California was 70 percent higher as compared to 2010 to 2015. This
was due to the fact that the music industry was experiencing a majority of rivalries and the
massive rise of the gang groups.
Rock music is another genre which has been considered to play a pivotal role in the
negative impact on the students. Just like hip-hop music has been associated with violence, rock
music has been linked to the worshipping of gods like the Illuminati. In states with a higher
number of black students, there appeared to more cases of white students being suspended from
school due to certain behaviors. The behaviors were associated with drawings and acting in signs
which relieved a different meaning. Implicit bias thus happens when a teacher wrongfully
suspends a student without any evidence of his wrong-doings (Al Khalidi 2015). Just like hip-
hop, rock music was studied to be a major factor of suicides among the youth. As highlighted by
Al Khalidi (2015), a majority of the youths who listened to rock music were seen to be
introverts. Hence, an individual would not be able to know what one is thinking.
To reduce the rate of implicit bias among students, schools created programs which
would encourage and assist the teachers in knowing how to deal with such cases. Schools have
been able to come up with programs through which point out the several factors which make the
teachers biased. By this, teachers are able to familiarize themselves with several skills through
might be needed to reduce the rate of implicit bias in schools (Capatosto 2015). Also, schools
encourage o the importance of mindfulness. Through mindfulness, teachers might be able to treat

all people of different racial backgrounds the same. However, certain school programs encourage
teachers on the importance of having friends of different races. This helps mostly in the
knowledge of different races and their behaviors (Suttie 2016).
Implicit bias has been a major factor towards the suspension and expulsion of citizens in
schools for the last three decades. To reduce the rate at which students are punished with out-of-
school suspensions, there have been many programs which have been unsuccessfully introduced
to curb the burden through which students have to go through. Many programs have been
introduced by various states government; through which they intend to reduce the rate of out-of-
school suspensions. After the reduction of out-of-school suspensions, schools will be forced to
create programs which intend to focus on counseling. Also, schools with higher crime rates have
been encouraged on the importance of introducing a learning environment with minimal military
supervision. As stated by Losen (2015), the war was not the best solution to tackling problems
within a learning institution. Therefore, teachers were encouraged to focus more on counseling to
reduce the school to prison pipeline (Weissman 2015).
Out-of-school suspensions have been studied to affect the students in several ways. First,
the student loses and misses a lot of lessons hence experiences a decrease in performance.
Through this, students are always at a higher risk of future problems relating to employment. In a
majority of the American states, it was evident that most of the Individuals were affected by the
way industries used to employ individuals. Industries in states such as Minnesota and Seattle felt
the urge in not only looking for qualified personnel through their certificate but also the letters
from various schools regarding behaviors. In accordance with Losen (2015), many industries
believed that students carried their own behaviors to the workplaces hence incited also the good

individuals. However, students who were suspended as a result of implicit bias among the
teachers were affected the most. African Americans in states such as Minnesota and Seattle were
studied to lack jobs as a result of the rule (Losen 2015).
As highlighted by Weissman (2015), suspended students were more likely to drop out of
school. The suspensions were considered to offer a negative impact in their education life. Also,
the policemen in school were studied to encourage more crime amongst the students. This was as
a result that a majority of the students felt that they were the major targets of crime. Such crimes
ranged from members of certain gang groups to terrorism (Weissman 2015). The police,
therefore, were regarded as another cause of an increase in school drop-outs. The presence of the
military in schools was considered to have a negative effect on the discipline of a student. In
states such as California, schools with a higher presence of military security were considered to
have an increase in the number of students joining the gang groups (Weissman 2015).
The out-of-school suspensions have been considered to psychologically affect the
students in various ways. A majority of the victims who are always involved include the Latino
and African Americans. Thus, in a majority of the states, the suspensions have led to an increase
in school drop-outs among the minority (Weissman 2015). The Latino and African Americans
are forced to focus only on ways through which they will make a cent for a living. Since they
cannot get jobs, they are forced to join gangs which make easy money through crime. Also, the
Latin Americans are forced to sell drugs which have been considered one of their norms in most
American states (Weissman 2015).
2.3: Suspension incidences associatedwith implicit bias

There is one case of looming implicit bias that is worth exploring. Taylor (2018)
highlighted an incidence in the Graham Park Middle School in Virginia that took place in the
year 2016. At that time, the institution’s school resource officer (SRO) sighted a black male
student that was trying to cut a line in the cafeteria. The accusation that was leveled against the
same student was that he had stolen a carton of milking going for 65 cents. When the officer laid
his hands on the student, he escaped and the translation of the school was that the actions were
against what the school policy advocated. The aftermath was that the 14-year old student was
arrested and charged, and that is how he entered the prison system through the juvenile court
(Taylor 2018). The other incident that the author highlighted is that which occurred in the Creek
Elementary school in Milledgeville Georgia in 2012. A six-year-old black girl became upset
while in the principal’s office and started throwing tantrums.
The girl did not heed some commands to calm down and was deemed to have violated the
school’s disciplinary code, prompting the principal to call a police officer for assistance. After
arrival, the officer who was white handcuffed the girls taking her to the local police station
(Taylor 2018). In the two cases, one thing that stood out is that implicit bias played a role in the
taken disciplinary measure. The author further went to highlight another case in Gwinnett
County Public Schools (GCPS); an institution termed as being highly diverse. There was a
decision that was a clear indicator of the thriving implicit bias in the institution. The school
administration gave a nod to a recommendation that would see to it that the students face a long-
term suspension stretching between 10 to 180 school days to students who were rude or
displayed disrespectful conduct. The school was characterized by a huge cultural gap between
the teachers and the students with the former being 81% whites and the latter 75% non-white.

Taylor (2018) reported that from 2006 to 2016, the majority of the out of school suspensions in
the institution were directed on the African-American and the Hispanic students for cases termed
as disrespectful.
Meier and Rutherford (2016) highlighted that there have been discussions in the media
delving into the zero-tolerance policies or even the policies that called for the adverse
consequences for the violation of set rules. Characteristically, the discussion narrowed down to
the tendency to employ police force in schools along with the attitudes marred by implicit bias as
being the reason behind the two statistics. The statistics were that 95% of the suspensions were
as a result of the nonviolent behaviors whereas the rate of suspension among the black students
was at a rate that was three times higher than the same among their white counterparts (Meier &
Rutherford, 2016). The discussions there were in the popular media were as a result of the
scrutiny the disciplinary cases in schools were accorded following the deaths of two students
Michael Brown and Eric Garner in the year 2014. There has been the intense criticizing of the
zero-tolerance rules that impose intense punishments for offenses termed as having a broad
scope. Meier and Rutherford (2016) observed that the criticism was so much such that the U.S
Department of Education and Justice had to release a document offering guidance on the school
discipline in 2014.
The document aimed at ensuring that there were the prevention, reduction and even
elimination of punishments amounting to suspensions and expulsions in the early childhood
setups while also ensuring a relative improvement of the school surroundings and the educational
system at large (Meier & Rutherford, 2016). According to Darby (2018), for most of the
disproportion rates of suspension, their starting point is the classroom where there has been a

disparate of responses to the students based on their racial affiliation, ethnic group, and even
their socioeconomic status. The author’s team of researchers went ahead to outline that in 1995,
there was a massive difference in the school disciplinary measures which was a clear indication
of the discrepancies that characterized the school disciplinary system on the part of the white and
black students. The difference was an indicator of the prevalence rates of bias in the exercise of
school discipline. Darby (2018) also pointed out that for both the black and white students, there
was a variation in the reasons behind suspensions where for the blacks, most were suspended for
being excessively noisy or disrespectful. The author went ahead to point out to a recent study
which determined that for the black and the Latino students, they faced disproportional
suspension for offenses characterized as non-violent and minor and which would not warrant the
out-of-school suspension by any state authority.
Darby (2018) pointed out that the highlighted challenges became evident in the wake of
the discussions on the zero-tolerance policies attributed to the high levels of suspensions among
other forms of discipline in schools. School suspensions often have a negative impact on the
academic achievements and even the seemingly high rates of dropping out from school. A study
conducted on the Florida schools at the Johns Hopkins University unearthed that the rates of
suspension among students are twice as higher for the students who encountered the first
suspension. Hall, Quinn, and Gollnick (2014) highlighted that the zero-tolerance policies have
amounted to a relative increase in the number of students facing suspensions and expulsions
from the 1970s.
Despite the suspensions and expulsions being necessary punishments for actions such as
bringing guns to schools, most of the experienced cases are of a lesser magnitude such as the

possession of over-the-counter drugs. The author pointed out that the disproportionate
punishments by the school authorities are often directed to students that are either low
performing or belonging to the low-income families. Such incidences have amounted to the
disproportionate suspensions and expulsions among the African-American males who end up
making 36% of the prison population in its entirety. Hall, Quinn, and Gollnick (2014) noted that
in most schools, the achievement and discipline gap often relate hence negatively affecting the
students from the low-income families and who are either from the African-American or even
the Hispanic descent. One of the major problems with suspensions is that they amount to an
interruption in the learning for students who are already dealing with certain struggles in their
lives while leading them to a pathway to prison. With prior knowledge of what is in store for
these students once they are suspended, there is the need to come up with measures that would
derail the possibility of them ending up in prisons.
2.4: The effects of implicit bias
One thing that is worth highlighting is that the actions in a classroom setting always end
up to the societal setting hence the effects of an earlier unconscious action is felt by the entire
society at large. Students are always being prepared to be tomorrow’s doctors, nurses, teachers
and even police officers. In the case they had an experience of implicit bias during their school
days, there is bound to be a replication of the same in the professions that they pick up. On the
other hand, the victims of implicit bias may find themselves unconsciously revenging for what
they experienced. Parry and Richardson (2013) highlighted that according to research on implicit
social cognition, people from all races are often biased against the blacks. One thing for sure is

that despite bias being unconscious, it could have been as a result of the experiences of
prejudices that they encountered at one point in their lives.
Outside the classroom settings, students continue suffering due to implicit bias. Parry and
Richardson (2013) noted that research shows that for the blacks and especially the young men,
they continue facing attention more than their white counterparts. The occurrence of the same is
often automatic and unconscious. The scientist associated the unconscious racial profiling to the
fact that the threat reaction that people have toward the black men is often automatic and rapid.
Or the undertaken scans, their revelations were that there is a higher activation of the amygdala
which is a section of the brain attributed to fear, especially when they encounter the faces of the
black men as compared to the whites. When a black student steps into the street, the reaction that
he could get would be quite different from what a white student could experience. The implicit
teachers among the teachers have bypassed the classroom and even the societal setting to the
nation at large and to the national level.
According to Leaman and Waris (2013), gender initiatives along with the efforts of the
gender activists have played a pivotal role in the consideration of the gender issues that have
rocked the public finance sector. The source further outlines gender budgeting as a tool that is
employed by moist countries. Regardless, most tax systems often exhibit a variation in their
treatment of men and women; a move that affects the decisions made concerning work, children
and even the habits of consumption and savings. There has been the demonstration of gender
bias in the arrangement of personal income and even in indirect taxes and the benefits provided
by the social insurance programs. Leaman and Waris (2013) gave examples of nations affected
by gender bias in their taxation system with the example of South Africa, Ghana, Mexico and

even the noted that for the highlighted bias. There could be explicit bias where there is the
discrimination of women by the law provisions based on their gender or even their marital status.
Moreover, the explicit bias occurs when particular provisions imbedded in the tax legislations
offer a different treatment for both men and women with the same being intentional. There are
cases where the tax systems often levy members of a household differently with the allocation of
the tax deductions and allowances by the systems.
Relatively, the bias could take the implicit form where the economic effects of the tax
systems are felt differently for both the men and the women due to the held attitudes or even
social norms concerning the roles of both men and women. Moreover, Leaman and Waris (2013)
noted that the implicit bias in taxation could also entails a different treatment for both men and
women due to the manner of interaction between the tax legislations and the gendered social
relations, norms and the behaviors in the economy. The authors gave the example where due to
the norms and social relations, women often carry a burden of care where a large percentage of
their income is often directed towards the purchase of basic consumption goods such as food and
even clothing. Taxes such as VAT which taxes the goods and services that are of the
consumption nature may end up burdening the women. Therefore, VAT tends to exert an implicit
bias on the women.
For the pointed out nations Leaman and Waris (2013) highlighted that the relationship
between their tax systems and the prevailing gender issues have amounted to the rise of
incidences of implicit bias in the tax system. For the case of South Africa, the author pointed out
that there has been a misrepresentation of women in the secure employment where there is a

disproportional benefit on the part of the men concerning tax incentives associated with pension
benefits.
Even after the successful completion of their education and their release to the society,
students that have faced implicit bias in the classroom setting may end up always feeling out of
place or ever being in the wrong side especially when they come into contact with the law
enforcers such as the policemen and women. There has been a growing concern about the
possibility of the members of the police department being at the forefront in steering the
eradication of implicit bias. While this could be a good move, one thing for sure is that some of
the incidences of arrests and deaths due to implicit bias have always been pointed to these
members of the police force, hence questioning their ability to refrain from being complicit
concerning implicit bias especially when in the line of duty.
Gonzalez and Kemp (2016) stated that according to the research in the Greater Good’s
series on implicit bias, there were elicited issues concerning how implicit bias could affect the
developed policing decisions. The authors further explained that the work strived to portray how
the unconscious bias could influence the beliefs that are held consciously. One thing for sure is
that the exploration of the work is true and especially when there are decisions to be made
concerning the racial group that one belongs to. For the cases of the disparities in the law
enforcement and even the unfair rates of incarcerations, implicit bias has a significant role it
plays in the same. Gonzalez and Kemp (2016) voiced that there are ways that could be used in
the determination and resolution of the incidences of implicit bias. One is ensuring that there is a
held conversation in the community that is not only direct but also open and honest and that
which would entail the collection and study of data. What should follow is the enforcement end

the implementation of the strategies along with the training programs aiming at ensuring fairness
especially for the affected groups.
In their text, Mack and Charles (2013) highlighted how implicit bias has infiltrated the
police force and the effects it has on the society at large. The explanation was that in the
occasion an officer approach a person in a bid to confirm what is ongoing, implicit bias can
result in them acting aggressively even without them taking note of their actions. For the
individual on the other end of the confrontation, their response could be an assurance to the
officer in question that the person is aggressive and suspicious. Mack and Chain (2013)
highlighted that in the entire altercation, the officer may not know that their unconscious implicit
bias may have amounted to the behavioral effects and hence the reason for all the events that
might have transpired.
2.5: Possible solutions to the incidences of implicit bias
In the above section, there has been the highlighting of some of the measure that could be
adopted as a means of resolving the cases of implicit bias that often escalate amounting to
unwarranted outcomes. Determination of possible solutions should entail getting a deeper
understanding of the issue and addressing if from the root cause. The other thing is that there is
the need to devise a long-term solution to the experienced cases. One thing for sure is that the
school is that starting point for most citizens in America. As such, the adopted measures should
start the implementation as they resolve to extend to the society at large. Westerberg (2016)
sought to delve deeper into the availed literature on the early education and care (ECE) as a
means of unearthing the solution to the cases of implicit bias. The author further stressed the
need for extensive study in the determination of how implicit bias plays out in the engagement

with the parent, the relationship between the students and teachers and even on the adopted
disciplinary measures.
The finding from research indicated that the development of implicit bias among the
adults and children in the United States while also remaining unconscious on the bias was the
reason the reason behind the unequal treatment as a result of the socialization of people in their
lives. As a means of resolving the fast-acting implicit bias, one of the steps to take would be the
development of nonjudgmental structures through which the personnel in the ECE can be able to
point out the degree of children’s behaviors that prove difficult to manage (Westerberg 2006).
Through the same, there could be a relative reduction in the reliance on the fast-acting implicit
bias. Characteristically, there is a chance for the adults to take cognizance of the biases that they
were not aware of hence being able to minimize their negative judgment. The said chances could
be availed through the mental health consultations and training on cultural competence.
Chang (2018) highlighted recent efforts of Starbucks to resolve the cases of implicit bias
and especially those touching on racial affiliation. Following the arrest of two black men in a
Starbuck store in Philadelphia, the store made plans of closing 8,000 of its stores in the country
and spending the afternoon on a training program concerning racial bias. Many people were not
sure about the effectiveness of the move and whether it would put a stop to the random
incidences of arrests among the blacks due to the deeply entrenched racial bias. One thing for
sure is that adults, school going children and the world at large are always watching. As such, if
the training narrows down to the necessary aspects, then the set objective could be achieved.
Devine, Forscher and Austin et al. (2012) stressed the need for people to be motivated in the
breaking of the prejudice. The other thing is that people would need to be aware of the biases

that they have and also be concerned about the aftermath of their biases before acquiring the
motivation to eliminate the same.
2.6: Summary
Implicit bias in schools is an underlying issue whose exploration has been long overdue.
This bias often ends up affecting the society at large since schools are part and parcel of the
society. Implicit theories as denoted by Devine and Plant (2012) is the starting point of
prejudices. These theories refer to the beliefs that people have pertaining to the human behaviors
and characteristics. On the part of the incremental theory, they hold onto the notion that the
human characteristics could be developed and even changed. Wurthman (2017) defined the
implicit theories as structures whose organization is based on certain domains. The dual process
theory is another platform under which there has been the discussion of the implicit bias. This
theory as discussed by Brownstein and Saul (2016), there has been the exploration of the dual-
process theory in the fields of decision making, deductive reasoning and even social judgment.
There are themes pertaining to the topic under study and which have amounted to implicit bias.
Racism is a contentious issue in schools and the society as a whole. As such, members of the
minority groups often find themselves at the revering end pertaining to punishments and even
being singled out.
The rates of suspensions are higher among the black American students compared to their
white counterparts. Racism is an issue that is deeply entrenched in the society which questions
the efforts of eliminating bias in schools especial that which is associated to racial affiliations.
Under the theme of cultural background, there has been the terming of the poor as being violent
and highly aggressive and hence are at the receiving end of severe punishments and suspensions.

Racial and religious background which are aspects of cultural background influences implicit
bias among teachers in a significant manner. Change of schools is another theme associated with
implicit bias among teachers while also eliciting higher rates of suspension. With high numbers
of students changing schools, teachers and available resources are stretched beyond their limits
an easing the pressure would be possible with the higher number of suspensions. Under the
theme of gender, the men stand a higher chance of being suspended compared to the females.
However, the black American girls are increasingly suspended from schools over small issues
such as hair styles. Under the subject of substance abuse, the Mexican students face a higher
possibility of being suspended from schools owing to the perception of Mexico being a drug den.
Implicit bias has effects that one may not fathom in its entirety. One thing is that it is a vicious
cycle that never ends and while starting in schools end up in the society. Resolving implicit bias
could entail getting a deeper insight of the issue so as to come up with the best solutions to the
same.

References
Al Khalidi et al. (2015). The Positive Impact of Negative Role-Models on Teaching. Retrieved
from http://portal.research.lu.se/ws/files/5921756/8056083.pdf. Accessed on 8/2/2018
Blake E. & Cannon T., (2014). " Investigating the implicit theories of rape-prone men using an
interpretative bias task." Legal & Criminological Psychology, 19(40-53).
DOI:10.1111/j.2044-8333.2012.02056.x
Brownstein, M., & Saul, J. (2016). Implicit bias and philosophy: 1. Oxford: Oxford University
Press
Capatosto, K. (2015). Strategies for Addressing Implicit Bias in Early Childhood Education.
Retrieved from http://kirwaninstitute.osu.edu/wp-content/uploads/2015/06/implicit-bias-
strategies.pdf. Accessed on 8/2/2018
Chang A. (2018). “A Lesson in how to Overcome Bias.” NPR, 19th April 2018. Retrieved from
https://www.npr.org/sections/codeswitch/2018/04/19/604070231/a-lesson-in-how-to-
overcome-implicit-bias. Accessed on 7/8/2018
Crenshaw et al. (2018) Black Girls Matter: Pushed Out, Overpoliced and Underprotected.
Retrieved from
https://www.law.columbia.edu/sites/default/files/legacy/files/public_affairs/2015/februar
y_2015/black_girls_matter_report_2.4.15.pdf. Accessed on 8/2/2018
Crews, G. A. (2016). Critical examinations of school violence and disturbance in K-12
education

Darby, D. R. J. L. (2018). The Color of Mind: Why the Origins of the Achievement Gap Matter
for Justice. Chicago, UNITED STATES: University of Chicago Press
Devine P., Forscher P., & Austin A. et al., (2012). “Long-term reduction in implicit race bias: A
prejudice habit-breaking intervention.” Retrieved from
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3603687/. Accessed on 7/8/2018
Devine, P. G., & Plant, A. (2012). Advances in experimental social psychology: Volume forty
five. San Diego (Calif.: Elsevier
Diepen, A. (2013). Snitch. Simon and Schuster
Ferreira et al. (2013). Economic mobility and the rise of the Latin American middle class.
Washington, D.C: World Bank.
Fuglei, M. (2017). Unconscious Discrimination: How to Defeat Four Hidden Teacher Biases.
Retrieved from https://education.cu-portland.edu/blog/classroom-resources/unconscious-
discrimination-avoiding-teacher-biases/. Accessed on 8/2/2018
Hall, G. E., Quinn, L. F., & Gollnick, D. M. (2014). Introduction to teaching: Making a
difference in student learning
Healy, C. (2014). Another Path: Can school-based gang prevention programs show youth a way
out? Retrieved from http://chicagopolicyreview.org/2014/05/08/another-path-can-school-
based-gang-prevention-programs-show-youth-a-way-out/. Accessed on 8/2/2018
Howell, J. (2011). Gang Prevention: An Overview of Research and Programs. Diane Publishing

Hurd,N., Zimmerman. M. & Reischl, T. (2010). Role Model Behavior and Youth Violence: A
Study of Positive and Negative Effects. Retrieved from
http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0272431610363160. Accessed on 8/2/2018
In Gonzalez, J. J., & In Kemp, R. L. (2016). Corruption and American cities: Essays and case
studies in ethical accountability
Kearney, L. (2015). New Anti-Drug Programs Come To U.S. Schools. Retrieved from
https://www.huffingtonpost.com/2015/02/11/new-school-drug-
programs_n_6652842.html. Accessed on 8/2/2018
Leaman, J., & Waris, A. (2013). Tax justice and the political economy of global capitalism, 1945
to the present
Levinson, J. D., & Smith, R. J. (2012). Implicit racial bias across the law. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press
Li W.(2016). Teaching Overweight Students in Physical Education: Comprehensive Strategies
for Inclusion. Psychology Press
Losen, D. (2015). Closing the school discipline gap: Equitable remedies for excessive exclusion.
Mack, K. W., & Charles, G.-U. E. (2013). The new Black: What has changed and what has not
with race in America
Meier K. & Rutherford A. (2016). The Politics of African-American Education: Representation,
Partisanship, and Education Equity. Cambridge University Press
Morris, M. (2016). Pushout: The Criminalization of Black Girls in Schools. New Press

Parry J., & Richardson S., (2013). The Constitution and the Future of Criminal Justice in
America. Cambridge University Press
Ramsey W. Rumelhart D., & Stich S., (2013). Philosophy and Connectionist Theory. Psychology
Press
Roth, J & Finch, A. (2013). Approaches to Substance Abuse and Addiction in Education
Communities: A Guide to Practices that Support Recovery in Adolescents and Young
Adults. Routledge.
Rudd, T. (2015). Racial Disproportionality in School Discipline: Implicit Bias is Heavily
Implicated. The Ohio State University. Retrieved from
http://kirwaninstitute.osu.edu/racial-disproportionality-in-school-discipline-implicit-bias-
is-heavily-implicated/. Accessed on 8/2/2018
Scialabba, N. (2017). How Implicit Bias Impacts Our Children in Education. Retrieved from
https://www.americanbar.org/groups/litigation/committees/childrens-
rights/articles/2017/fall2017-how-implicit-bias-impacts-our-children-in-education.html.
Accessed from 8/2/2018
Sparks, S. (2016). Student Mobility: How It Affects Learning. Retrieved from
https://www.edweek.org/ew/issues/student-mobility/index.html. Accessed on 8/2/2018
Staff, G. (2017). How important is cultural diversity at your school? R5etrieved from
https://www.greatschools.org/gk/articles/cultural-diversity-at-school/. Accessed on
8/2/2018

Stark, B. (2017). Introverts and Schools. Retrieved from
http://blog.lowellschool.org/blog/introverts-and-schools. Accessed on 8/2/2018
Suttie, J. (2016). Four Ways Teachers Can Reduce Implicit Bias. Retrieved from
https://greatergood.berkeley.edu/article/item/four_ways_teachers_can_reduce_implicit_bi
as. Accessed on 8/2/2018
TAYLOR, J. A. M. E. S. J. I. M. (2018). FROM UNEQUAL TO UNWANTED: Reforms needed
to improve public k-12 and higher education in... America. S.l.: Dog Ear Publishing
Weissman, M. (2015). Prelude to Prison: Student perspectives on school suspension
Westerberg D. (2016). “Understanding and dealing with implicit bias and discipline in early care
and education.” Brown University Child & Adolescent Behavior Letter, Vol. 32(10)
Wilson, R & Kolander, C. (2011). Drug abuse prevention: A school and community partnership.
Sudbury, MA: Jones and Bartlett Publishers
Wurthman K., (2017). " Implicit Theories and Issue Characteristics as Determinants of Moral
Awareness and Intentions." Journal of Business Ethics, 142 (93-116). DOI
10.1007/s10551-015-2714-1

Implicit bias among teachers is a significant contributor to the disproportionate out of school suspension rates in american schools (autosaved)

Recommended

Recommended

More Related Content

What's hot

What's hot (18)

Similar to Implicit bias among teachers is a significant contributor to the disproportionate out of school suspension rates in american schools (autosaved)

Similar to Implicit bias among teachers is a significant contributor to the disproportionate out of school suspension rates in american schools (autosaved) (20)

Recently uploaded

Recently uploaded (20)

Implicit bias among teachers is a significant contributor to the disproportionate out of school suspension rates in american schools (autosaved)