Download to read offline
![1.2 Origin of hyperspectral remote sensing
A landmark step was achieved in 1979 when hybrid array detectors, mercury cadmium tellu-
ride on silicon charge-coupled devices was made available for the first time leading to the con-
struction of an imaging spectrometer that operated at wavelengths beyond 1.0 of μm. The
airborne imaging spectrometer (AIS) was developed at the National Aeronautics and Space
Administration (NASA) Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) in 1983 and operated at wavelengths
between 0.8 and 2.5 μm. AIS was replaced by the airborne visible/infrared imaging spectrome-
ter (AVIRIS) in the early 1990s that covered the entire spectrum from 0.4 μm to 2.45 μm at a
high spectral rate plus high spatial resolution over an 11 km swath. The primary objectives of
these missions were identifying and assessing the characteristics of surface materials. It was
with AVIRIS data that the first vegetation analysis was carried out through near-infrared spec-
troscopy (NIRS) analysis by John Aber and Mary Martin of the University of New Hampshire.
Although AVIRIS has offered the bulk of high-quality hyperspectral data, it lacks regularity.
With known multispectral specifications and properties, one wants to gain information
from spectral information, and there must be several narrow spectral channels in the same
electromagnetic spectrum (400 2500 nm) compared to a few broad spectral channels in
multispectral images (Pandey et al., 2019b). Thus the idea behind hyperspectral imaging sys-
tems is straightforward, while offering even more information to understand our environ-
ment better. This led to further innovations and advancement in hyperspectral imaging
systems in the early 1980s. Hyperspectral remote sensing or imaging spectrometry has
evolved from ERTS-1 [1] (Earth Resources Technology Satellite)-1 (Landsat-1) 4-band
images, to AIS, AVIRIS. AVIRIS was the first hyperspectral imaging system developed at
NASA JPL in the United States as a result of innovations in spectrometers technologies, then
AVIRIS-NG (Airborne Visible Infrared Imaging Spectrometer-Next Generation) and HyspIRI
(Hyperspectral Infrared Imager) were introduced.
The first hyperspectral mission Earth Observation-1 (EO-1) Hyperion sensor was
launched by NASA’s Earth Observing-1 satellite in November 2000. This space-borne mission
brought significant and dramatic changes in the applications on forestry, agriculture, mineral
identifications and land-use or land-cover classifications (Pandey et al., 2018, 2019a).
Enhanced spectral resolution in the 400 2500 nm range was extensively and widely used by
researchers, and provided more reliable and accurate results (Kramer, 2002). In order to
achieve high spectral resolution, multispectral sensors were effectively enhanced in their
image acquisition in the spectral range, reduction in the spectral sampling rate, and several
contiguous spectral channels. Later on, the Compact High-Resolution Imaging Spectrometer
(CHRIS) for the European Space Agency (ESA) Project for On-Board Autonomy-1 (PROBA-1)
in 2001 was launched by ESA for the global mapping of natural resources. Hyperion has
been decommissioned and CHRIS is currently working and operating in the orbit. It has
been designed for a life operational time period of a one year only and has 62 contiguous
channels with a spatial resolution of 17 m.
These hyperspectral imaging satellites are accompanied by several other missions later
on (Puschell, 2000). The information on current and future space-borne hyperspectral
4 Hyperspectral Remote Sensing](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/33666-250403111335-8474f919/75/Hyperspectral-Remote-Sensing-Theory-and-Applications-Prem-Chandra-Pandey-34-2048.jpg)
![missions were compiled with references to several published articles (Nieke et al., 1997;
Puschell, 2000; Kramer, 2002; Staenz and Held, 2012). There is a focus to dramatically
increase contiguous spectral bands in upcoming space-based hyperspectral imaging systems
(Nieke et al., 1997). A medium spectral resolution hyperspectral imaging system called
PRecursore IperSpettrale della Missione Applicativa (PRISMA) was launched by Italy’s ASI
on March 22, 2019 (Longo, 2020). PRISMA’s hyperspectral sensors will be capable to acquire
images in B235 contiguous spectral channels in visible (VIS) near-infrared (NIR) short-
wave infrared (SWIR) ranges. The Environmental Mapping and Analysis Program (EnMAP)
for hyperspectral sensors was launched by Deutsche Zentrum für Luft-and Raumfahrt (DLR)
(The German Aerospace Center) the German Research Centre for Geosciences
[GeoForschungsZentrum (GFZ)] in 2015 to acquire images in over 200 narrow contiguous
bands. In the meantime, NASA has scheduled the HyspIRI mission launch for 2022, which
will acquire images with 237 spectral bands with 60 m spatial resolution. Detailed informa-
tion on present and future hyperspectral missions are presented in Table 1 1. This also pre-
sents the major space-borne missions launched or planned by several countries or space
agencies. Apart from those listed in Table 1 1, there are HISUI (The Japanese Hyperspectral
Imager Suite) onboard the Advanced Land Observing Satellite-3 (ALOS-3), and the French
HYPXIM hyperspectral missions (Briottet et al., 2011; Matsunaga et al., 2013) were also in
orbit. HISUI is a space-borne instrument suite designed to work both as hyperspectral as
well as multispectral imagers. Therefore the importance of these planned hyperspectral mis-
sions or initiatives should be understood to ensure guaranteed, uninterrupted hyperspectral
image acquisition and coverage beyond 2020.
The focus of the HyspIRI mission will be on the world’s ecosystem studies offering infor-
mation on future ecosystems, disasters, and the carbon cycle. This mission will offer
VIS NIR and SWIR hyperspectral data and multispectral thermal data regularly. The combi-
nation of spatiotemporal and spectral data will offer a challenge to researchers.
1.3 Atmospheric correction: a primary step in preprocessing
hyperspectral images
Passive remote sensing is basically the study of interaction between light source and Earth
surface features, in which every feature has an unique spectral response. The spectral resolu-
tion and continuous wavelength range of an image play an important role in distinguishing
the feature; the higher the spectral resolution the higher will be its feature-detection capabil-
ity (Okada and Iwashita, 1992; Clark, 1999). Hyperspectral imaging holds the potential to dis-
tinguish surface features more precisely because of its high-spectral resolution and narrow
bandwidths. Hyperspectral images have numerous narrow bands covering ultra-violet,
VIS NIR, and SWIR regions of the electromagnetic spectrum, which makes it more suscepti-
ble to atmospheric distortions. Atmospheric gases and aerosols absorb and transmit the
incoming light in regards to its wavelength and this causes distortions in the image.
Therefore atmospheric correction is required in all hyperspectral data in which the raw
Chapter 1 • Revisiting hyperspectral remote sensing: origin, processing 5](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/33666-250403111335-8474f919/75/Hyperspectral-Remote-Sensing-Theory-and-Applications-Prem-Chandra-Pandey-35-2048.jpg)
![(5S) model (Tanré et al., 1990). In early 2000 a line-by-line atmospheric transmittance model
(Gao and Davis, 1997) was introduced into ATREM code which uses 6S module (Vermote
et al., 1994) that included the effect of NO2 in the 0.4 0.8 μm spectral range. Several other
radiative transfer codes having advanced features like topographic corrections, spectral
smoothing, and feature adjacency correction such as ACRON, FLAASH, and HATCH have
recently been introduced.
Taking into consideration the advancements in atmospheric correction techniques used
for hyperspectral images, FLAASH is one of the most accurate and easy to use radiative
transfer model. FLAASH is a software package introduced by Air Force Research Laboratory,
Space Vehicles Directorate (AFRL/VS) and is currently integrated with ENVI software for
commercial use. FLAASH is able to more accurately analyze the VIS to SWIR region of the
electromagnetic spectrum. FLAASH is a MODTRAN-4 based model with physics-based deri-
vations of different atmospheric interaction properties that include atmospheric pressure,
water vapor column, and aerosol and cloud cover, which is further used as a priori informa-
tion for converting radiance to reflectance (Berk et al., 1998, 2000). Hyperspectral data, its
sensor type, and metadata (including sensor altitude, viewing, and solar angle) is used as
input for FLAASH to retrieve preliminary water vapor column data at a per-pixel basis. Then
a water vapor Look-Up Table (LUT) is generated using MODTRAN simulation to retrieve
reflectance from radiance. FLAASH also generates a cloud mask to classify the pixels having
cloud cover and flag those pixels to be removed before calculation. Considering the variables
are all wavelength dependent, image polishing and renormalization is performed last to gen-
erate a new reflectance cube (Boardman, 1998).
Despite these atmospheric correction models, there are still possibilities for further
improvement in radiative transfer codes. The built-in smoothing modules need improvement
in order to identify any artificial broad absorption features in the retrieved reflectance spec-
tra. A hybrid approach using image-based empirical methods and radiative transfer codes
can increase the retrieval accuracy and lower the computational complexities.
1.4 Empirical and radiative transfer models
Inverse modeling plays a vital role for quantitative remote sensing, which mainly uses physi-
cal- or empirical-based models to estimate unknown parameters (Wang, 2012). Over the past
few years various types of models have been developed related to atmosphere, vegetation,
and radiation and a model-based inverse problem was also introduced. The introduction of
multispectral and hyperspectral remote sensors with greater spectral and spatial information
came into the account to solve model-based inverse problems (Liang, 2005; Wang et al.,
2009). Inverse modeling is mainly useful to retrieve various types of vegetation parameters
using physical or empirical models. These models also can be used in direct (forward) mode
to compute canopy-reflectance values after providing leaf and canopy traits [chlorophyll con-
tent, water content, Leaf Area Index (LAI)]. Moreover, such physical-based radiative transfer
models can be inverted from reflectance or EO data for retrieval of biophysical and
Chapter 1 • Revisiting hyperspectral remote sensing: origin, processing 9](https://image.slidesharecdn.com/33666-250403111335-8474f919/75/Hyperspectral-Remote-Sensing-Theory-and-Applications-Prem-Chandra-Pandey-39-2048.jpg)
Hyperspectral Remote Sensing: Theory and Applications Prem Chandra Pandey
- 1. Download the fullversion and explore a variety of ebooks or textbooks at https://ebookmass.com Hyperspectral Remote Sensing: Theory and Applications Prem Chandra Pandey _____ Tap the link below to start your download _____ https://ebookmass.com/product/hyperspectral-remote-sensing- theory-and-applications-prem-chandra-pandey/ Find ebooks or textbooks at ebookmass.com today!
- 2. Here are somerecommended products for you. Click the link to download, or explore more at ebookmass.com Advances in Remote Sensing for Forest Monitoring Prem C. Pandey https://ebookmass.com/product/advances-in-remote-sensing-for-forest- monitoring-prem-c-pandey/ Advances in Remote Sensing Technology and the Three Poles 1st Edition Manish Pandey https://ebookmass.com/product/advances-in-remote-sensing-technology- and-the-three-poles-1st-edition-manish-pandey/ Atmospheric Remote Sensing: Principles and Applications Abhay Kumar Singh https://ebookmass.com/product/atmospheric-remote-sensing-principles- and-applications-abhay-kumar-singh/ Advanced remote sensing terrestrial information extraction and applications Second Edition Liang https://ebookmass.com/product/advanced-remote-sensing-terrestrial- information-extraction-and-applications-second-edition-liang/
- 3. Introduction to SatelliteRemote Sensing. Atmosphere, Ocean, Land and Cryosphere Applications Adriano Camps https://ebookmass.com/product/introduction-to-satellite-remote- sensing-atmosphere-ocean-land-and-cryosphere-applications-adriano- camps/ Atmospheric Remote Sensing Abhay Kumar Singh https://ebookmass.com/product/atmospheric-remote-sensing-abhay-kumar- singh/ Techniques and methods in urban remote sensing Weng https://ebookmass.com/product/techniques-and-methods-in-urban-remote- sensing-weng/ Thermal and Optical Remote Sensing John O Odindi https://ebookmass.com/product/thermal-and-optical-remote-sensing-john- o-odindi/ Remote Sensing of Ocean and Coastal Environments Meenu Rani https://ebookmass.com/product/remote-sensing-of-ocean-and-coastal- environments-meenu-rani/
- 6.
- 7. Hyperspectral Remote Sensing Theory andApplications Edited by Prem Chandra Pandey Center for Environmental Sciences & Engineering, School of Natural Sciences, Shiv Nadar University, Greater Noida, India Prashant K. Srivastava Remote Sensing Laboratory, Institute of Environment and Sustainable Development, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, India Heiko Balzter University of Leicester, Leicester, United Kingdom Bimal Bhattacharya Space Applications Centre, Indian Space Research Organization, Ahmedabad, India George P. Petropoulos Department of Geography, Harokopio University of Athens, Athens, Greece
- 8. Contents List of contributorsxvii Biography xxiii Foreword xxvii Preface xxix Section I Introduction to Hyperspectral Remote Sensing and Principles of Theory and Data Processing 1 1. Revisiting hyperspectral remote sensing: origin, processing, applications and way forward 3 PRASHANT K. SRIVASTAVA, RAMANDEEP KAUR M. MALHI, PREM CHANDRA PANDEY, AKASH ANAND, PRACHI SINGH, MANISH KUMAR PANDEY AND AYUSHI GUPTA 1.1 Introduction 3 1.2 Origin of hyperspectral remote sensing 4 1.3 Atmospheric correction: a primary step in preprocessing hyperspectral images 5 1.4 Empirical and radiative transfer models 9 1.5 Applications of hyperspectral remote sensing 11 1.6 Way forward 15 Acknowledgment 15 References 16 v
- 9. 2. Spectral smilecorrection for airborne imaging spectrometers 23 K. KOLONIATIS, V. ANDRONIS AND V. KARATHANASSI 2.1 Introduction 23 2.2 Illumination effects on the spectral smile of airborne hyperspectral images 26 2.3 The modified trend line smile correction method 31 2.4 Implementation and results 33 2.5 Evaluation and discussion 38 2.6 Conclusion 43 List of abbreviations 43 References 43 3. Anomaly detection in hyperspectral remote sensing images 45 PRZEMYSŁAW GŁOMB AND MICHAŁ ROMASZEWSKI 3.1 Introduction 45 3.2 Methods 50 3.3 Experiments 56 3.4 Conclusion 62 Acknowledgment 63 List of abbreviations 63 References 64 4. Atmospheric parameter retrieval and correction using hyperspectral data 67 MANOJ K. MISHRA AND BIMAL BHATTACHARYA 4.1 Introduction 67 4.2 Atmospheric correction techniques 69 4.3 Aerosol retrieval method 72 4.4 Water vapor and other trace gas retrieval 74 4.5 Atmospheric correction results and discussion 77 vi Contents
- 10. 4.6 Conclusion 78 Listof abbreviations 78 References 79 5. Hyperspectral image classifications and feature selection 81 MAHESH PAL 5.1 Introduction 81 5.2 Modified radial basis function neural network 84 5.3 Bayesian framework for feature selection 86 5.4 Study area and data sources 87 5.5 Results 87 5.6 Conclusion 89 List of abbreviations 89 Acknowledgment 89 References 90 Section II Hyperspectral Remote Sensing Application in Vegetation 93 6. Identification of functionally distinct plants using linear spectral mixture analysis 95 RAMANDEEP KAUR M. MALHI, PRASHANT K. SRIVASTAVA AND G. SANDHYA KIRAN 6.1 Introduction 95 6.2 Plant functional traits 95 6.3 Plant functional types 96 6.4 Remote sensing in identification of plant functional types or functionally distinct plants 97 6.5 Hyperspectral remote sensing in plant functional types identification 97 6.6 Spectral mixture analysis 98 6.7 Study site 98 6.8 Materials and methodology 99 Contents vii
- 11. 6.9 Satellite dataand their analysis 100 6.10 Results and discussion 101 6.11 Conclusion 102 Acknowledgments 103 List of Abbreviation 103 References 103 7. Estimation of chengal trees relative abundance using coarse spatial resolution hyperspectral systems 107 NOORDYANA HASSAN, MAZLAN HASHIM, SHINYA NUMATA AND MOHAMAD ZAKRI TARMIDI 7.1 Introduction 107 7.2 Materials and methodology 109 7.3 Results and analysis 116 7.4 Discussion 117 7.5 Conclusion 118 List of abbreviations 118 References 119 8. Hyperspectral remote sensing in precision agriculture: present status, challenges, and future trends 121 PRACHI SINGH, PREM CHANDRA PANDEY, GEORGE P. PETROPOULOS, ANDREW PAVLIDES, PRASHANT K. SRIVASTAVA, NIKOS KOUTSIAS, KHIDIR ABDALA KWAL DENG AND YANGSON BAO 8.1 Introduction 121 8.2 Multispectral remote sensing in precision agriculture 123 8.3 Hyperspectral sensors: present status 128 8.4 Hyperspectral data in agriculture 129 8.5 Hyperspectral sensors: future missions 138 8.6 Conclusion 139 Acknowledgments 140 List of abbreviations 140 References 141 viii Contents
- 12. 9. Discriminating tropicalgrasses grown under different nitrogen fertilizer regimes in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa 147 ROWAN NAICKER, ONISIMO MUTANGA, MBULISI SIBANDA AND KABIR PEERBHAY 9.1 Introduction 147 9.2 Materials and methods 149 9.3 Results 153 9.4 Discussion 154 9.5 Conclusion 158 Acknowledgment 158 List of abbreviations 159 References 159 Section III Hyperspectral Remote Sensing Application in Water, Snow, Urban Research 165 10. Effect of contamination and adjacency factors on snow using spectroradiometer and hyperspectral images 167 P.K. GARG 10.1 Remote sensing of snow 167 10.2 Snow spectra 168 10.3 Hyperspectral remote sensing 168 10.4 The experimental sites 170 10.5 Data used 170 10.6 Methodology used 170 10.7 Contamination in snow 179 10.8 Adjacent objects and their effects on snow reflectance 189 10.9 Spectral unmixing methods for satellite image classification 190 10.10 Conclusion 192 Contents ix
- 13. List of abbreviations193 References 194 11. Remote sensing of inland water quality: a hyperspectral perspective 197 SHARD CHANDER, ASHWIN GUJRATI, ASWATHY V. KRISHNA, ARVIND SAHAY AND R.P. SINGH 11.1 Introduction 197 11.2 Hyperspectral remote sensing 199 11.3 Methodology: field and satellite measurements 200 11.4 Interpretation of the spectral signatures 205 11.5 Conclusion 214 Acknowledgments 214 List of abbreviations 215 References 216 12. Efficacy of hyperspectral data for monitoring and assessment of wetland ecosystem 221 L.K. SHARMA, RAJASHREE NAIK AND PREM CHANDRA PANDEY 12.1 Introduction 221 12.2 Monitoring and assessment of wetlands with multispectral remote sensing 226 12.3 Monitoring and assessment of wetlands with hyperspectral remote sensing 227 12.4 Details of hyperspectral images for wetland monitoring 230 12.5 Application of hyperspectral images for wetland ecosystems 231 12.6 Future scope and challenges of hyperspectral remote sensing for wetland ecosystem 235 12.7 Applicability of hyperion image for Sambhar Salt Lake, a saline wetland 236 Acknowledgments 239 List of abbreviations 239 References 240 x Contents
- 14. Section IV HyperspectralRemote Sensing Application in Soil and Mineral Exploration 247 13. Spectroradiometry as a tool for monitoring soil contamination by heavy metals in a floodplain site 249 SALIM LAMINE, MANISH KUMAR PANDEY, GEORGE P. PETROPOULOS, PAUL A. BREWER, PRASHANT K. SRIVASTAVA, KIRIL MANEVSKI, LEONIDAS TOULIOS, NOUR-EL-ISLAM BACHARI AND MARK G. MACKLIN 13.1 Introduction 250 13.2 Distribution and vulnerabilities of heavy metals in the United Kingdom 251 13.3 Materials and methods 252 13.4 Results and discussion 256 13.5 Conclusion 262 Acknowledgments 263 List of abbreviations 263 References 264 Further reading 268 14. Hyperspectral remote sensing applications in soil: a review 269 HUAN YU, BO KONG, QING WANG, XIAN LIU AND XIANGMENG LIU 14.1 Introduction 269 14.2 Hyperspectral remote sensing application in soil mineral identification 270 14.3 Hyperspectral remote sensing application in soil nutrient prediction 272 14.4 Hyperspectral remote sensing application in soil organic carbon estimation 273 14.5 Hyperspectral remote sensing application in soil moisture retrieval 275 Contents xi
- 15. 14.6 Hyperspectral remotesensing application in soil salinity detection 275 14.7 Hyperspectral remote sensing application in soil texture acquisition 278 14.8 Opportunities and challenges 280 Acknowledgments 284 List of abbreviations 284 References 284 15. Mineral exploration using hyperspectral data 293 ARINDAM GUHA 15.1 Introduction 293 15.2 Spectroscopy of rocks and minerals 294 15.3 Hyperspectral sensors suitable for mineral exploration 300 15.4 Broad overview of hyperspectral data processing steps for geological exploration 300 15.5 Application of hyperspectral remote sensing in mineral exploration 304 15.6 Requirement and future research focus 311 List of abbreviations 314 References 315 Further reading 317 16. Metrological hyperspectral image analysis through spectral differences 319 HILDA DEBORAH, NOËL RICHARD, JON YNGVE HARDEBERG AND JON ATLI BENEDIKTSSON 16.1 Introduction 319 16.2 Is metrology justified for remote sensing? 320 16.3 Towards a metrological spectral difference function 322 16.4 Assessing the nonuniformity of the spectral world 330 xii Contents
- 16. 16.5 Application inforest mapping 334 16.6 Conclusion 337 List of abbreviations 337 References 338 Section V Hyperspectral Remote Sensing: Multi-sensor, Fusion and Indices applications for Pollution Detection and Other Applications 341 17. Improving the detection of cocoa bean fermentation-related changes using image fusion 343 RONALD CRIOLLO, OSWALDO BAYONA, DANIEL OCHOA, JUAN CEVALLOS-CEVALLOS AND WENZHI LIAO 17.1 Introduction 343 17.2 Methodology 345 17.3 Experiments 348 17.4 Discussion 353 Acknowledgments 354 References 355 18. Noninvasive detection of plant parasitic nematodes using hyperspectral and other remote sensing systems 357 UROŠ ŽIBRAT, SAŠA ŠIRCA, NIK SUSIČ, MATEJ KNAPIČ, BARBARA GERIČ STARE AND GREGOR UREK 18.1 Introduction to noninvasive detection 357 18.2 Introduction to plant parasitic nematodes 359 18.3 Examples of noninvasive detection of plant parasitic nematodes 362 Contents xiii
- 17. 18.4 Patents inthe field of remote sensing of nematode infestations 367 18.5 Conclusion 369 Acknowledgments 370 List of abbreviation 370 References 371 19. Evaluating the performance of vegetation indices for detecting oil pollution effects on vegetation using hyperspectral (Hyperion EO-1) and multispectral (Sentinel-2A) data in the Niger Delta 377 NKEIRUKA N. ONYIA, HEIKO BALZTER AND JUAN CARLOS BERRÍO 19.1 Introduction 377 19.2 Materials and methods 379 19.3 Results 387 19.4 Discussion 393 19.5 Conclusion 396 Acknowledgments 396 References 397 20. Hyperspectral vegetation indices to detect hydrocarbon pollution 401 PAUL ARELLANO AND DIMITRIS STRATOULIAS 20.1 Introduction 401 20.2 Materials and methods 404 20.3 Discussion 419 20.4 Conclusion 421 List of abbreviations 422 References 423 xiv Contents
- 18. Section VI HyperspectralRemote Sensing: Challenges, Future Pathway for Research & Emerging Applications 427 21. Future perspectives and challenges in hyperspectral remote sensing 429 PREM CHANDRA PANDEY, HEIKO BALZTER, PRASHANT K. SRIVASTAVA, GEORGE P. PETROPOULOS AND BIMAL BHATTACHARYA 21.1 Introduction 429 21.2 Challenges of hyperspectral imaging systems 431 21.3 Conclusion 434 Acknowledgments 436 List of abbreviations 436 References 436 Author Index 441 Subject Index 455 Contents xv
- 19. Elsevier Radarweg 29, POBox 211, 1000 AE Amsterdam, Netherlands The Boulevard, Langford Lane, Kidlington, Oxford OX5 1GB, United Kingdom 50 Hampshire Street, 5th Floor, Cambridge, MA 02139, United States Copyright © 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. Details on how to seek permission, further information about the Publisher’s permissions policies and our arrangements with organizations such as the Copyright Clearance Center and the Copyright Licensing Agency, can be found at our website: www.elsevier.com/permissions. This book and the individual contributions contained in it are protected under copyright by the Publisher (other than as may be noted herein). Notices Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and experience broaden our understanding, changes in research methods, professional practices, or medical treatment may become necessary. Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in evaluating and using any information, methods, compounds, or experiments described herein. In using such information or methods they should be mindful of their own safety and the safety of others, including parties for whom they have a professional responsibility. To the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the authors, contributors, or editors, assume any liability for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods, products, instructions, or ideas contained in the material herein. British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress ISBN: 978-0-08-102894-0 For Information on all Elsevier publications visit our website at https://www.elsevier.com/books-and-journals Publisher: Candice Janco Acquisitions Editor: Amy Shapiro Editorial Project Manager: Redding Morse Production Project Manager: Joy Christel Neumarin Honest Thangiah Cover Designer: Mark Rogers Idea by Prem Pandey and Design by Mr. Kumar Krishna Mohan - Sr. Graphic Designer, Shiv Nadar University Typeset by MPS Limited, Chennai, India
- 20. List of contributors AkashAnand Remote Sensing Laboratory, Institute of Environment and Sustainable Development, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, India V. Andronis Laboratory of Remote Sensing, National Technical University of Athens, Athens, Greece Paul Arellano School of Earth Sciences, Energy and Environment—Center of Earth Observation, Yachay Tech University, Urcuqui, Ecuador; Department of Postgraduate Studies, Faculty of Biological Sciences, Central University of Ecuador, Quito, Ecuador Nour-El-Islam Bachari Faculty of Biological Sciences, University of Sciences and Technology Houari Boumediene, Bab Ezzouar, Algeria Heiko Balzter Centre for Landscape and Climate Research, School of Geography, Geology and the Environment, University of Leicester, Leicester, United Kingdom; National Centre for Earth Observation, University of Leicester, Leicester, United Kingdom Yangson Bao Collaborative Innovation Center on Forecast and Evaluation of Meteorological Disasters, Nanjing, University of Information Science & Technology, Nanjing, P.R. China Oswaldo Bayona Escuela Superior Politécnica del Litoral, ESPOL, Guayaquil, Ecuador Jon Atli Benediktsson Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Iceland, Reykjavík, Iceland Juan Carlos Berrío School of Geography, Geology and Environment, University of Leicester, Leicester, United Kingdom Bimal Bhattacharya Space Applications Centre, Indian Space Research Organization, Ahmedabad, India Paul A. Brewer Department of Geography and Earth Sciences, University of Aberystwyth, Ceredigion, United Kingdom xvii
- 21. Juan Cevallos-Cevallos EscuelaSuperior Politécnica del Litoral, ESPOL, Guayaquil, Ecuador Shard Chander Space Applications Centre, Ahmedabad, India Ronald Criollo Escuela Superior Politécnica del Litoral, ESPOL, Guayaquil, Ecuador Hilda Deborah Department of Computer Science, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Gjøvik, Norway Khidir Abdala Kwal Deng Collaborative Innovation Center on Forecast and Evaluation of Meteorological Disasters, Nanjing, University of Information Science & Technology, Nanjing, P.R. China P.K. Garg Civil Engineering Department, Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee, India Barbara Gerič Stare Agricultural Institute of Slovenia, Plant Protection Department, Ljubljana, Slovenia Przemysław Głomb Institute of Theoretical and Applied Informatics, Polish Academy of Sciences, Gliwice, Poland Arindam Guha Geosciences Group, National Remote Sensing Centre, Indian Space Research Organization, Hyderabad, India Ashwin Gujrati Space Applications Centre, Ahmedabad, India Ayushi Gupta Remote Sensing Laboratory, Institute of Environment and Sustainable Development, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, India Jon Yngve Hardeberg Department of Computer Science, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Gjøvik, Norway Mazlan Hashim Geoscience and Digital Earth Centre (INSTeG), Research Institute of Sustainable Environment, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, UTM Johor, Johor, Malaysia; Department of Geoinformatics, Faculty of Built Environment and Surveying, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, UTM Johor, Johor, Malaysia Noordyana Hassan Geoscience and Digital Earth Centre (INSTeG), Research Institute of Sustainable Environment, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, UTM Johor, Johor, Malaysia; Department of Geoinformatics, Faculty of Built Environment and Surveying, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, UTM Johor, Johor, Malaysia xviii List of contributors
- 22. V. Karathanassi Laboratoryof Remote Sensing, National Technical University of Athens, Athens, Greece G. Sandhya Kiran The Maharaja Sayajirao University of Baroda, Vadodara, India Matej Knapič Agricultural Institute of Slovenia, Plant Protection Department, Ljubljana, Slovenia K. Koloniatis Laboratory of Remote Sensing, National Technical University of Athens, Athens, Greece Bo Kong Institute of Mountain Hazards and Environment, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Chengdu, P.R. China Nikos Koutsias Department of Environmental Engineering, University of Patras, Agrinio, Greece Aswathy V. Krishna Space Applications Centre, Ahmedabad, India Salim Lamine Faculty of Natural Sciences and Life and Earth Sciences, University Akli Mohand Oulhadj of Bouira, Bouira, Algeria; Department of Geography and Earth Sciences, University of Aberystwyth, Ceredigion, United Kingdom Wenzhi Liao Sustainable Materials Management, Flemish Institute for Technological Research (VITO), Antwerp, Belgium; IPI-TELIN, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium Xian Liu Department of Plant Biology, Southern Illinois University, Carbondale, IL, United States Xiangmeng Liu College of Earth Sciences, Chengdu University of Technology, Chengdu, P.R. China Mark G. Macklin School of Geography, College of Science, University of Lincoln, Lincoln, United Kingdom Ramandeep Kaur M. Malhi Remote Sensing Laboratory, Institute of Environment and Sustainable Development, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, India Kiril Manevski Department of Agroecology, Aarhus University, Tjele, Denmark; Sino-Danish Center for Education and Research, Eastern Yanqihu Campus, Beijing, P.R. China List of contributors xix
- 23. Manoj K. MishraSpace Applications Centre, Indian Space Research Organization, Ahmedabad, India Onisimo Mutanga Department of Geography, School of Agricultural, Earth and Environmental Science, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, South Africa Rowan Naicker Department of Geography, School of Agricultural, Earth and Environmental Science, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, South Africa Rajashree Naik Department of Environmental Science, School of Earth Sciences, Central University of Rajasthan, Ajmer, India Shinya Numata Department of Tourism Science, Graduate School of Urban Environmental Sciences, Tokyo Metropolitan University, Minami-Osawa 1-1, Hachiouji, Tokyo, Japan Daniel Ochoa Escuela Superior Politécnica del Litoral, ESPOL, Guayaquil, Ecuador Nkeiruka N. Onyia Centre for Landscape and Climate Research, School of Geography, Geology and the Environment, University of Leicester, Leicester, United Kingdom Mahesh Pal Department of Civil Engineering, National Institute of Technology, Kurukshetra, India Manish Kumar Pandey Remote Sensing Laboratory, Institute of Environment and Sustainable Development, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, India Prem Chandra Pandey Center for Environmental Sciences & Engineering, School of Natural Sciences, Shiv Nadar University, Greater, Noida, India Andrew Pavlides School of Mineral Resources Engineering, Technical University of Crete, Chania, Greece Kabir Peerbhay Department of Geography, School of Agricultural, Earth and Environmental Science, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, South Africa George P. Petropoulos Department of Geography, Harokopio University of Athens, Athens, Greece xx List of contributors
- 24. Noël Richard LaboratoryXLIM, UMR CNRS 7252, University of Poitiers, Poitiers, France Michał Romaszewski Institute of Theoretical and Applied Informatics, Polish Academy of Sciences, Gliwice, Poland Arvind Sahay Space Applications Centre, Ahmedabad, India L.K. Sharma Department of Environmental Science, School of Earth Sciences, Central University of Rajasthan, Ajmer, India Mbulisi Sibanda Department of Geography, School of Agricultural, Earth and Environmental Science, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, South Africa Prachi Singh Remote Sensing Laboratory, Institute of Environment and Sustainable Development, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, India R.P. Singh Space Applications Centre, Ahmedabad, India Saša Širca Agricultural Institute of Slovenia, Plant Protection Department, Ljubljana, Slovenia Prashant K. Srivastava Remote Sensing Laboratory, Institute of Environment and Sustainable Development, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, India; DST- Mahamana Centre for Excellence in Climate Change Research, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, India Dimitris Stratoulias Department for Management of Science and Technology Development, Ton Duc Thang University, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam; Faculty of Applied Sciences, Ton Duc Thang University, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam Nik Susič Agricultural Institute of Slovenia, Plant Protection Department, Ljubljana, Slovenia Mohamad Zakri Tarmidi Geoscience and Digital Earth Centre (INSTeG), Research Institute of Sustainable Environment, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, UTM Johor, Johor, Malaysia; Department of Geoinformatics, Faculty of Built Environment and Surveying, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, UTM Johor, Johor, Malaysia Leonidas Toulios Department of Soil Water Resources, Institute of Industrial & Forage Crops, Hellenic Agricultural Organization (HAO) “Demeter” (former NAGREF), Directorate General of Agricultural Research, Larissa, Greece List of contributors xxi
- 25. Gregor Urek AgriculturalInstitute of Slovenia, Plant Protection Department, Ljubljana, Slovenia Qing Wang Department of Geography and Environmental Resources, Southern Illinois University, Carbondale, IL, United States Huan Yu College of Earth Sciences, Chengdu University of Technology, Chengdu, P.R. China Uroš Žibrat Agricultural Institute of Slovenia, Plant Protection Department, Ljubljana, Slovenia xxii List of contributors
- 26. Biography Dr. Prem ChandraPandey received his Ph.D. (2015) from Centre for Landscape and Climate Research (CLCR), Department of Geography, University of Leicester, Leicester, United Kingdom, under the Commonwealth Scholarship and Fellowship Plan (CSFP). He received his B.Sc. in Botany (Hons.) from Institute of Sciences, Banaras Hindu University, M.Sc. in Environmental Sciences from Institute of Sciences, BHU, and M.Tech. in Remote Sensing from Birla Institute of Technology (BIT) Mesra, Ranchi, India. He is cur- rently working as Assistant Professor in Center for Environmental Sciences & Engineering, Shiv Nadar University, Greater Noida, India. He did his postdoctoral with the Department of Geography and Human Environment, Faculty of Exact Sciences, Tel Aviv University Israel. He has worked as a National Postdoctoral Fellow with Remote Sensing Laboratory, Institute of Environment and Sustainable Development (IESD), Banaras Hindu University (BHU), Varanasi. He worked on remote sensing applications as professional research fellow in National Urban Information System (NUIS) funded by National Remote Sensing Centre (NRSC) Government of India at BIT Mesra, Ranchi. He has been a recipient of several prestigious International and National awards including Commonwealth Fellowship, United Kingdom, INSPIRE Fellowship, Ministry of Human Resource and Development (MHRD), Government of India, University Grant Commission (UGC) Fellowships, Science and Engineering Research Board (SERB)-NPDF, and IT Merit awards from the Government of India. He has authored more than 35+ research articles published in international peer-reviewed journal articles, edited three books, contributed chapters to nine books, and presented his work in several confer- ences. Additionally, he is also a member of Indian Society of Geomatics (ISG), Indian Society of Remote Sensing (ISRS), SPIE, and Association of American Geographers (AAG). His research interests include forestry, environmental pollutant modeling, urban studies, and agricultural studies. xxiii
- 27. Dr. Prashant K.Srivastava received his Ph.D. from Department of Civil Engineering, University of Bristol, Bristol, United Kingdom, sponsored by British High Commission, United Kingdom under the Commonwealth Scholarship and Fellowship Plan (CSFP) and MHRD, GOI. He received his B.Sc. in Agriculture Sciences from the Institute of Agricultural Sciences, Banaras Hindu University (BHU), and his M.Sc. in Environmental Sciences from School of Environmental Sciences (SES), Jawaharlal Nehru University (JNU), India. Currently he is working as an Assistant Professor at the Institute of Environment and Sustainable Development, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, India. He has worked as a Research Scientist with NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, Hydrological Sciences Branch on SMAP satellite soil moisture retrieval algorithm development, instrumentation and its applications. He is the recipient of several awards such as NASA Fellowship, United States of America; University of Maryland Fellowship, United States of America; Commonwealth Fellowship, United Kingdom, and received JRF-NET fellowships from Council of Scientific and Industrial Research and University Grant Commission, Government of India. He is leading many national and international projects funded by reputed agencies. He has published over 140 peer-reviewed journal papers, seven books, many book chapters, and has presented his work in several conferences. Currently, he is also serving as Associate editor of many scientific peer reviewed journals. He is also a member of European Geosciences Union (EGU), Indian Society of Geomatics, Indian Society of Remote Sensing, Indian Association of Hydrologists (IAH), and International Society for Agro-meteorology (INSAM), International Association for Hydro-Environment Engineering and Research (IAHR), and International Association of Hydrological Sciences (IAHS). Prof. Heiko Balzter received his Dipl. -Ing. Agr. (equivalent to M. Sc.) and Dr. Agr. (Ph.D.) from Justus-Liebig-University, Giessen, Germany, in 1994 and 1998, respectively. He is a research professor and the director of the Centre for Landscape and Climate Research at the University of Leicester, United Kingdom, and Official Development Assistance (ODA) Programme Leader in the NERC National Centre for Earth Observation. Before joining the University of Leicester he was Head of the Section for Earth Observation at the Centre for Ecology and Hydrology, Monks Wood, United Kingdom, where he worked from 1998 to 2006. His research interests include interactions of the water cycle with ecosystems across multiple spa- tial and temporal scales, pressures from climate change and land use change on ecosystem services, and the effects of spatial patterns and processes on biological populations in evolv- ing 3D landscapes. He holds the Royal Society Wolfson Research Merit Award (2011) and the xxiv Biography
- 28. Royal Geographical Society’sCuthbert Peek Award “for advancing geographical knowledge of human impact through Earth Observation” (2015). He received the President’s Cup for the Best Paper Annual Remote Sensing and Photogrammetry Society Conference (2009). He chairs the BESS-EO working group on biodiversity, ecosystem services and Earth Observation, is a member of the NERC Future Landscapes Scoping Group, and UK represen- tative on the Group on Earth Observations (GEO) Programme Board. He is leading the Copernicus Land Monitoring Service for the United Kingdom, which produces the CORINE land cover map. In the Forests 2020 project he is leading the Forest Cover Change Detection task. In GLOBBIOMASS, he is in charge of the regional case studies work package. He is Principal Investigator of the European Centre of Excellence in Earth Observation Research Training GIONET (h3.5m). He is a fellow of the Higher Education Academy, the Royal Statistical Society, a member of the American Geophysical Union, British Ecological Society, Fellow of the Royal Geographical Society, and member of the Remote Sensing and Photogrammetry Society as well as the Chartered Management Institute. He serves on the International Geosphere/Biosphere Program, UK National Committee, the European Space Sciences Committee of the European Science Foundation, the LULUCF Scientific Steering Committee for the Department for Energy and Climate Change, the AATSR Science Advisory Group to Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs, and the Natural Environment Research Council Peer Review College. His research interests focus on Earth Observation applications to advance the quantitative understanding of climate change and land use change impacts on ecosystem services, and the effects of spatial-temporal patterns and processes. He has extensive expertise in Earth observation and remote sensing of forests, land cover, and lakes. Dr. Bimal Bhattacharya is associated with SAC ISRO Ahmedabad as Scientist SG. He received his Ph.D. (Agriculture Physics) in 1995 from Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi, India. He received his M.Sc. (Agriculture Physics) from Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi, India in 1991. He served as a scientist in Indian Council of Agricultural research (ICAR) from 1995 to 2000. He is involved in developing satellite-based agro-met products and their utilization in National Agro-met Advisory Services in India. He led the development of satellite-based surface energy balance modeling over Indian terrestrial ecosystems especially with remote sensing data from a suite (INSAT VHRR, 3A CCD, 3D Imager) of Indian geostationary sensors. He led an ISRO-Geosphere-Biosphere Programme (GBP) National-Scale Science Project on Energy and Mass Exchange in Vegetative Systems. He is also the Principal Investigator on the Land Surface Processes in the ISRO-CNES MEGHA- TROPIQUE Mission and Science Member of MoES-NERC Indo-UK Monsoon Project called INCOMPASS. He is the science leader of the AVIRIS-NG Airborne Hyperspectral Mission in Indian and also the Science Co-Chair of ISRO-CNES (Indo-French) Thermal Infrared Biography xxv
- 29. Mission. He iscurrently ISRO representative in CEOS for land surface imaging. He is the recipient of the P.R. Pisharoty award from Indian Society of Remote Sensing and young sci- entist award from AsiaFlux, Japan sponsored by Japanese Space Agency, JAXA. He also received the ISRO team member award. He is the teaching faculty in UN-sponsored course on “Satellite Meteorology and Global Climate” under Centre for Space Science Technology and Education for Asia-Pacific (CSSTEAP). He has published more than 50 research papers in peer-reviewed international and national journals. Dr. George P. Petropoulos is an Assistant Professor in Geoinformation at Harokopio University of Athens, Greece. He received his Ph.D. (2008) from King’s College London, his M.Sc. in Remote Sensing (2003) from University College London (UCL), and his B.Sc. in Natural Resources Development and Agricultural Engineering (1999) from the Agricultural University of Athens, Greece. His research focuses on the use of EO alone or synergisti- cally with land surface process models in deriving key state variables of the Earth’s energy balance and water budget. He also has strong interests in the development of EO and GIS geospatial analysis tech- niques in geohazards (mainly floods, wildfires, and frost) and in quantifying land use/cover and its changes using technologically advanced EO sensing systems and synergistic multisen- sor modeling techniques. He also contributes to the development of open source software tools in EO modeling and on the benchmarking of EO operational algorithms/products and surface process models. Dr. Petropoulos currently serves as a council member of the Remote Sensing and Photogrammetric Society (RSPSoC). He is the editor of SENSED (the RSPSoc Newsletter), associate editor or editorial board member of several international scientific journals in EO and environmental modeling. He has edited six books and has coauthored more than 80 research articles in international peer-reviewed journals. xxvi Biography
- 30. Foreword Remote sensing technologiesin general and hyperspectral remote sensing technology in par- ticular have emerged as an important new source of data for environmental applications over the past few years. Hyperspectral remote sensing applications have gained significant momentum. From early multispectral sensors flown in the 1960s by NASA which gave birth to many other remote sensing satellites, including hyperspectral satellites such as Hyperion, PRISMA, HySI, and others by United States of America, Italy, and India, among others. This unparalleled rapid progress in sensors and their platforms has provided a major impetus for the use of hyperspectral applications in many fields such as, but not limited to, geology, agri- culture, water quality, forestry, urban, biodiversity, and so forth. The results of these applica- tions have been spectacular as many researchers have made interesting observations about environmental phenomena, and decision makers have considered these data for sustainable environmental management. Over 30 years ago, I stated in one of my early research papers that “remote sensing has added a new dimension to the analysis and studies of environmental processes, issues and decision-making.” This statement is still true today as evidenced by the content of Hyperspectral Remote Sensing: Theory and Applications edited by Dr. Prem Chandra Pandey, Dr. Prashant K. Srivastava, Prof. Heiko Balzter, Dr. Bimal Bhattacharya, and Dr. George P. Petropoulos. This book is a welcome, significant, and timely contribution to the growing field of hyperspectral remote sensing. This book provides an excellent compilation of several methods, techniques, and applica- tions as well as illustrative examples of advancements of hyperspectral remote sensing. The contributors have covered a wide variety of theoretical background, algorithms, applications, and discussed a set of new approaches for hyperspectral data analysis and algorithm devel- opment. In addition, an informed view of the future challenges of hyperspectral remote sens- ing will offer food for thought. The editors are expert researchers in environmental applications of hyperspectral sensors data. They have skillfully presented this detailed and technical content in a user-friendly and coherent format. I am confident that the readers of this book will quickly appreciate the rapid advancements being made in this field. I am positive that researchers and students alike will gain insights into the novel dimensions of applying hyperspectral remote sensing to environmental analysis and understanding. I wish the editors and publishers of this important volume great success. Kamlesh Lulla Houston, TX, United States Dr. Kamlesh Lulla served as Chief Scientist for Earth Observations and Chief, Earth Science Branch at NASA Johnson Space Center in Houston, TX, United States. xxvii
- 31. Preface This book aimsto provide an all-inclusive overview of state-of-the-art hyperspectral remote sensing and its applications in different research areas. The book is designed in such a way that it will be used by the people in their respective research domains who will realize that hyperspectral technology may offer a solution to their application area. Readers will have a better understanding of how to incorporate and evaluate different approaches to hyperspec- tral analyses, as well as which approaches may or may not work for the applications of inter- est. Hyperspectral Remote Sensing: Theory and applications is the first volume of the “Series of Earth Observation” by Elsevier. The purpose of this book is not to provide a tutorial in hyperspectral remote sensing; rather, its aim is to provide an illustration of the potential applications and analysis techniques that can be used, addressing the unique challenge in different applications across the globe. The aim of the book is to make researchers aware of and enrich their understanding of the concept of hyperspectral data processing. This book has 21 chapters addressing the prin- ciples, techniques, and applications of hyperspectral remote sensing under different research themes with field spectroscopy and airborne and spaceborne imaging spectroscopy. The first section of the book explains the basic concept and underlying principles of errors and their correction methods. This covers all the major aspects of hyperspectral data, source of errors, types of errors, and their correction methods. Advanced classification tech- niques such as radial basis function neural network (RBFN) and Support Vector Machine (SVM) for feature selection are also provided. Further sections of book will take readers through all the major applications of hyper- spectral remote sensing in vegetation, water, soil, and minerals, as well as pollution detec- tion. Data fusion with other remote sensor images and utilization of spectral indices for different applications are also presented. This section will also demonstrate narrow band and selected bands of hyperspectral data to detect and interpret the level of hydrocarbon pollution in water resources as well as in forest regions. The book describes case studies that have applied this information to the use of hyperspectral remote sensing in forestry, agricul- ture, water, soil, and mineral applications. The final chapter deals with the future perspective and challenges in hyperspectral remote sensing community. The case studies in each chapter illustrate how hyperspectral remote sensing is being used to solve many of the disturbing environmental issues of our society. These include identification of functionally distinct plants, chengal tree abundance, precision agriculture, tropical grassland discrimination under different inorganic fertilizers, snow, inland water and wetland mapping, meteorological studies, soil contamination and hydrocarbon pollution detection, and monitoring, detection of crop parasites, and image fusion for cocoa bean fer- mentation analysis. For water application, topics include snow mapping and parameter xxix
- 32. retrieval (such assnow grain size, contamination), inland water quality mapping and a case study on a wetlands ecosystem. For soil and land applications, topics include heavy-metal contamination in soil, soil parameters, soil properties presenting the efficacy of hyperspectral data and multiimage fusion datasets. We are grateful to the reviewers who made the time to review the chapter manuscripts and Elsevier editorial acquisition members including Morse Redding, Marisa Lafleur, Honest Joy, Robertson Naomi for their constant support and help. Last but not the least, the editors thank the publisher for providing the opportunity to set down the thoughts of several contri- butors to produce this book. I hope Hyperspectral Remote Sensing will provide insight into the breadth of the hyper- spectral application-related topics. Users of this book are encouraged to adapt it and use it the way it best fits their own needs that would help them in understanding the capabilities and potentials of hyperspectral remote sensing and applications. Editors Prem Chandra Pandey, Greater Noida, India Prashant K. Srivastava, Varanasi, India Heiko Balzter, Leicester, United Kingdom Bimal Bhattacharya, Ahmedabad, India George P. Petropoulos, Athens, Greece xxx Preface
- 33. 1 Revisiting hyperspectral remote sensing:origin, processing, applications and way forward Prashant K. Srivastava1,2 , Ramandeep Kaur M. Malhi1 , Prem Chandra Pandey3 , Akash Anand1 , Prachi Singh1 , Manish Kumar Pandey1 , Ayushi Gupta1 1 REMOTE SENSING LABORATORY, INSTITUTE OF ENVIRONMENT AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT, BANARAS HINDU UNIVERSITY, VARANASI, INDIA 2 DST-MAHAMANA CENTRE FOR EXCELLENCE IN CLIMATE CHANGE RESEARCH, BANARAS HINDU UNIVERSITY, VARANASI, INDIA 3 CENTER FOR ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES & ENGINEERING, SCHOOL OF NATURAL SCIENCES, SHIV NADAR UNIVERSITY, GREATER, NOIDA, INDIA 1.1 Introduction Multispectral remote sensors with a few broad spectral bands were evolved during the 1970s to monitor natural resources. Looking at the existing limitations of multispectral images in dif- ferent applications and recognizing the demand for better and more advanced images with higher spectral resolution, there was an urgent need for research and development of hyper- spectral imaging systems. Hyperspectral remote sensing is an output of imaging spectroscopy that is facilitated by rapid advancement in technologies and the development of detectors, optical design and components, atmospheric radiative transfer and processing capability. Imaging spectroscopy, in turn, utilizes two sensing techniques, namely spectroscopy and imag- ing. An imaging system captures the spatial distribution of a scene and measures the relative concentration of the objects, while spectroscopy offers the ability to differentiate the elusive absorption features of divergent materials for a scene. The initial or conventional approaches of using multispectral or broadband sensors has the limitation of dividing a discontinuous spectral coverage into numerous broadbands. Hyperspectral remote sensing gained growth and popularity because it collects data that span over a vast region in umpteen contiguous narrow spectral bands of the electromagnetic spectrum, ranging from visible (VIS) near-infra- red (NIR) to shortwave infrared (SWIR) and can achieve a spectral resolution of 1022 λ. Based on platform type, hyperspectral remotely sensed data can be classified as non-imaging or imaging in situ measurements, airborne images, and space-borne images. 3 Hyperspectral Remote Sensing. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-08-102894-0.00001-2 © 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
- 34. 1.2 Origin ofhyperspectral remote sensing A landmark step was achieved in 1979 when hybrid array detectors, mercury cadmium tellu- ride on silicon charge-coupled devices was made available for the first time leading to the con- struction of an imaging spectrometer that operated at wavelengths beyond 1.0 of μm. The airborne imaging spectrometer (AIS) was developed at the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) in 1983 and operated at wavelengths between 0.8 and 2.5 μm. AIS was replaced by the airborne visible/infrared imaging spectrome- ter (AVIRIS) in the early 1990s that covered the entire spectrum from 0.4 μm to 2.45 μm at a high spectral rate plus high spatial resolution over an 11 km swath. The primary objectives of these missions were identifying and assessing the characteristics of surface materials. It was with AVIRIS data that the first vegetation analysis was carried out through near-infrared spec- troscopy (NIRS) analysis by John Aber and Mary Martin of the University of New Hampshire. Although AVIRIS has offered the bulk of high-quality hyperspectral data, it lacks regularity. With known multispectral specifications and properties, one wants to gain information from spectral information, and there must be several narrow spectral channels in the same electromagnetic spectrum (400 2500 nm) compared to a few broad spectral channels in multispectral images (Pandey et al., 2019b). Thus the idea behind hyperspectral imaging sys- tems is straightforward, while offering even more information to understand our environ- ment better. This led to further innovations and advancement in hyperspectral imaging systems in the early 1980s. Hyperspectral remote sensing or imaging spectrometry has evolved from ERTS-1 [1] (Earth Resources Technology Satellite)-1 (Landsat-1) 4-band images, to AIS, AVIRIS. AVIRIS was the first hyperspectral imaging system developed at NASA JPL in the United States as a result of innovations in spectrometers technologies, then AVIRIS-NG (Airborne Visible Infrared Imaging Spectrometer-Next Generation) and HyspIRI (Hyperspectral Infrared Imager) were introduced. The first hyperspectral mission Earth Observation-1 (EO-1) Hyperion sensor was launched by NASA’s Earth Observing-1 satellite in November 2000. This space-borne mission brought significant and dramatic changes in the applications on forestry, agriculture, mineral identifications and land-use or land-cover classifications (Pandey et al., 2018, 2019a). Enhanced spectral resolution in the 400 2500 nm range was extensively and widely used by researchers, and provided more reliable and accurate results (Kramer, 2002). In order to achieve high spectral resolution, multispectral sensors were effectively enhanced in their image acquisition in the spectral range, reduction in the spectral sampling rate, and several contiguous spectral channels. Later on, the Compact High-Resolution Imaging Spectrometer (CHRIS) for the European Space Agency (ESA) Project for On-Board Autonomy-1 (PROBA-1) in 2001 was launched by ESA for the global mapping of natural resources. Hyperion has been decommissioned and CHRIS is currently working and operating in the orbit. It has been designed for a life operational time period of a one year only and has 62 contiguous channels with a spatial resolution of 17 m. These hyperspectral imaging satellites are accompanied by several other missions later on (Puschell, 2000). The information on current and future space-borne hyperspectral 4 Hyperspectral Remote Sensing
- 35. missions were compiledwith references to several published articles (Nieke et al., 1997; Puschell, 2000; Kramer, 2002; Staenz and Held, 2012). There is a focus to dramatically increase contiguous spectral bands in upcoming space-based hyperspectral imaging systems (Nieke et al., 1997). A medium spectral resolution hyperspectral imaging system called PRecursore IperSpettrale della Missione Applicativa (PRISMA) was launched by Italy’s ASI on March 22, 2019 (Longo, 2020). PRISMA’s hyperspectral sensors will be capable to acquire images in B235 contiguous spectral channels in visible (VIS) near-infrared (NIR) short- wave infrared (SWIR) ranges. The Environmental Mapping and Analysis Program (EnMAP) for hyperspectral sensors was launched by Deutsche Zentrum für Luft-and Raumfahrt (DLR) (The German Aerospace Center) the German Research Centre for Geosciences [GeoForschungsZentrum (GFZ)] in 2015 to acquire images in over 200 narrow contiguous bands. In the meantime, NASA has scheduled the HyspIRI mission launch for 2022, which will acquire images with 237 spectral bands with 60 m spatial resolution. Detailed informa- tion on present and future hyperspectral missions are presented in Table 1 1. This also pre- sents the major space-borne missions launched or planned by several countries or space agencies. Apart from those listed in Table 1 1, there are HISUI (The Japanese Hyperspectral Imager Suite) onboard the Advanced Land Observing Satellite-3 (ALOS-3), and the French HYPXIM hyperspectral missions (Briottet et al., 2011; Matsunaga et al., 2013) were also in orbit. HISUI is a space-borne instrument suite designed to work both as hyperspectral as well as multispectral imagers. Therefore the importance of these planned hyperspectral mis- sions or initiatives should be understood to ensure guaranteed, uninterrupted hyperspectral image acquisition and coverage beyond 2020. The focus of the HyspIRI mission will be on the world’s ecosystem studies offering infor- mation on future ecosystems, disasters, and the carbon cycle. This mission will offer VIS NIR and SWIR hyperspectral data and multispectral thermal data regularly. The combi- nation of spatiotemporal and spectral data will offer a challenge to researchers. 1.3 Atmospheric correction: a primary step in preprocessing hyperspectral images Passive remote sensing is basically the study of interaction between light source and Earth surface features, in which every feature has an unique spectral response. The spectral resolu- tion and continuous wavelength range of an image play an important role in distinguishing the feature; the higher the spectral resolution the higher will be its feature-detection capabil- ity (Okada and Iwashita, 1992; Clark, 1999). Hyperspectral imaging holds the potential to dis- tinguish surface features more precisely because of its high-spectral resolution and narrow bandwidths. Hyperspectral images have numerous narrow bands covering ultra-violet, VIS NIR, and SWIR regions of the electromagnetic spectrum, which makes it more suscepti- ble to atmospheric distortions. Atmospheric gases and aerosols absorb and transmit the incoming light in regards to its wavelength and this causes distortions in the image. Therefore atmospheric correction is required in all hyperspectral data in which the raw Chapter 1 • Revisiting hyperspectral remote sensing: origin, processing 5
- 36. Table 1–1 Majorearth observation hyperspectral missions (launched or planned future missions). Sensors Platform Spectral range Spatial resolution/ spectral resolution Channels Revisit time Organization/ Nation Launch year 01 Hyperion EO-1 400 2500 nm 30 m/10 nm 220 200 days NASA November 2000 02 CHRIS PROBA 400 1050 nm 18 36 m/(1.25 11 nm) 62 spectral to provide 34 m 150 2 (mid-latitudes) ESA-UK October 2001 03 EnMap BVNIR (420 1000 nm) BSWIR I (900 1390 nm) BSWIR II (1480 1760 nm) BSWIR III (1950 2450 nm) 30 m at Nadir Spectral sampling VNIR: 5 10 nm (6.5 nm average) SWIR: 10 nm (average) 92B420 1030 108 B950 2450 23 days and 4 days (across track 6 30 ) DLR Germany/GFZ 2015 04 HyspIRId Hyperspectral imaging B400 2500 nm Multispectral IR at 8 12 μm 60 m at 150 km Swath (after 2013-30 m) 217 VSWIR—19 days (after 2013- 16 days) TIR—5 daysf NASA—United States 2022 05 HySIS 400 1200 nm 30 m/B10 nm 55 5/19 days ISRO India November 2018 06 SHALOM MBT Space 400 2500 nm 10 m 241 2 days ISA—Israel June 2019a 07 PRISMAe AVIO Italian launcher 400 2500 nm 20 30 m 240 , 29 days Relook day ,7 days Italy Space Agency and VEGA March 2019a 08 FLEX Earth explorer 300 m 28 days ESA 2022a 09 HySI Chandrayaan-1 400 950 nm (15 nm) 80 m 32 B ISRO India 2008 10 HJ-1A CAST a WVC—0.43 0.90 μm 30 m 4 4 days China September 2008 b HSI—0.45 0.95 μm 100 m/5 nm 115 4 31 days (side look 6 30 ) HJ-1B WVC—approximately 0.43 0.90 μm 30 m 4 4 days c IRMSS—approximately 0.75 1.10 μm 1.55 1.75 μm 3.50 3.90 μm 10.5 12.5 μm 150 m 150 m 150 m 300 m 4 4 days
- 37. 11 Hero (CASI)400 2500 nm 30 m/B10 nm .200 3 Canada 12 VENUS 415 910 nm 5.3 m 12 2 CNES/Israel 2016 13 SumbandilaSat/ MSI 440—2350 nm 15 m/5.7 nm 200 — South Africa September 2009 14 HICI 350 1081 nm 90 m/B5.7 nm 128 — NASA United States 2009 15 MSMI Sunspaceg 440 2350 nm 15 m/B10 nm 200 — South Africa March 2010 16 HISUI ALOS-3 400 2500 nm 30 m/B10 nm VNIR and 12.5 SWIR 185 (VNIR-57, SWIR128) Japan 2015 5 m (for multispectral part) 4 bands 17 HYPXIM-CA 400 2500 nm 15 m # 14 VIS and # 10 NIR/SWIR .200 France—CNES 2019 a Wide View CCD Cameras (WVC). b Hyperspectral Imager (HSI). c Infrared Multispectral Scanner (IRMSS). d https://hyspiri.jpl.nasa.gov/. e https://www.unoosa.org/documents/pdf/copuos/2019/copuos2019tech11E.pdf. f TIR measures both day and night data with 1 daytime image and 1 night-time image every 5 days. g After launch, mission control was handed over from SunSpace to SAC (Satellite Applications Centre) at Hartebeetshoek near Pretoria in South Africa.
- 38. radiance image isconverted to a reflectance image considering all spectra is shifted to a similar albedo. The techniques for accurate removal of atmospheric absorption and scattering from a hyperspectral image is mainly divided into two categories, namely relative and absolute (also termed as empirical) atmospheric corrections (San and Suzen, 2010). Further the technique of relative atmospheric correction is subdivided into three methods: (1) Internal average reflectance correction (Kruse, 1988; Ben-Dor and Kruse, 1994), (2) flat field correction (Gao et al., 2009), and (3) empirical line correction (Gao et al., 2009). In the relative atmospheric correction technique there is no need of providing a priori information about surface or atmosphere as it uses the data statistics and runs mathematical operations to correct the image. On the other hand absolute atmospheric correction techniques take a priori informa- tion such as water vapor, atmospheric gas content, and topography effects into consideration to run radiative transfer codes. On a per-pixel basis, the difference between radiation leaving Earth and received at the sensor along with the a priori inputs are used by the radiative transfer codes to correct the atmospheric distortions. Absolute atmospheric correction has been proven to be the better technique over the relative correction technique because it con- siders the local geographical and atmospheric a priori inputs for correcting the data (Nikolakopoulos et al., 2002). Several radiative transfer codes have been introduced by researchers over the past decades for atmospheric corrections. Many of these codes are developed for a satellite specific imaging system and for a specific spectral and spatial range. Some of these radia- tive transfer codes include, Atmospheric Correction Now (ACORN) that is based on MODerate resolution atmospheric TRANsmission-4 (MODTRAN-4) (Miller, 2002). Atmospheric Correction (ATCOR) is also a MODTRAN-4 based code and is integrated with ERDAS Imagine (Earth Resource Development Assessment System) software (Adler- Golden et al., 1999), Atmospheric Removal (ATREM) (Gao et al., 1993), High Accuracy Atmospheric Correction for Hyperspectral data (HATCH) (Qu et al., 2003) which is an improved version of ATREM, and Fast Line-of-sight Atmospheric Analysis of Spectral Hypercube (FLAASH) (Cooley et al., 2002) which is integrated in ENVI (Environment for Visualizing Images) software. The major drawbacks of these radiative transfer codes are their complex algorithms, precalculated lookup tables, inputs based on interpolation, and the requirement of a priori data related to pixel-wise atmospheric and topographic information. Radiative transfer codes based on atmospheric correction was introduced by Gao et al. (1992, 1993) in the 1990s and is termed ATREM. Using this algorithm, from AVIRIS data scaled surface reflectance is retrieved assuming a horizontal surface having Lambertian reflectance. The ATREM radiative transfer code is formulated by deriving the pixel-wise water vapor absorption bands at 0.94 and 1.4 μm, the incoming solar radiation, azimuth angle, and narrow bandwidth. Accordingly the transmission spectrum of atmospheric gases namely, carbon dioxide (CO2), carbon monoxide (CO), methane (CH4), nitrogen oxide (NO2) and oxygen (O2) is simulated. The scattering effect caused by suspended atmospheric mole- cules and aerosols is modeled using the Simulation of the Satellite Signal in Solar Spectrum 8 Hyperspectral Remote Sensing
- 39. (5S) model (Tanréet al., 1990). In early 2000 a line-by-line atmospheric transmittance model (Gao and Davis, 1997) was introduced into ATREM code which uses 6S module (Vermote et al., 1994) that included the effect of NO2 in the 0.4 0.8 μm spectral range. Several other radiative transfer codes having advanced features like topographic corrections, spectral smoothing, and feature adjacency correction such as ACRON, FLAASH, and HATCH have recently been introduced. Taking into consideration the advancements in atmospheric correction techniques used for hyperspectral images, FLAASH is one of the most accurate and easy to use radiative transfer model. FLAASH is a software package introduced by Air Force Research Laboratory, Space Vehicles Directorate (AFRL/VS) and is currently integrated with ENVI software for commercial use. FLAASH is able to more accurately analyze the VIS to SWIR region of the electromagnetic spectrum. FLAASH is a MODTRAN-4 based model with physics-based deri- vations of different atmospheric interaction properties that include atmospheric pressure, water vapor column, and aerosol and cloud cover, which is further used as a priori informa- tion for converting radiance to reflectance (Berk et al., 1998, 2000). Hyperspectral data, its sensor type, and metadata (including sensor altitude, viewing, and solar angle) is used as input for FLAASH to retrieve preliminary water vapor column data at a per-pixel basis. Then a water vapor Look-Up Table (LUT) is generated using MODTRAN simulation to retrieve reflectance from radiance. FLAASH also generates a cloud mask to classify the pixels having cloud cover and flag those pixels to be removed before calculation. Considering the variables are all wavelength dependent, image polishing and renormalization is performed last to gen- erate a new reflectance cube (Boardman, 1998). Despite these atmospheric correction models, there are still possibilities for further improvement in radiative transfer codes. The built-in smoothing modules need improvement in order to identify any artificial broad absorption features in the retrieved reflectance spec- tra. A hybrid approach using image-based empirical methods and radiative transfer codes can increase the retrieval accuracy and lower the computational complexities. 1.4 Empirical and radiative transfer models Inverse modeling plays a vital role for quantitative remote sensing, which mainly uses physi- cal- or empirical-based models to estimate unknown parameters (Wang, 2012). Over the past few years various types of models have been developed related to atmosphere, vegetation, and radiation and a model-based inverse problem was also introduced. The introduction of multispectral and hyperspectral remote sensors with greater spectral and spatial information came into the account to solve model-based inverse problems (Liang, 2005; Wang et al., 2009). Inverse modeling is mainly useful to retrieve various types of vegetation parameters using physical or empirical models. These models also can be used in direct (forward) mode to compute canopy-reflectance values after providing leaf and canopy traits [chlorophyll con- tent, water content, Leaf Area Index (LAI)]. Moreover, such physical-based radiative transfer models can be inverted from reflectance or EO data for retrieval of biophysical and Chapter 1 • Revisiting hyperspectral remote sensing: origin, processing 9
- 40. biochemical variables likeLAI and fraction of photosynthetically active radiation, which are mainly used to monitor the health status and enumerate the vegetation influence. Narrow- band information in hyperspectral sensors can aid in providing quantitative estimates of canopy biochemical properties (such as chlorophyll and nitrogen concentrations) when compared to multispectral (broadband) sensors (Goodenough et al., 2004, 2006). Inversion of the canopy Radiative Transfer Model (RTM) is known as one of the best approaches for the retrieval of biophysical and biochemical parameters. During the past few years various types of studies have been done on RTMs. Most useful RTMs are the leaf PROSPECT (leaf optical properties model) and canopy-based SAIL models (canopy bidirec- tional reflectance model) that combine the PROSAIL model and are useful for inverse model- ing (Verrelst et al., 2019). Advance methods such as PROSPECT (COSINE) and PROSAIL have maximum computational power and numbers of inversion algorithms but are still time consuming to provide efficient results. Further optimization and the robustness of LUT inver- sion application have also been explored against spectroscopic data (Banskota et al., 2013, 2015; Bao et al., 2017). LUT-based inversion approaches provide fast and efficient results because of before-hand completion of the inversion itself which is assumed to be the most computationally expensive part of the inversion procedure. The LUT-based inversion toolbox is a part of the ARTMO (Automated Radiative Transfer Models Operator) software package that can be run on MATLAB and also provides essential tools and information for running as well as inverting a collection of plant RTMs, both at the leaf (PROSPECT, DLM, Liberty, and Fluspect) and canopy level (4SAIL, INFORM, FLIGHT). Leaf and canopy RTMs are used as an input for the generation of class-based LUTs (Fig. 1 1). Moreover ARTMO is capable of evaluating LUT-based inversions on land-cover classification, which allows reasonable retrieval of biophysical parameters over land surface (Rivera et al., 2013; Verrelst et al., 2013). A study has demonstrated the use of CASI (Compact Airborne Spectrographic Imager) hyperspectral reflectance data for monitoring some forest sites with dense canopies (LAI .4) and has also shown the achievability of RTMs for pigment estimation. The RTM inversion technique exhibited promising results with RMSE values from 3.0 to 5.5 μg/cm2 for a leaf chlorophyll range of 19.1 45.8 μg/cm2 (Zarco-Tejada et al., 2001). FIGURE 1–1 Basic principle of the Look-Up Table-based inversion toolbox (Rivera et al., 2013). 10 Hyperspectral Remote Sensing
- 41. This study hasconfirmed that the success of LUT-based inversion strongly depends on the retrieval parameters and applied regularization options. Performance of LUT-based inversion is directly related to the used-cost functions (Verrelst et al., 2013). LUT-based inversion on other types of hyperspectral sensors such as AVIRIS and Hyperion are also use- ful to retrieve vegetation parameters and pigments for the reorganization of the plant and crop species. 1.5 Applications of hyperspectral remote sensing There are a plethora of applications possible using hyperspectral remote sensing, but herein only a number of important areas such as vegetation, urban, mineral, water and agriculture are provided with respect to hyperspectral applications. 1.5.1 Vegetation analysis Terrestrial vegetation is considered as one of the Earth’s most significant natural resources and is spread over a large surface. It encompasses different landscapes namely forest, agri- culture, rangeland, wetland, and urban vegetation (Jensen, 2009). Monitoring terrestrial veg- etation at spatio-temporal scale is crucial for studying different terrestrial resource management applications. Field measurements of foliar and canopy vegetation’s biophysical and biochemical parameters are the best employed approaches for its monitoring (Mutanga et al., 2004; Chmura et al., 2007; Tilling et al., 2007). Conventional field estimations of these parameters involve time, money, and labor and it cannot be easily extended to big geograph- ical areas. Hyperspectral remote sensing is the most appropriate alternative technique for retrieving vegetation biophysical and biochemical parameters since narrow-band measurements of spectral reflectance in hyperspectral remote sensing allow finer determination of the changes in vegetation’s biophysical and biochemical parameters. Numerous authors have explored the capability of hyperspectral remote sensing in providing valuable information on these parameters. Both ground-level hyperspectral data acquired using hand-held spectroradi- ometers as well airborne or spaceborne hyperspectral instruments have been widely used in ample vegetation studies. Available airborne hyperspectral instruments include AVIRIS, AVIRIS-NG, and HyMap; whereas spaceborne hyperspectral instruments are Hyperion, CHRIS, EnMAP, and the HJ-1A hyperspectral imager product. Additionally other vegetation analyses including diversity parameters such as species diversity (Peng et al., 2018; Malhi et al., 2020) and species richness (Psomas et al., 2011; Peng et al., 2019) are also successfully retrieved using this advanced remote sensing tech- nique. A large number of narrow bands of hyperspectral data also encourages the classifi- cation and mapping of different vegetation types at varied taxonomic scales, mostly down to the species level. For example, species-level classification with high accuracy is achieved for grapevine varieties (Fernandes et al., 2015) using hyperspectral data (Clark et al., 2005). Classification using hyperspectral data was successfully carried out for different vegetation Chapter 1 • Revisiting hyperspectral remote sensing: origin, processing 11
- 42. types such asannual gramineous weeds (Deng et al., 2016), food crops (Mariotto et al., 2013), shrubs of arid zones (Lewis, 2002), and montane or subalpine trees (Sommer et al., 2016) and forest tree species (Hycza et al., 2018). The hyperspectral technique is also used to determine different plant functional types that are functionally similar plant species in terms of resource utility, ecosystem function, and response to environment con- ditions. Such classification is carried out using methods like spectral mixture analysis (Schaaf et al., 2011). Studies were also performed where hyperspectral remote sensing was used in the detection and classification of the early onset of plant disease and stress (Lowe et al., 2017). 1.5.2 Urban analysis The world’s population is continuously shifting toward urban centers resulting in the regular modification in the landscape at regional level. The densification of urban areas is making the urban fabric (such as buildings, roads, etc.) more complex and it is also leading to the generation of urban-heat islands (Weber et al., 2018). Hence there is a great need to under- stand the relation between urban systems with respect to biotic and abiotic components. To understand the dynamics of the urban system, the identification of building materials, impervious surfaces, mineral composition, water quality, vegetation, and fallow lands at very fine spectral resolution is crucial, and can be archived by hyperspectral data. Hyperspectral data provides a very fine spectral resolution that helps in the identification of building and road materials, microclimate model development, vegetation health monitoring, pollution monitoring, water quality assessment, and so forth, because all the elements have a unique absorption feature in their reflectance spectra. There are several studies that have been done using hyperspectral data to enhance the urban management system, including the study done by Karoui et al. (2018) in which they used the hyperspectral data to identify photovol- taic panels within the region using the spectral unmixing technique. Roof-top mapping is a common application of hyperspectral data in urban studies (Chisense et al., 2012) where the endmembers of rooftop materials were generated and classification on HyMap hyperspectral data was performed to identify the rooftop materials. This study is also crucial in urban man- agement as it can help in the identification of buildings that are the major source of urban heat islands. Urban Land Use Land Cover (ULULC) mapping is one of the most important applications of hyperspectral data. Again a large number of spectral bands provides better feature detection capability with respect to multispectral data. There are several classification techniques such as Support Vector Machine (Tratt et al., 2016), Artificial Neural networks (Goel et al., 2003), K-means (Filho et al., 2003; Licciardi et al., 2011), and Principle Component Analysis (PCA) (Licciardi et al., 2011) and Segmented PCA (Pandey et al., 2014) that are commonly used for hyperspectral data. The NIR, thermal and SWIR regions of elec- tromagnetic spectrum in hyperspectral data are sensitive to different gases. This aids in iden- tifying and tracking gaseous emission from compact sources present in urban-industrial areas (Tratt et al., 2016). Hyperspectral data also has a major role in water-quality mapping (Olmanson et al., 2013), identifying soil properties (Hively et al., 2011), and pest detection 12 Hyperspectral Remote Sensing
- 43. (Glaser et al.,2009). Apart from the different applications of hyperspectral data for urban studies, there are certain limitations also, including the data complexity and lack of spatio- temporal hyperspectral data as there are limited spaceborne hyperspectral sensors. 1.5.3 Mineral identification Hyperspectral remote sensing can identify minerals precisely compared to conventional remote sensing techniques. This is again because of the high number of contiguous bands that help to construct a complete reflectance spectrum of every pixel in the scene. Studies by Ting-ting and Fei (2012) take porphyry copper deposit as an example to demonstrate the usefulness of hyperspectral remote sensing in this mineral deposit exploration. The power of hyperspectral remote sensing can also be used for detection of hydrothermal alteration or alteration mineral zones related to different types of mineralization systems (Carrino et al., 2018). In one case study, the mineral assemblies containing high sulfidation epithermal tar- gets was mapped using the HyMap images combined with petrography, magnetic data and X-ray diffraction (XRD) (Carrino et al., 2018). In another study, an integrated approach was performed using hyperspectral data and geochemical properties to identify limestone and siliciclastic rocks, argillization and pyrite oxidation in the callville limestone and is well related to gold mineralization (Sun et al., 2019). Hyperspectral remote sensing has huge potential in the mining industry as a fast and noninvasive analytical approach for mineralogi- cal characterization (Tuşa et al., 2020). The mineral target can be identified using the princi- pal components and also through broadband spectral analysis. Some focused algorithms such as the Spectral Angle Mapper and Mixture Tuned Matched Filtering techniques can be used for discrimination and mapping in detail. Therefore, hyperspectral remote sensing is found to be very feasible and advantageous for mineral exploration in remote areas where primary information is limited (Bishop et al., 2011). 1.5.4 Water quality Monitoring water quality is very important for maintaining ecosystem health and the liveli- hood of the population. It reflects the health of surface water bodies as a snapshot in time (weeks, months, and years). Therefore, best practices and efforts are needed to monitor and improve water quality. As hyperspectral remote sensing can capture water quality para- meters, it could be viable solution for water quality management. For example, Zhang et al. (2020) in their study, provided a self-adapting selection method in integration of artificial neural networks to quantitatively predict water quality parameters such as phosphorus, nitrogen, biochemical oxygen demand, chemical oxygen demand and chlorophyll a. Similarly for lake water quality, specific heavy metals were detected and predicted using portable FieldSpec_3 ASD spectroradiometer and various spectra were taken in the labora- tory (Rostom et al., 2017). Studies by Shafique et al. (2003) used the hand-held spectrometer data and collected water spectrum from rivers directly. They established and used correla- tions between the ground-truth data and spectrum for developing spectral indices to esti- mate chlorophyll a, turbidity, and phosphorus. In other study (Sailaja et al., 2017), five water Chapter 1 • Revisiting hyperspectral remote sensing: origin, processing 13
- 44. quality parameters (i.e.chlorophyll, turbidity, Secchi depth, total phosphorus, and total suspended solids) were estimated through regression models. They took field spectroradi- ometer and hyperion reflectance values and related these with in situ ground data. Wang and Yang (2019) provided a quantitative systematic review to identify existing chal- lenges and future directions. Their review identified that the semiempirical method was used by most of the researchers and is the most frequently used inversion method. They con- cluded that the ground object spectrometer is a highly applied data source and most of the study provided estimates of chlorophyll, suspended solid, and so forth, but rarely considered the human induced factors which is a drawback of the model’s robustness. 1.5.5 Agricultural applications Hyperspectral remote sensing or imaging spectroscopy shows great potential in agriculture applications. High-resolution spectral data has the advantage of discriminating crop types and species (Sahoo et al., 2015) as well as biophysical and biochemical parameters. Various crop parameters that are possible to retrieve are LAI (Gong et al., 2003; Asano et al., 2009; Ke et al., 2016; Din et al., 2017; Li et al., 2017; Zhang et al., 2017), leaf pigments like chlorophyll, carotenoids, xanthophylls, and anthocyanins (Qian et al., 2003; Wang et al., 2014; Sonobe et al., 2018; Zarco-Tejada et al., 2019; Amirruddin et al., 2020), nitrogen content (Blackburn, 2007; Knyazikhin et al., 2013), biomass (Psomas et al., 2011; Bratsch et al., 2017), height (Xavier et al., 2006) and others. These parameters are retrieved from hyperspectral remote sensing by mainly employing three approaches. The first approach is based on statistical models wherein empirical relationships between spectral parameters and biophysical or biochemical parameters can be established (Gupta et al., 2014). Parametric regression uses vegetation indices, shape indices, and spectral transformation, while nonparametric regression uses linear and nonlinear machine learning regression algorithms. Conventional multivariate regression tends to raise the issue of multicollinear- ity and overfitting because of the high correlation among spectral bands (Kumar, 1975; Hawkins, 2004) that can be overcome using partial least square regression (Li et al., 2014; Yu et al., 2015; Ryan and Ali, 2016) and are thus highly used in hyperspectral remote sens- ing field. Different machine learning regression algorithms such as the Gaussian process, Artificial Neural Network (Srivastava et al., 2020), and support vector regression have also been extensively used (Halme et al., 2019). The second approach utilizes the physical mod- els or radiative transfer models wherein simulation of foliar or canopy reflectance is exe- cuted using biophysical or biochemical parameters as inputs in the forward run. Then, inversion of radiative transfer models is performed using numerical optimization and LUT methods. The model inversion is carried out for retrieving the desired parameters. These physical models are more capable in terms of robustness and universality for varied cli- matic conditions, vegetation types and regions. They deliver better systematic information on relationships between vegetation parameters and vegetation reflectance compared to statistical models. The third is a hybrid approach that uses a combination of statistical and physical models to estimate biophysical or biochemical parameters. 14 Hyperspectral Remote Sensing
- 45. 1.6 Way forward High-dimensionalhyperspectral remote sensing data makes the task of information extrac- tion a tough one as traditional techniques used with broadband sensors are of limited use. Small satellites can be the future of the remote sensing community as less powerful vehicles are needed for their launch, thus offering significant cost savings for the future missions. Less-powerful vehicles are less expensive compared to powerful vehicles, and constitute a significant reduction of the total cost of missions, which can be diverted to other purposeful research work. Therefore, the fundamental idea behind small satellites is cost savings, including a lighter payload in launch vehicles (i.e. below 100 kg). The utmost requirement in small hyperspectral satellites is the sensor's size, mass, its output, data downlink, and trans- mission to ensure a successful mission. It is crucial to have images in the VIS NIR spectral ranges with the best permissible spectral resolutions; however it is constrained by the micro- satellite size and mass parameters (approximately ,100 kg and 0.5 min any direction) (Levi and Washabaugh, 2001; Gerber et al., 2005; Hartley et al., 2005). In future, ultraspectral imaging systems will overtake the hyperspectral missions. Ultraspectral sensors have more than B300 narrow contiguous spectral channels with very narrow spectral sampling (,1 nm) for each individual pixel (Cutter, 2005). The concept behind the ultraspectral channels will enable scientists for physical analysis of gas absorption characterizing atmospheric temperature and structures. To accomplish the aim, sensors such as the Atmospheric InfraRed Sounder (AIRS), the Michelson Interferometer for Passive Atmospheric Sounding (MIPAS)‘8, the Crosstrack Infrared Sounder (CrIS), and Geostationary Imaging Fourier Transform Spectrometer (GIFTS) are made operational as ultraspectral imaging systems. CrIS is a part of the National Polar-orbiting Operational Environmental Satellite System of NASA. AIRS is advanced with 2378 spectral channels and having cutting- edge infrared technology to create 3-D maps of air and surface temperature, water vapor, and cloud properties (https://airs.jpl.nasa.gov/). Details are listed in Table 1 2. GIFTS can be optimized to function in different modes such as multispectral, hyperspectral, or ultra- spectral modes, thus is unique to any other satellite sensors working in a single mode. Acknowledgment The authors thank the National Mission on Himalayan Studies, G.B. Pant National Institute of Himalayan Environment (NIHE), Almora, Uttarakhand for funding this work. Table 1–2 Ultraspectral missions. Ultraspectral sensors Platform Agency/country 01 AIRS Aqua satellite NASA 02 MIPAS ‘8 ENVISAT-1 ESA 03 CrIS Up to 2378 spectral channels As part of the National Polar-Orbiting Operational Environmental Satellite System NASA 04 GIFTS” Earth Observing-3 (EQ-3) mission NASA Chapter 1 • Revisiting hyperspectral remote sensing: origin, processing 15
- 46. References Adler-Golden, S.M., Matthew,M.W., Bernstein, L.S., Levine, R.Y., Berk, A., Richtsmeier, S.C., et al., 1999. Atmospheric correction for shortwave spectral imagery based on MODTRAN4. Imaging Spectrometry V. International Society for Optics and Photonics, pp. 61 69. Amirruddin, A.D., Muharam, F.M., Ismail, M.H., Ismail, M.F., Tan, N.P., Karam, D.S., 2020. Hyperspectral remote sensing for assessment of chlorophyll sufficiency levels in mature oil palm (Elaeis guineensis) based on frond numbers: analysis of decision tree and random forest. Comput. Electron. Agric. 169, 105221. Asano, T., Kosugi, Y., Uto, K., Kosaka, N., Odagawa, S., Oda, K., 2009. Leaf area index estimation from hyperspectral data using group division method. In: 2009 IEEE International Geoscience and Remote Sensing Symposium. IEEE, pp. IV-817 IV-820. Banskota, A., Serbin, S.P., Wynne, R.H., Thomas, V.A., Falkowski, M.J., Kayastha, N., et al., 2015. An LUT- based inversion of DART model to estimate forest LAI from hyperspectral data. IEEE J. Sel. Top. Appl. Earth Observ. Remote Sens. 8, 3147 3160. Banskota, A., Wynne, R.H., Thomas, V.A., Serbin, S.P., Kayastha, N., Gastellu-Etchegorry, J.P., et al., 2013. Investigating the utility of wavelet transforms for inverting a 3-D radiative transfer model using hyperspec- tral data to retrieve forest LAI. Remote Sens. 5, 2639 2659. Bao, S., Cao, C., Chen, W., Tian, H., 2017. Spectral features and separability of alpine wetland grass species. Spectrosc. Lett. 50, 245 256. Ben-Dor, E., Kruse, F., 1994. The relationship between the size of spatial subsets of GER 63 channel scanner data and the quality of the Internal Average Relative Reflectance (IARR) atmospheric correction tech- nique. Remote Sens. 15, 683 690. Berk, A., Bernstein, L., Anderson, G., Acharya, P., Robertson, D., Chetwynd, J., et al., 1998. MODTRAN cloud and multiple scattering upgrades with application to AVIRIS. Remote Sens. Environ. 65, 367 375. Berk, A., Acharya, P.K., Bernstein, L.S., Anderson, G.P., Chetwynd Jr, J.H., Hoke, M.L., 2000. Reformulation of the MODTRAN band model for higher spectral resolution. Algorithms Multispectral, Hyperspectral, Ultraspectral Imagery VI. International Society for Optics and Photonics, pp. 190 198. Bishop, C.A., Liu, J.G., Mason, P.J., 2011. Hyperspectral remote sensing for mineral exploration in Pulang, Yunnan Province, China. Int. J. Remote Sens. 32, 2409 2426. Blackburn, G.A., 2007. Hyperspectral remote sensing of plant pigments. J. Exp. Bot. 58, 855 867. Boardman, J.W., 1998. Post-ATREM polishing of AVIRIS apparent reflectance data using EFFORT: a lesson in accuracy versus precision. In: Summaries of the Seventh JPL Airborne Earth Science Workshop. Jet Propul. Lab. Pasadena, CA, p. 53. Bratsch, S., Epstein, H., Buchhorn, M., Walker, D., Landes, H., 2017. Relationships between hyperspectral data and components of vegetation biomass in Low Arctic tundra communities at Ivotuk, Alaska. Environ. Res. Lett. 12, 025003. Briottet, X., Marion, R., Carrere, V., Jacquemoud, S., Chevrel, S., Prastault, P., et al., 2011. HYPXIM: a new hyperspectral sensor combining science/defence applications. In: 2011 3rd Workshop on Hyperspectral Image and Signal Processing: Evolution in Remote Sensing (WHISPERS). IEEE, pp. 1 4. Carrino, T.A., Crósta, A.P., Toledo, C.L.B., Silva, A.M., 2018. Hyperspectral remote sensing applied to mineral exploration in southern Peru: a multiple data integration approach in the Chapi Chiara gold prospect. Int. J. Appl. Earth Observ. Geoinf. 64, 287 300. Chisense, C., Hahn, M., Engels, J., 2012. Classification of roof materials using hyperspectral data. Int. Arch. Photogramm. Remote Sens. Spat. Inf. Sci. 39, 103. Chmura, D.J., Rahman, M.S., Tjoelker, M.G., 2007. Crown structure and biomass allocation patterns modulate aboveground productivity in young loblolly pine and slash pine. For. Ecol. Manag. 243, 219 230. 16 Hyperspectral Remote Sensing
- 47. Clark, R.N., 1999.Spectroscopy of rocks and minerals, and principles of spectroscopy. Man. Remote Sens. 3, 2 2. Clark, M.L., Roberts, D.A., Clark, D.B., 2005. Hyperspectral discrimination of tropical rain forest tree species at leaf to crown scales. Remote Sens. Environ. 96, 375 398. Cooley, T., Anderson, G.P., Felde, G.W., Hoke, M.L., Ratkowski, A.J., Chetwynd, J.H., et al., 2002. FLAASH, a MODTRAN4-based atmospheric correction algorithm, its application and validation. In: IEEE International Geoscience and Remote Sensing Symposium. IEEE, pp. 1414 1418. Cutter, M., 2005. Review of a small satellite hyper-spectral mission. Proceedings of the AIAA/USU Conference on Small Satellites, 19th Annual AIAA/USU, The Year in Retrospect, SSC05-IV-2. 1-4. Deng, W., Huang, Y., Zhao, C., Chen, L., Wang, X., 2016. Bayesian discriminant analysis of plant leaf hyper- spectral reflectance for identification of weeds from cabbages. Afr. J. Agric. Res. 11, 551 562. Din, M., Zheng, W., Rashid, M., Wang, S., Shi, Z., 2017. Evaluating hyperspectral vegetation indices for leaf area index estimation of Oryza sativa L. at diverse phenological stages. Front. Plant Sci. 8, 820. Fernandes, A.M., Melo-Pinto, P., Millan, B., Tardáguila, J., Diago, M.P., 2015. Automatic discrimination of grapevine (Vitis vinifera L.) clones using leaf hyperspectral imaging and partial least squares. J. Agric. Sci. 153, 455 465. Filho, S., Frery, A.G., de Araujo, A.C., Alice, C.C., Cerqueira, H., Loureiro, J., et al., 2003. Hyperspectral images clustering on reconfigurable hardware using the k-means algorithm. In: Proceedings of 16th Symposium on Integrated Circuits and Systems Design, 2003. SBCCI 2003. IEEE, pp. 99 104. Gao, B.-C., Davis, C.O., 1997. Development of a line-by-line-based atmosphere removal algorithm for air- borne and spaceborne imaging spectrometers. Imaging Spectrometry III. International Society for Optics and Photonics, pp. 132 141. Gao, B., Heidebrecht, K., Goetz, A., 1992. Atmospheric Removal Program (ATREM) User’s Guide. Center for the Study of Earth from Space, Cooperative Institute for Research in Environmental Sciences, University of Colorado, Boulder. Gao, B.-C., Montes, M.J., Davis, C.O., Goetz, A.F., 2009. Atmospheric correction algorithms for hyperspectral remote sensing data of land and ocean. Remote Sens. Environ. 113, S17 S24. Gao, B.-C., Heidebrecht, K.B., Goetz, A.F., 1993. Derivation of scaled surface reflectances from AVIRIS data. Remote Sens. Environ. 44, 165 178. Gerber, A., Lemmerman, L., Hartley, J., 2005. Advanced Instruments and Their Impact on Earth Science Missions (II). In: 5th IAA Symposium on Small Satellites for Earth Observations. Glaser, J., Casas, J., Copenhaver, K., Mueller, S., 2009. Development of a broad landscape monitoring system using hyperspectral imagery to detect pest infestation. In: 2009 First Workshop on Hyperspectral Image and Signal Processing: Evolution in Remote Sensing. IEEE, pp. 1 4. Goel, P.K., Prasher, S.O., Patel, R.M., Landry, J.-A., Bonnell, R., Viau, A.A., 2003. Classification of hyperspectral data by decision trees and artificial neural networks to identify weed stress and nitrogen status of corn. Comput. Electron Agric. 39, 67 93. Gong, P., Pu, R., Biging, G.S., Larrieu, M.R., 2003. Estimation of forest leaf area index using vegetation indices derived from Hyperion hyperspectral data. IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens. 41, 1355 1362. Goodenough, D.G., Pearlman, J., Chen, H., Dyk, A., Han, T., Li, J., et al., 2004. Forest information from hyper- spectral sensing. In: IGARSS 2004. 2004 IEEE International Geoscience and Remote Sensing Symposium. IEEE, pp. 2585 2589. Goodenough, D., Li, J., Asner, G., Schaepman, M., Ustin, S., Dyk, A., 2006. Combining hyperspectral remote sensing and physical modeling for applications in land ecosystems. In: 2006 IEEE International Symposium on Geoscience and Remote Sensing. IEEE, pp. 2000 2004. Gupta, M., Srivastava, P.K., Mukherjee, S., Sandhya Kiranet, G., 2014. Chlorophyll retrieval using ground based hyperspectral data from a tropical area of India using regression algorithms. Remote Sens. Appl. Environ. Res. 177 194. Chapter 1 • Revisiting hyperspectral remote sensing: origin, processing 17
- 48. Halme, E., Pellikka,P., Mõttus, M., 2019. Utility of hyperspectral compared to multispectral remote sensing data in estimating forest biomass and structure variables in Finnish boreal forest. Int. J. Appl. Earth Observ. Geoinf. 83, 101942. Hartley, J., Komar, G., Lemmerman, L., Gerber, A., 2005. Advanced Instruments and Their Impact on Earth Science Missions (I). In: Hans-Peter Röser, Rainer San (Eds.), Small Satellites for Earth Observation: Selected Proceedings of the 5th International Symposium of the International Academy of Astronautics Berlin, April 4 8, 2005, Session 7-Instruments. Hawkins, D.M., 2004. The problem of overfitting. J. Chem. Inf. Comput. Sci. 44, 1 12. Hively, W.D., McCarty, G.W., Reeves, J.B., Lang, M.W., Oesterling, R.A., Delwiche, S.R., 2011. Use of airborne hyperspectral imagery to map soil properties in tilled agricultural fields. Appl. Environ. Soil. Sci. 2011. Hycza, T., Stereńczak, K., Bałazy, R., 2018. Potential use of hyperspectral data to classify forest tree species. N. Zealand J. Forest. Sci. 48, 18. Jensen, J.R., 2009. Remote Sensing of the Environment: An Earth Resource Perspective 2/e. Pearson Education, India. Karoui, M.S., Zohra Benhalouche, F., Deville, Y., Djerriri, K., Briottet, X., Le Bris, A., 2018. Detection and area estimation for photovoltaic panels in urban hyperspectral remote sensing data by an original NMF-based unmixing method. In: IGARSS 2018—2018 IEEE International Geoscience and Remote Sensing Symposium. IEEE, pp. 1640 1643. Ke, L., Zhou, Q.-b, Wu, W.-B., Tian, X., Tang, H.-J., 2016. Estimating the crop leaf area index using hyperspec- tral remote sensing. J. Integr. Agricul. 15, 475 491. Knyazikhin, Y., Schull, M.A., Stenberg, P., Mõttus, M., Rautiainen, M., Yang, Y., et al., 2013. Hyperspectral remote sensing of foliar nitrogen content. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USA 110, E185 E192. Kramer, H.J., 2002. Observation of the Earth and its Environment: Survey of Missions and Sensors. Springer Science Business Media. Kruse, F.A., 1988. Use of airborne imaging spectrometer data to map minerals associated with hydrothermally altered rocks in the northern grapevine mountains, Nevada, and California. Remote Sens. Environ. 24, 31 51. Kumar, T.K., 1975. Multicollinearity in regression analysis. Rev. Econ. Stat. 57, 365 366. Levi, J., Washabaugh, P., 2001. A Feasibility Study of Micro-Satellites for Earth Observation. Proceedings of the AIAA/USU Conference on Small Satellites, 15th Annual conference, SSC01-IV-1, Bold New Missions Using Cutting Edge Technologies, pp. 1 13. Lewis, M., 2002. Spectral characterization of Australian arid zone plants. Can. J. Remote Sens. 28, 219 230. Li, X., Zhang, Y., Bao, Y., Luo, J., Jin, X., Xu, X., et al., 2014. Exploring the best hyperspectral features for LAI estimation using partial least squares regression. Remote Sens. 6, 6221 6241. Li, G., Wang, C., Feng, M., Yang, W., Li, F., Feng, R., 2017. Hyperspectral prediction of leaf area index of win- ter wheat in irrigated and rainfed fields. PLoS ONE 12. Liang, S., 2005. Quantitative Remote Sensing of Land Surfaces. John Wiley Sons. Licciardi, G., Marpu, P.R., Chanussot, J., Benediktsson, J.A., 2011. Linear versus nonlinear PCA for the classifi- cation of hyperspectral data based on the extended morphological profiles. IEEE Geosci. Remote Sens. Lett. 9, 447 451. Longo, F., 2020. PRISMA, The Italian Hyperspectral Mission. Italy Space Agency, Italy. Lowe, A., Harrison, N., French, A.P., 2017. Hyperspectral image analysis techniques for the detection and classification of the early onset of plant disease and stress. Plant. Methods 13, 80. Malhi, R.K.M., Anand, A., Mudaliar, A.N., Pandey, P.C., Srivastava, P.K., Sandhya Kiran, G., 2020. Synergetic use of in situ and hyperspectral data for mapping species diversity and above ground biomass in Shoolpaneshwar Wildlife Sanctuary, Gujarat. Trop. Ecol. 61, 106 115. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42965- 020-00068-8. 18 Hyperspectral Remote Sensing
- 49. Mariotto, I., Thenkabail,P.S., Huete, A., Slonecker, E.T., Platonov, A., 2013. Hyperspectral versus multispectral crop-productivity modeling and type discrimination for the HyspIRI mission. Remote Sens. Environ. 139, 291 305. Matsunaga, T., Iwasaki, A., Tsuchida, S., Tanii, J., Kashimura, O., Nakamura, R., et al., 2013. Current status of hyperspectral imager suite (HISUI). In: 2013 IEEE International Geoscience and Remote Sensing Symposium-IGARSS. IEEE, pp. 3510 3513. Miller, C.J., 2002. Performance assessment of ACORN atmospheric correction algorithm. Algorithms and Technologies for Multispectral, Hyperspectral, and Ultraspectral Imagery VIII. International Society for Optics and Photonics, pp. 438 449. Mutanga, O., Skidmore, A.K., Prins, H., 2004. Predicting in situ pasture quality in the Kruger National Park, South Africa, using continuum-removed absorption features. Remote Sens. Environ. 89, 393 408. Nieke, J., Schwarzer, H.H., Neumann, A., Zimmermann, G., 1997. Imaging spaceborne and airborne sensor systems in the beginning of the next century. Sensors, Systems, and Next-Generation Satellites. International Society for Optics and Photonics, pp. 581 592. Nikolakopoulos, K.G., Vaiopoulos, D.A., Georgios, A., 2002. A comparative study of different atmospheric correction algorithms over an area with complex geomorphology in Western Peloponnese, Greece. In: IEEE International Geoscience and Remote Sensing Symposium. IEEE, pp. 2492 2494. Okada, K., Iwashita, A., 1992. Hyper-multispectral image analysis based on waveform characteristics of spec- tral curve. Adv. Space Res. 12, 433 442. Olmanson, L.G., Brezonik, P.L., Bauer, M.E., 2013. Airborne hyperspectral remote sensing to assess spatial distribution of water quality characteristics in large rivers: the Mississippi River and its tributaries in Minnesota. Remote Sens. Environ. 130, 254 265. Pandey, P.C., Tate, N.J., Balzter, H., 2014. Mapping tree species in coastal portugal using statistically seg- mented principal component analysis and other methods. IEEE Sens. J. 14, 4434 4441. Pandey, P., Manevski, K., Srivastava, P.K., Petropoulos, G.P., 2018. The use of hyperspectral earth observation data for land use/cover classification: present status, challenges and future outlook. In: Thenkabail, P. (Ed.), Hyperspectral Remote Sensing of Vegetation, first ed. pp. 147 173. Pandey, P.C., Anand, A., Srivastava, P.K., 2019a. Spatial distribution of Mangrove Forest species and biomass assessment using field inventory and Earth Observation hyperspectral data. Biodiversity and Conservation, 28. Springer, pp. 2143 2162. Pandey, P.C., Koutsias, N., Petropoulos, G.P., Srivastava, P.K., Ben Dor, E., 2019b. Land use/land cover in view of earth observation: data sources, input dimensions, and classifiers—a review of the state of the art. Geocarto Int. 1 32. Peng, Y., Fan, M., Song, J., Cui, T., Li, R., 2018. Assessment of plant species diversity based on hyperspectral indices at a fine scale. Sci. Rep. 8, 1 11. Peng, Y., Fan, M., Bai, L., Sang, W., Feng, J., Zhao, Z., et al., 2019. Identification of the best hyperspectral indi- ces in estimating plant species richness in Sandy Grasslands. Remote Sens. 11, 588. Psomas, A., Kneubühler, M., Huber, S., Itten, K., Zimmermann, N., 2011. Hyperspectral remote sensing for estimating aboveground biomass and for exploring species richness patterns of grassland habitats. Int. J. Remote Sens. 32, 9007 9031. Puschell, J.J., 2000. Hyperspectral imagers for current and future missions. Visual Information Processing IX. International Society for Optics and Photonics, pp. 121 132. Qian, C., Jing-feng, H., Xiu-zhen, W., Ren-chao, W., 2003. In situ hyperspectral data analysis for pigment content estimation of rice leaves. J. Zhejiang Univ.-Sci. A 4, 727 733. Qu, Z., Kindel, B.C., Goetz, A.F., 2003. The high accuracy atmospheric correction for hyperspectral data (HATCH) model. IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens. 41, 1223 1231. Chapter 1 • Revisiting hyperspectral remote sensing: origin, processing 19
- 50. Other documents randomlyhave different content
- 51. triumphant from thegrave but in sight of the garden of his sorrow, the rock of his crucifixion, and the mount of his ascension? The Via Dolorosa is a lane-like street, narrow and crooked, leading from St. Stephen’s Gate to the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, and its dolorous name is no less significant of the tragical events which, according to tradition, occurred along its course, than of its forbidding and gloomy aspect. Like the “street which is called straight” in Damascus, and the Via Sacra in ancient Rome, the Via Dolorosa has a world-wide renown. Its windings, its rough pavement, its prison-like walls—penetrated with low doorways and grated windows—its rude arcade, excluding the sunlight and casting a deeper gloom within, sadden the mind, and are in keeping with the monkish legends that have given to it universal notoriety. Along this dreary walk, amid its shadows and solemn memories, a wounded spirit finds companionship. As the industrious shrine- makers of this and of other ages, the monks have consecrated eight stations in this narrow street, commemorative of as many events in our Lord’s journey from the dungeons of Antonia to the site of Calvary. In the northern wall of the Temple area are the two arches, now walled up, where stood Pilate’s staircase, down which our Lord descended after his sentence was pronounced, and directly opposite is the Church of Flagellation, marking the place where he was scourged. Not many paces to the west is the Ecce Homo arch, where Pilate exclaimed to the infuriated mob, “Behold the man!” At the bottom of a gentle descent the lane turns to the left, and then to the right. Beyond this angle is shown a deep impression in the solid stone wall, made by the shoulder of Jesus when he leaned against it at the time he fainted. Near it is the house of St. Veronica, the illustrious woman who presented the Savior with a handkerchief to wipe his bleeding brow. From her residence to the terminus of the street the gloom and silence are painful; and at well-apportioned intervals are indicated, by broken columns, the places where Simon was compelled to bear the Redeemer’s cross, where Jesus addressed the weeping daughters of Jerusalem, and where his tragical death occurred.
- 52. VIA DOLOROSA ANDTHE ARCH OF THE ECCE HOMO. Throughout Good Friday groups of pious pilgrims were threading the Via Dolorosa and offering their prayers at its legendary shrines. That night the Latin monks dramatized the crucifixion of Christ in the Church of the Holy Sepulchre. At an early hour the venerable Church of St. Helena was thronged with natives and strangers, consisting of Greeks, Latins, Copts, Armenians, Turks, and Franks. To prevent a disturbance, the military governor of the city had ordered a detachment of Turkish soldiers to be present. Among the dignitaries in attendance to witness the fictitious tragedy were foreign consuls attended by liveried cawasses, a hundred French officers, with their orderlies, who had that day arrived from Beîrut, and prominent among the distinguished persons was Lessep, the famous canal- digger, who had ascended from Egypt in an improvised chariot drawn by a pair of the noblest camels, and was the first who had crossed that ancient road since the day of Roman chariots. It was past eight o’clock when the solemn drama was opened with the recitation of prayers in the sacristy of the Latin chapel. The light of a hundred gold and silver lamps, fed by olive-oil, scarcely dispelled the darkness of the hour. At 9 P.M. the pageant was fully commenced, and the long procession began its march, each person
- 53. bearing a waxtaper that shone dimly on the air of night. First came Augustine friars, attired in brown cowls and cassocks; then followed a stalwart monk, bearing an immense cross of light-colored wood, curiously figured. On the cross was nailed the carved figure of a man, covered with thorns, from whose side the life-blood was flowing, and around whose loins was drawn a white linen cloth. Behind the crucifix came two choirs of monks and catechumens robed in white, chanting a funeral dirge, with responsive chorus; following the singers was Rome’s eminent prelate, the patriarchal Bishop of Jerusalem, crowned with a gold mitre, wearing a black velvet cloak richly trimmed with gold lace, and bearing in his right hand a gold crucifix adorned with jewels; following in his train were priests of lesser rank in dark robes, and barefooted friars with shaven heads, to imitate the crown of thorns, and nuns in blue and black garments and white linen bonnets; and next came the French consul, the military officers, the common soldiers, poor pilgrims, and strangers from all nations, whose devotion or curiosity prompted them to join the imposing procession. Within the church are lateral chapels, regarded as shrines by the pious, such as the prison of Christ, the chapel where he was bound, where he was mocked, and where his vestments were divided by the Roman soldiers. At the chapels the procession halted to listen to sermons preached in the Italian, French, German, Arabic, and English languages. It was near midnight when the procession reached the foot of Calvary. Slowly ascending the rude steps cut in the solid rock, the heavy cross was set in its original resting-place on the summit. In imitation of the supernatural darkness, every light was extinguished. At that moment a tumult occurred. The rough voice of derision rose above the universal clamor, and echoed through the aisles and arches of that ancient building, as the Turkish soldiers charged upon the people. Enraged at the insult offered to his religion, the French consul drew his sword, threatening death to Turk or Christian who should crowd upon him. In a moment quiet was restored and the scene went on. Accident gave the charm of reality to the occasion. There stood the captain of the guard, with
- 54. the smile ofscorn upon his attractive though stern features; around him were his troops, and near them were fanatical Moslems reviling the spectacle; standing afar off were Christian women, robed in white sheets, concealing their person except their soft dark eyes, which peered out above their veils; and surging to and fro, like mighty waves, was a motley throng eager to behold the drama. Amid the solemnities human nature was revealed. A magnificent French priest, who had been appointed to preach at the cross of the unrepentant thief, so far forgot his duty as to pronounce a glowing eulogium upon France, and the part she had taken in supporting the Catholic faith in the East. His commanding eloquence touched alike the pride and vanity of the French, and the otherwise decorous officers, forgetting the time and place, applauded the time-serving priest. The three sermons at the several crosses ended, the lights burn dimly again. And now began the descent from the cross, after the style of Rubens’s great picture. Three venerable monks, impersonating Joseph of Arimathea, Nicodemus, and St. John the Evangelist, approached the cross to take the body down. One, climbing up behind the cross, and throwing a sheet around the body and under the arms of the image, held it fast, while another tenderly drew out the nails, kissing each one in turn as he laid them upon a silver plate; then receiving the body into his arms, with the head resting on his shoulder, wrapped it in fine linen, placed it upon a bier, and to the chant of another dirge the procession descended to the pavement of the church, where the image was placed upon the stone of unction for anointing, and hence borne to the tomb of Joseph, to await the joyous notes of Easter Sunday. Such is a brief description of a scene which annually occurs in Jerusalem; and though producing a transient impression on the common mind, darkened by error and deluded by superstition, the sublime farce is as irreverent as it is offensive to the enlightened Christian. Debased must be the intellect and vitiated the moral sensibilities of a people who delight in such mournful tragedies, and
- 55. corrupt must bethe church which sanctions ceremonies so degrading to earth and repugnant to heaven. With equal propriety, the murder scene of a beloved friend might be yearly re-enacted, harrowing the soul with the bloody memories of the past, and imitating in fiction the ghastly deeds of veritable murderers. Who could be induced to witness a sight so mournful? The last request of the Redeemer to his people was to remember his death, and not to re-enact it; to cherish his memory, and not perpetuate the triumph of his foes. Devotion attains its greatest purity, and piety its highest form of spirituality, as pompous ceremonials are displaced by the simple aspirations of the heart for God, and by the practical embodiment of faith, hope, and charity. For fifteen hundred years the Church of the Holy Sepulchre has been the shrine of devout worshipers from all lands, and the antiquity of its traditions, together with the profound reverence in which it is held by the Christian world, render it an object worthy of consideration. Whether considered as a work of art, or as a historic site around which cluster the most sacred legends of the Eastern churches, it awakens a thrilling interest in the thoughtful and intelligent mind. Such are the number and complications of the added apartments, a delineation of the structure is as tedious as it is difficult. Though, as a whole, the architecture is of the Romanesque order, yet in its different parts it combines a greater variety of styles than any other edifice of equal notoriety extant. Standing on the eastern slope of Mount Akra, in the most populous part of the Holy City, its approaches are from the east and west through low, narrow doorways leading into a spacious court ninety feet long and seventy wide, formed laterally by the two projecting wings of the church, by the façade of the basilica on the north, and by a stone wall on the south, inclosing the green plateau once adorned by the palace of the Knights of St. John. A more novel sight is not to be seen on earth than is daily presented in this stone court-yard during Passion Week. Lining three of its sides, with now and then one in the centre, sit the hucksters of pious wares, recalling the money-changers in the court of Solomon’s Temple. It is the great religious mart for holy trinkets in
- 56. Jerusalem, and themost auspicious place for the ethnologist to study human varieties, for the costumer to examine diversities of dress, for the traveler to witness the manners of many nations, and for the artist to sketch the most picturesque of living scenes. There are Turks, with lofty turbans and flowing robes; wild Bedouins of the Desert, clad in capotes of camel’s hair, and girt about the loins with leathern girdles, or attired in their gay, fantastic riding costume, brandishing the polished spear; Franciscan friars in coarse brown cowls, and ivory crucifix dangling at their side; Greek monks in long black flowing garments, high square hats, with magnificent beards, and hair long as a woman’s, twirling a rosary of mother-of-pearl or of beautiful agate; French and Italian nuns in black, with white linen bonnets, and rosary and crucifix falling from their waist; beggars in rags, the lame with crutches, the blind protected by a dog, invoking the charities of the rich; and pilgrims from every nation—Syrians, Turks, Arabs, Nubians, Egyptians, Algerines, Armenians, Copts, Greeks, Jews, Italians, French, Russians, Germans, English, and the ubiquitous American. Passing through this motley throng, beggars implore your charities and the venders of pious wares solicit your patronage. Here are for sale sandal-wood beads from Mecca, bowls of bitumen from the shores of the Dead Sea, glass rings and bracelets from Hebron, olive-wood rosaries from Olivet, crosses of mother-of-pearl from Bethlehem, and shells on which are rudely carved representations of the birth and resurrection of Jesus, small tin cans in which water from the Jordan is carried to the ends of the earth, wax tapers to be lit at the sacred tomb, and shrouds of cotton cloth or fine linen to be laid in consecration on the Holy Sepulchre, and then borne to the uttermost parts of the earth by the faithful, to be wrapped in in death as a pledge of their resurrection.
- 57. CHURCH OF THEHOLY SEPULCHRE—FRONT VIEW. Around the court are the ruins of antique and nobler edifices. Along the southern side are the broken bases of a colonnade once supporting a cloister or arcade. Running along the western side is an immense stone structure, from the northern end of which rises the grand unfinished tower of the Basilica of St. Helen; and on the opposite end stands a solitary column, crowned with a beautiful Corinthian capital, supporting the foot of a broken arch. Within this projecting structure are two Greek chapels, older than the days of the Crusaders; one dedicated to St. James, the other to the blessed Trinity. On the opposite side of the court is a plain stone building, the Greek Monastery of Abraham, through which entrance is had to the Armenian Church of St. John, to the Coptic Convent, and to the Chapel of St. Michael. Along the base of the building is a stone bench, where monks and priests spend their idle hours playing with their rosaries. The best view of the face of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre is to be had from this court. It is the chief entrance to the interior, and consists of the southern end of the transept, presenting to the eye a grand old façade of Romanesque composition, now dingy with the dust of ages and the wear of time. It is divided into two stories. In
- 58. the upper oneare two corresponding windows, arched and slightly pointed, massive in mouldings and rich in sculpture. In the lower story is a double portal, surmounted by noble arches, supported by clustered columns, formed of layers of stone resting on heavy bases, and over the doorway are richly-sculptured architraves, representing our Lord’s triumphant entry into Jerusalem. Only the western section of the portal is now open, the other having been walled up since the reign of the Crusaders. On the right of the façade are the remains of that grand tower, once consisting of five stories, only three of which remain. In each of the three sides of the second story is a massive pointed window, and in the third, rising proudly above the domes of the church, are plain and arched windows. Though conjointly owned by the Greeks and Latins, the Armenians and Copts, the church is now subject to the control of the Turkish governor of the city, who holds the keys, and levies a heavy tax upon the rival sects worshiping at its sacred shrines. On the left in entering this ancient edifice, the traveler’s attention is attracted by the lordly Turkish guard and his friends, lounging on softly-cushioned divans, where the hours are idly spent drinking Mocha coffee and whiffing the best Stamboul from chibouks of elegant construction. Except St. Peter’s in Rome, there is no religious edifice now standing more imposing than the Church of the Holy Sepulchre. Owing to the addition of chapels and the numerous partitions within for the accommodation of the several sects, it is not easy to give the dimensions and form of the interior. It may be said, however, to consist of a nave 300 feet in length east and west, and of a transept extending north and south 180 feet. The ceiling is eighty feet high. Excepting the rotunda, the nave contains the magnificent chapel of the Greeks, measuring ninety-eight feet in length and forty in width, which is a church within a church. The walls are of wood, carved and gilded, reaching to the lofty ceiling above. The entrance is in the western end, beneath a pointed arch, now filled with a heavy screen, serving as a massive door. From four large piers within, fifty- two feet high, spring noble arches, supporting the central dome. In the eastern end is the gorgeous high altar, the throne of the Greek
- 59. patriarchs, and oneither side are stalls for the choral singers. Behind the throne, formed by a wooden screen, is the robing-room for the priests, those ecclesiastical actors of a corrupted Christianity. Nothing can excel the gorgeous decorations of the interior, which is adorned according to the barbaric taste of the Greeks. The sides of their chapel are elaborately carved and gilded; from column and ceiling depend lamps and chandeliers of gold, and ostrich eggs curiously ornamented; while on pier and screen are rude pictures of the Byzantine style. Rising from the marble floor, in the very centre of the chapel, is a marble column, inclosed with an iron railing, marking the centre of the earth, and the identical spot from which was taken the red clay for the formation of Adam’s body. At the western end of this chapel is the great rotunda of the church, measuring ninety-nine feet in diameter, encircled by eighteen colossal piers, supporting a clere-story pierced with windows, above which is the majestic dome, a hundred feet from the pavement below, with a circular opening in the top for light and ventilation, similar to the aperture in the dome of the Pantheon in Rome. In the very centre of this rotunda, and directly beneath the dome, is the reputed sepulchre of our Lord. In form it is not unlike a miniature temple, ten feet in breadth, twenty in length, and of equal height. The exterior is ornamented with semi-columns and pilasters, with rich cornices and mouldings; with a dome resembling an imperial crown, and with a thousand lamps of gold and silver, interspersed with wax tapers and vases of flowers. The entrance is on the east, through a small inclosed area, along which are rows of candles perpetually burning. Over the portal floats the banner of the Cross, and beneath its silken folds is a magnificent picture of Christ’s resurrection. It is the most spirited representation of that grandest of all events ever thrown upon the canvas. The Redeemer’s form is drawn with all the harmony of parts and the grace of action of an Apollo Belvidere. With one foot resting on the tomb, he is leaving the sepulchre with an air of triumph as majestic as it is natural.
- 60. VIEW OF THEHOLY SEPULCHRE. The interior is divided into two small chapels; the first is where the angel was seen, and contains the throne on which he sat, and in the second is the Holy Sepulchre. The vault is seven feet long and six wide, surmounted with a small dome. The tomb occupies the whole length of the north side of the chamber, incased with marble, and is three feet above the floor; the upper slab is cracked through the centre, and its edges are worn smooth by the kisses of pilgrim lips. Forty-two gold lamps burn continually before the tomb, and from a golden censer clouds of incense ascend as a memorial offering. Whether accepting or rejecting its traditional identity with the sepulchre of Joseph of Arimathea, no one can approach this revered shrine without profound emotions. For fifteen centuries Christians have guarded it with a solicitude no less tender than constant. To rescue it from the hands of infidel Moslems, Peter the Hermit and the Pontiff Urban roused all Europe to war against the Turk; to restore it to the Church, kings and princes, bishops and nobles, gave their treasure, and the millions of Christendom flew to arms to perish in the daring crusade; to it longing eyes in all lands turn, and he whose lips have pressed its cold marble in devotion is esteemed a saint with a charmed life. Such is the religious reverence with which it is held, that none are allowed to approach it till hat and shoes
- 61. have been removed,while the more devout drag themselves along the marble floor and fondly kiss the unconscious stone. Impelled by a superstitious faith and a tender affection for their offspring, mothers come from afar to lay their children on the tomb, and many an invalid is only too happy if he may be laid beside his Master’s sepulchre. On leaving the tomb I fortunately met a young Irish monk whose acquaintance I had previously formed, and who on this occasion kindly offered to be my guide in the more thorough exploration of this renowned church. With singular infatuation for holy places, the shrine-makers both of the Greek and Latin Churches have identified within this venerable building the sites of nearly all those solemn events attending the death and resurrection of our Lord. In the northern end of the transept is the Latin chapel, which has been in the possession of the Franciscans since 1257 A.D.; though unpretending both in its proportions and ornaments, it traditionally marks the spot where Christ appeared to Mary, and bears the name of the Chapel of the Apparition. Passing down the dark northern aisle, we lingered for a moment in the legendary prison of Jesus, at the altar of Longinus, the repentant soldier who had pierced the Savior’s side, and in the Chapel of the Division of the Vestments. A few feet beyond, we descended a flight of twenty-nine steps leading into the crypt or Chapel of St. Helena, containing the marble chair she occupied while superintending the search for the Holy Cross. A descent of twelve steps more leads to the cavern where the mother of Constantine found the three crosses, with the title Pilate wrote detached. From the sides of the rock drops of water were dripping down which had percolated the surface above, but which the young monk assured me were holy tears, the rocks still weeping for the dead. Ascending to the floor of the church, and threading the southern aisle, we came to the foot of the traditional Calvary—a natural rock thirty feet long, fifteen high, and as many wide, reached by eighteen steps cut in the living rock. The summit is reached by two flights of steps, one used exclusively by the Greeks and the other by the Latins, for, like the Jews and Samaritans, the former
- 62. have no dealingswith the latter. On the summit is the Chapel of the Elevation of the Cross, measuring forty-five feet in length, the floor of which is paved with marble, the walls draped with silken velvet, and from the ceiling gold lamps depend, dimly burning. At the eastern end is a raised platform ten feet long, two high, and six wide, supporting an altar; and directly before it is a hole in the rock, two feet deep by one and a half square, in which once rested the foot of the Redeemer’s cross. On either side is a similar hole for the crosses of the two thieves, and near them is the rent in the rock caused by the earthquake at the moment the Lord expired. Reverently regarding it as real, the Christians of the East approach this shrine upon their knees, fondly kissing what they believe to be the summit of Golgotha. Covered as it is with a marble floor, it is impossible to determine whether the elevation is masonry or living rock; if the latter, it is remarkable that such a rocky eminence should be left in this portion of the city; and if a natural rock, its sides and top should be exposed to view. Descending the Greek staircase and turning to the right, we came to a gloomy vault called the Tomb of Adam, near where once stood the tombs of the chivalrous Godfrey and the heroic Baldwin. Returning to the transept, we passed a yellow marble slab, inclosed with a low railing which pilgrims fondly kiss, and over which lamps burn continually. It is the legendary Stone of Unction, on which the body of Jesus was anointed for his burial. Passing through the rotunda, we descended into the tombs of Nicodemus and Joseph of Arimathea, together with two others, excavated in the living rock, and which, if ancient, are the most remarkable antiquities within the Church of the Holy Sepulchre. Returning again to the rotunda, my good Franciscan gave me his benediction, and, parting from me, left me to the reflections of the hour. Whether this church covers the Golgotha of the crucifixion and the place of our Lord’s sepulture remains an open question. No subject within the range of sacred archæology presents greater difficulties, and none has been contested with a more brilliant display of acute argumentation and varied learning. Pre-eminently it is a question of
- 63. two sides, andthe contest is sometimes so evenly balanced that an assumed victory by the advocates of either theory is one of doubtful certainty. To argue against the supposition, one is forced to reason against his inclination to stand on the site of the Redeemer’s death and sit within the shadow of his tomb; to reject it is to leave the world without a substitute, and consign the remembrance of those grand events which it commemorates to the memory of man, without a knowledge of the scene of their occurrence; to deny the identity of the spot is to call in question the traditions of fifteen centuries, to which the Christians of Europe and of the East have fondly clung, and for which the brave have died; to accept it is to argue against the unbroken silence of three hundred years—against equivocal history—against topography—against analogy—against eminent scholarship—against the Bible. The argument for it is tradition and history; the proof against it is the Bible and topography. Traditionally considered, the argument in its favor runs thus: Such was the popularity of Jesus, and such the publicity of his death, burial, and resurrection, as to stamp the place of their occurrence with imperishable memory; that the descent of the Holy Ghost, the conversion of three thousand, the early founding of his Church in the city of his rejection, and the maintenance of its unity for thirty-seven years, combined to cherish in the public mind the recollection of the place; that though, just previous to the siege of the Holy City by Titus, his followers fled to Pella, beyond the Jordan, it was but a temporary departure, and that, after the storm of war had spent its fury, they returned to the city of their choice; that the desolation of seventy years which followed the conquest of the Romans was partial, and that, while the more wealthy of the population were sold into captivity, many of the common people retained their humbler homes; that, from the year 130 A.D. to the present time, Jerusalem has been an inhabited city, and that the Emperor Hadrian rebuilt the city, and, to dishonor alike the Jew and Christian, he reared a fane in honor of Jupiter on the site of Solomon’s Temple, and covered the tomb of Jesus with a temple to Venus; and that this temple to Venus
- 64. remained standing fortwo hundred years after its erection, and was seen by Eusebius in the year 326 A.D. GROUND PLAN OF THE CHURCH OF THE HOLY SEPULCHRE. Such is the evidence for the identity of the Holy Sepulchre as the tomb of Jesus, from his resurrection down to the commencement of authentic history. It is unwritten tradition, and, at best, presumptive proof. Extending through a period of three hundred years of wars, revolutions, and desolations, it is the most unreliable period of all the centuries subsequent to the Christian era. Whatever may have been the temporary interest attached to Golgotha and to the tomb of Joseph to the idle and curious, to the friend and foe of Jesus, it is evident, from their inspired narrative, that the sacred writers neither shared the excitement, nor considered it incumbent on them to describe with minuteness the scene of their Master’s death and burial. They were too much absorbed in recording the stupendous facts of our Lord’s expiatory sufferings, and the glory of his resurrection, to entertain their readers with an accurate account of the rock on which he expired, and of the sepulchre from which he arose triumphant. The place is forgotten in the significance of the event; the actor, and not the stage, is the burden of their history.
- 65. Their simple storyis, They led him away to crucify him;229 When they came to the place which is called Calvary, there they crucified him;230 The place where Jesus was crucified was nigh to the city;231 Now in the place where he was crucified there was a garden, and in the garden a new sepulchre, wherein was never man yet laid.232 This is the sum of their record. They must have been familiar both with the place of execution and of interment, but, from Matthew to Revelation, the apostles are silent to indifference as to the one and the other. Had they deemed it important, they might have intimated out of which gate the mournful procession passed, and on which side of the city the Son of God was slain; but, regarding such information as unworthy their sublime narrative, or fearing our idolatry, they leave us to the uncertainty of conjecture. The invitation of the angels to the devoted Marys, Come, see the place where the Lord lay, was not to enshrine the tomb, but to unshrine it, by convincing them by their own sight that he is not here, for he is risen, as he said; and, dear as the spot might be, they were not to linger, but to go quickly, and tell his disciples that he is risen from the dead.233 We never read of their return to that tomb. Convinced of his resurrection, they sought him among the living and not among the dead. From the summit of Olivet they watched his ascending form, till a cloud received him out of their sight, and then returned with great joy, not to the tomb, but to an “upper room,” waiting the “promise of the Father.”234 In his wondrous sermon on the day of Pentecost, St. Peter declared the resurrection of Christ, but made no allusion to his tomb, while he reminded his hearers that David’s sepulchre is with us unto this day.235 In all the subsequent apostolic letters, neither the zealous Peter, nor the beloved John, nor St. Paul, that devoted worshiper of our Lord, ever alluded to those memorable places. History is comparatively silent as to the return of the Christians from Pella. Many of the first followers of Christ were strangers in Jerusalem, who had come to the Holy City from distant countries to celebrate the annual festivals of their nation. Such must have been
- 66. most of thethree thousand converted on the day of Pentecost, who, returning to their far-off homes, spread the glad tidings of a risen Savior as they went.236 And although all who “believed were together and had all things common, and sold their possessions and goods, and parted them to all men as every man had need, and continued daily with one accord in the Temple, and breaking bread from house to house,”237 yet in a brief time thereafter St. Stephen was martyred, “and at that time there was a great persecution against the church which was in Jerusalem, and they were all scattered abroad throughout the regions of Judea and Samaria, except the apostles.”238 The number who fled to Pella, which was but a small town on the eastern bank of the Jordan, must have been exceedingly small. Those who found refuge there remained for seventy years, during which time Jerusalem was a desolation; and, excepting the military towers on Mount Zion, “the rest of the wall was so entirely thrown down even with the ground by those who digged it up to the very foundation, that there was left nothing to make those who came thither believe it had ever been inhabited.”239 By some this account is regarded as exaggerated, and at most it can only refer to the walls of the city. Granting the correctness of such a supposition, and that some of the poorer inhabitants clung to the ruins of the capital, yet historians agree that the Christians did not return to Jerusalem till about the year 130 A.D., which was after the town had been rebuilt by the Emperor Adrian, and by him called Ælia Capitolina. And, at best, only the descendants of those who had fled returned, as during the lapse of seventy years most of the fugitives had ascended to their reward. It is also difficult to conceive how those who had never visited Jerusalem before, and especially after it had been rebuilt by the Romans, could have identified an obscure tomb which had remained unmarked by any enduring monument. The historic accounts which have come down to us that Adrian desecrated the tomb of Jesus by erecting over it an idol monument, are as contradictory as they are inconsistent. As the emperor was
- 67. the enemy ofthe Jew rather than of the Christian, it is impossible to conceive what motive impelled him to dishonor an humble shrine held sacred by a handful of harmless religionists. The erection of a proud fane on the site of Solomon’s Temple is in keeping with the character of the man and his hatred for the Jews, but the desecration of Golgotha and of the Holy Sepulchre is inconsistent with his reign in the East, and with the admission of the Christians to his new colony and city. But the early Church historians are not agreed as to the name and character of this idol monument. Writing after the death of Constantine, Eusebius speaks of a temple to Venus covering the Holy Sepulchre, ascribing its erection to impious men; writing sixty years later than Eusebius, Jerome ascribes it to the Emperor Adrian. Eusebius declares it was a temple, Jerome affirms it was a statue; Eusebius asserts it was in honor of Venus, Jerome informs us it was dedicated to Jupiter. There are similar discrepancies in the writings of these fathers as to the discovery of the Holy Sepulchre, and as to the founder of the first Christian church reared in honor of our Lord’s resurrection. According to Eusebius, “impious men, or rather the whole race of demons through the agency of impious men, had labored to deliver over that illustrious monument of immortality to darkness and oblivion. They had covered the cave (or tomb) with earth brought from other quarters, and then erected over it a sanctuary to Venus, in which to celebrate the impure rites and worship of that goddess. Moved by a divine intimation made by the Spirit of the Savior himself, the Emperor Constantine ordered the obstructions removed, the holy tomb purified, and a magnificent church to be erected in commemoration of the event.” In this miraculous interposition to discover the veritable tomb of Christ, Eusebius concedes that there was no existing tradition identifying its locality. Either the place of our Lord’s burial was known to Eusebius, or it was not. If it was certainly known to him by a pagan temple standing on the spot, no miracle was necessary for its recognition; if it was not known to him, then there was no unbroken tradition extending through a period of three centuries, and the question turns upon the credibility of the
- 68. pretended miracle. The“Father of History” can only be saved from palpable contradiction by supposing that after the tomb had been supernaturally discovered he found over it a pagan temple. But what proof have we that such a miracle was wrought? What good to mankind has resulted from such an interposition? In all Bible miracles, the great moral purposes to be attained justified the departure from the established course of nature. The history of this church, from Constantine to our own times, has been a series of religious rivalries, of bitter contentions between opposing sects, of wars between Christians and Turks, of weary and inefficacious pilgrimages from the snows of Russia and the sands of Africa, of useless expenditures of treasure, of relic worship, and of the utter absence of moral influence on Moslem and Jew. Such a miraculous intimation given to the apostles would have been more appropriate than to a warrior whose piety is as questionable as the results of his conversion have proved disastrous to mankind. To an enlightened Christian mind it would afford a melancholy pleasure to stand on Calvary and sit in the Savior’s tomb, but the temptation to idolatry would be too strong for the common mind to brook. Duped by a mercenary priesthood for fifteen centuries, millions of Greek and Latin pilgrims have bowed in idolatrous veneration before the reputed tomb of Jesus; and for a boon so humble, immense donations have been demanded for the support of ecclesiastical establishments. The genuineness of this divine intimation is affected by the character of the age of Constantine. It was the age of pious frauds. Monkery had existed for two centuries; heresies had taken deep root; saints were worshiped, martyrs canonized, relics adored; and, sanctioned by imperial example, the people were ripe for any deception. Either the theory of an unbroken tradition coming down from the apostolic age to the time of Eusebius, and the existence of a pagan temple upon the well-known tomb must be abandoned, or the pretended miracle for its recognition must be relinquished, as the one supersedes the necessity of the other. Both can not co-exist; one or the other is without foundation in truth.
- 69. Jerome and hiscontemporaries, together with his successors, give a different version of the identification of the Holy Sepulchre and of the founder of the first church over the consecrated spot; and, what must appear as a little remarkable to every intelligent mind, these later historians, who wrote in succeeding centuries, are far more full and minute in their details than Eusebius, who was an eyewitness of what he wrote. According to them, the Empress Helena, the mother of Constantine, moved by a pious desire to worship at those shrines sacred to the memory of our Lord, visited Palestine in the year 326 A.D., at the advanced age of eighty. Having identified the sites of the principal events connected with our Lord’s history, she determined to rescue them from oblivion by the erection of enduring monuments, no less expressive of her own gratitude than for the guidance of those devout pilgrims whose devotions might lead them in future years to the Holy Land. Discovering to her satisfaction the stable and manger of the nativity at Bethlehem, and the exact spot of the ascension on Olivet, she ordered the erection of monumental structures on the site of such extraordinary events, at once worthy the Redeemer’s glory and the magnificent reign of her imperial son. Naturally desiring to supply the intermediate link, and perpetuate the memory of the Savior’s death and resurrection, she earnestly sought for Calvary and the reputed tomb of Joseph. Whether the recollection of these most sacred places had been lost, or whether to confirm her faith in the traditional sites, she diligently inquired of the oldest Jewish and Christian inhabitants of the city as to their location, who pointed her to the area at present inclosed within the Church of the Holy Sepulchre. But the accumulation of rubbish during the lapse of so many years rendered the search difficult and uncertain. Intent, however, on the consummation of an object so laudable, and guided by a divine intimation, she at length came to the sepulchre of Jesus, and near it discovered the three crosses, with Pilate’s tablet, still bearing his superscription. The joy experienced by the unexpected discovery of the crosses was lessened by the tablet being detached from its original cross, precluding the possibility of determining to which of the three it had belonged. Ever fruitful in expedients, Macarius, then Bishop of
- 70. Jerusalem, suggested thehappy thought that the three crosses should be presented in succession to the person of a noble lady at that moment afflicted with an incurable disease, and the one which should impart healing virtue should be regarded as the cross on which the Lord of life and glory suffered. Singly each cross was presented, the first and second, however, without effect, but on the touch of the third she immediately recovered. Content with the accomplishment of a work so grand, and sincerely grateful for the honor Heaven had conferred upon her, she ordered the erection of a magnificent basilica over the Redeemer’s tomb, and, full of holy joy, the venerable Helena returned to Constantinople, where she expired in her eighty-second year. Nine years subsequent to her visit, and seven years after her demise, the Church of the Holy Sepulchre was completed, and with unrivaled pomp dedicated to Jesus in the year 335 A.D. With these additional facts and palpable discrepancies, it is impossible to determine to which belongs the honor of the work—to the Emperor of the West or to his imperial mother. In both accounts there is the incompatible mingling of tradition and miracle, mutually destroying the force of each other. An intelligent Christian, visiting Jerusalem for the first time, and remembering his Lord expired and was interred “nigh unto the city,” would not be a little surprised to find Golgotha and the tomb of Joseph in the heart of the modern town. At the time of those great events the city was encompassed on the north with two walls. The first, beginning at the Tower of Hippicus on Mount Zion, ran along its northern brow, and, crossing the Tyropean Valley, terminated at the western wall of the Temple inclosure, a distance of 630 yards. As the third wall was not built till after the Crucifixion, a description of it is not material to the argument; but on the direction of the second wall hangs the decision of this long-contested question. According to Josephus, the second wall commenced at the Gennath Gate, which signifies “garden,” and was used as a means of ingress either to a royal garden on Mount Zion, or of egress to the gardens in the Valley of Hinnom. In either case the gate would have been located near the western wall of the city, at which point the second wall commenced, and, running northward over the level portion of Mount Akra to the Damascus
- 71. Gate, and thencecoming down over Mount Bezetha, terminated at the northwest corner of the Tower of Antonia, including in its course the traditional Golgotha. To the most unpracticed eye such a line of wall would be in harmony with good sense, with correct civil engineering, and with the approved principles of military defensive works. To locate the Gennath Gate at the north base of Mount Zion, and run the second wall along Bazar Street up to the Damascus Gate and thence back to the Tower of Antonia, would certainly exclude the present site of the Holy Sepulchre, but would also exclude the large Pool of Hezekiah, give but a narrow space to the “Lower City” of ancient Jerusalem, and leave the whole of Mount Akra uninclosed. Such a line of wall would have left a large part, and the weakest portion, of the northern wall of Zion unprotected, and skirting, as it must have done, the steep sides of Akra, been entirely unavailing as a defensive structure. No sane engineer would have constructed a wall so as to expose to the use of an attacking enemy the large fountain of Hezekiah; and, if the second wall did not run north and south, it is impossible to understand Josephus, who informs us that, in his assault upon this part of the city, Titus stationed troops in towers along the southern part, and dispatched others to throw down the northern portion. The remains at the Damascus Gate of an ancient gateway with towers, the masonry of which is of equal antiquity with that in the northeast corner of the Temple area, are no doubt the ruins of the northern gate of the second wall; and the traces of an ancient wall between the old gateway and the Latin convent clearly indicate that the second wall inclosed Mount Akra on the west, and therefore included the Calvary and Holy Sepulchre of the monks. Though the legendary claims of this renowned church are rejected, and its pretended rights to the affections of mankind denied, yet the antiquity of its origin and the romance of its history can not fail to awaken a momentary veneration in the most indifferent spectator. Dedicated to Jesus in the year 335 A.D., it remained standing in all its primal grandeur for two hundred and
- 72. seventy-nine years, when,in 614 A.D., it was ruthlessly destroyed by the Persian, Chosroes II., who, after the capture of the city, massacred thousands of the citizens, including many monks and nuns, and, as the crowning act of his vengeance, carried the Patriarch of Jerusalem, together with the “true cross,” into captivity. Sixteen years later the church was rebuilt, under the superintendence of Modestus, superior of the convent of Theodosius, and the exiled patriarch returned, entering the city in triumph with the “cross” on his shoulder. Destined to the most remarkable vicissitudes, it was again destroyed in 969 A.D. by the Fatimites, who, in the madness of their retaliation, committed the aged patriarch to the flames of the burning building. Remaining a heap of ruins for more than forty years, the revengeful Khalif el- Hâkim, the spiritual and fanatical Prince of the Druses, caused it to be entirely demolished, plowing up its very foundations, and attempting the utter destruction of the tomb itself. With an energy as untiring as their gifts were munificent, the Christians rebuilt their favorite sanctuary within thirty-eight years after their cruel persecution by El-Hâkim, and it remained standing till 1099 A.D., when the Crusaders captured Jerusalem; the church was enlarged and beautified by them; and during the lapse of more than seven centuries it continued unimpaired till the year 1808 A.D., when, on the night of the 12th of October, a fire, originating in the Armenian chapel, consumed the noble pile. So intense was the heat that the massive walls suffered immensely; the cupola was rent in two; the roof of the nave and of the triforium gallery, together with all the altars, images, and pictures, were consumed; the marble piers in the rotunda were calcined, and the lofty dome above fell in with a tremendous crash upon the Holy Sepulchre. Inheriting the zeal and benevolence of an earlier age, the Christians of our own century determined to reconstruct their holiest of shrines, and selecting Commones, a Greek of the island of Mitylene, for the architect, the Church of the Holy Sepulchre was rebuilt in the year 1810 A.D., and remains standing to this day, the pride of the East and the most imposing of Christian monuments.240
- 73. CHAPTER VI. Forty Daysand forty Nights in the Holy City.— Inside View of Jerusalem.— Streets.— Buildings.— Commerce.— A Cosmopolitan City.— Government Officials.— Taxation. — Population.— Turks.— Dervishes.— Fast of Ramadan.— Feast of Beiram.— Moslem Sects.— Their Creeds.— Quarter of the Jews.— Their wretched Condition.— Their Nationalities.— Pensioners.— Jewish Passover.— Ceremonies witnessed.— Jewish Sabbath in Jerusalem.— Synagogue.— Education.— Mr. Touro and Sir Moses Montefiore.— Religious and Industrial Institutions.— Christian Sects in the Holy City.— Armenians.— Their Wealth.— Greeks.— Their Influence.— Latins.— Their Edifices.— Monastic Quarrels.— Curious Scene.— Rivalry between France and Russia.— Russian Gold.— Protestant Christianity in Jerusalem.— English Church.— House of Charity.— The two Slave Girls. Forty days and forty nights in the Holy City gave me ample time to thread its streets, examine its architecture, study its politics, consider its religion, and form an opinion of the social customs of its citizens. The attritions of time and the physical changes incident to war have marred the beauty of this once imperial city, and the Jerusalem of to-day holds no comparison in wealth and elegance with the Jerusalem of Solomon or of Herod the Great. Less than twelve feet wide, the streets are paved with small flag-stones, and, being without side-walks, are the thoroughfares for man and beast. Excepting the mosques and churches, the buildings are constructed in accordance with cheapness and convenience rather than in harmony with a costly and elegant architecture. They range in size
- 74. from a one-storybazar-shop to a three-story dwelling. Wood being scarce and expensive, they are built of the common gray limestone of Palestine; the windows are small and barred with iron; in the centre of the edifice is an open court; and the flat roof of each is adorned with a small dome, adding not a little to the general appearance of the structure and to the comfort of the inmates. The arrangement of the interior depends upon the nationality, taste, and wealth of the occupant. Usually the furniture is of the simplest kind, consisting of low stools for tables, on which the food is placed, and a series of divans encircling the room, which are used for seats in the daytime and for beds at night. The floor, walls, and ceiling are of stone, and are whitewashed as a substitute for carpets, paint, and paper. The bazars are in the most frequented streets, and are in either a small building or on the ground floor of a dwelling. The articles for sale are displayed on a shelf in front of the shop, or around the casement of the door. In addition to the more common necessaries of life, the principal commodities of traffic are the several kinds of Persian and Turkish tobacco, the fruits of the country, some rude silk and cotton fabrics manufactured in the city, together with beads, trinkets, and jewelry, of which the ladies are very fond. The commerce of the modern town is not equal to that of the ancient capital, when the merchants were princes, and when the caravans of the East brought to her gates the fine linen of Egypt, the steeds of Arabia, the carpets of Persia, the shawls of Cashmere, and the marvels of Bagdad.
- 75. VIEW OF MODERNJERUSALEM FROM THE MOUNT OF OLIVES. Jerusalem is a cosmopolitan city, where the representatives from all nations congregate and live. Amounting to 20,000 souls, the present population is divided into classes according to their religious opinions, and each sect occupies a separate portion of the town called “Quarters.” The Turk is now in power, swaying his iron sceptre, which he has held for more than six hundred years. The city having been elevated to the dignity of a distinct pashalic, the Pasha is appointed by the Sultan, and comes from Constantinople. The municipal government is civil and military. The civil governor is assisted by a delegated council of Moslems, of which one Jew and one Christian are members by sufferance, to represent the interests of their respective churches. Criminal and civil justice is administered by a city judge, called the “Cadi,” who is judge and jury, and whose decisions are law, whether the dictates of an impartial judgment or the sentence of a bribed magistrate. The military department is under Bim-Pasha, the most dreaded of all the government officials. His troops perform the double duty of garrison and police, guarding the gates during the day and patroling the streets at night. Destitute of courtesy and the finer feelings of our humanity, they are the most brutal class of men on the globe, who are respected because they are dreaded, and feared because they are vindictive. The palaces of
- 76. Welcome to ourwebsite – the perfect destination for book lovers and knowledge seekers. We believe that every book holds a new world, offering opportunities for learning, discovery, and personal growth. That’s why we are dedicated to bringing you a diverse collection of books, ranging from classic literature and specialized publications to self-development guides and children's books. More than just a book-buying platform, we strive to be a bridge connecting you with timeless cultural and intellectual values. With an elegant, user-friendly interface and a smart search system, you can quickly find the books that best suit your interests. Additionally, our special promotions and home delivery services help you save time and fully enjoy the joy of reading. Join us on a journey of knowledge exploration, passion nurturing, and personal growth every day! ebookmasss.com