This document is a term paper for an English literature class discussing the emergence of rhyme in English poetry during the 14th century. It summarizes the key debates in rhyme theory about the functions of rhyme, including mnemonic, schematic, musical, and semantic functions. It then discusses the transition from alliterative to rhyming verse in Middle English, examining historical, linguistic, and literary influences like Geoffrey Chaucer. The paper will analyze this transition through surviving manuscripts, language changes after the Norman Conquest, and rhyme theory concepts to better understand the complex causes behind rhyme's adoption in English poetry.
This document provides an overview of the poetic form of the sonnet over eight centuries, including its origins and evolution. It discusses key sonnet styles like the Petrarchan and Shakespearean forms. It also examines various literary devices commonly found in sonnets, such as rhyme schemes, meter, and the use of the couplet and quatrain. Finally, it profiles several famous poets who worked extensively in the sonnet form, from Petrarch in the 14th century to Wilfred Owen in the 20th century.
This document provides an overview of a study that examines words in poems through a "logocentric" or word-centered approach. It analyzes words within various contexts, including the poem itself, the author's body of work, and literary tradition. The study also explores the prominence of the word "Wanderer" in Goethe and Romantic poetry. It argues that this logocentric approach can help interpret poems and resolve mysteries in literary works. The document outlines the theoretical basis of this approach, derived from Saussure's distinction between langue and parole - the systematic and spoken aspects of language.
This document provides a summary of Samuel Taylor Coleridge's Biographia Literaria. It discusses Coleridge's new approach of "appreciative criticism" and how he sought to interpret works of art rather than judge them. It outlines Coleridge's views on the two cardinal points of poetry: fidelity to nature and the power of imagination. Coleridge also distinguishes between poetry and prose, defines what makes a legitimate poem, and discusses the difference between a poem and poetry itself.
This document summarizes and analyzes Katherine Anne Porter's use of stream-of-consciousness techniques in her novella Pale Horse, Pale Rider. It discusses how Porter employs free association and interior monologue to convey the thoughts and feelings of the main character, Miranda, regarding the horrors of World War I and her personal losses from the war and influenza pandemic. Miranda's consciousness is portrayed as fluid and chaotic through her free associations. Her interior monologues directly express her dislike for the war and her grief over the death of her lover Adam. Porter also uses Miranda's dreams to symbolize the accumulated suffering caused by the war.
Derrida's Deconstruction Imprisoned in Performance Poetryshafieyan
This document summarizes and analyzes the relationship between Derrida's concept of deconstruction and performance poetry. It argues that performance poetry diverges from deconstruction in several ways. Performance poetry emphasizes orality over writing, giving importance to the poet's physical presence and the timing of the performance. It also references specific works to show how poets like Amiri Baraka prioritize the performance over the written text. The document examines issues of referentiality and how concrete poetry maintains references within the text rather than referring to something outside the text, as Derrida claimed. Overall, it concludes that performance poetry in many ways differs from deconstructive stances due to its focus on presence, sound, and the experience of live
This document compares the epics of Homer and Valmiki. It discusses that while Homer and Valmiki lived in different time periods and regions, they were both considered epic poets who composed their works orally rather than in written form. The document examines similarities in the structure and themes of their works, such as both being centered around conflicts or journeys of heroic figures. It also discusses debates around dating the works and differences in opinions among scholars on when exactly the Ramayana was composed in its current form.
Poetry can be differentiated from prose, which is language meant to convey meaning in a less condensed way, using more logical or narrative structures. This does not imply poetry is illogical. Poetry is often created from the desire to escape the logical, as well as expressing feelings and other expressions in a tight, condensed manner. English Romantic poet John Keats termed this escape from logic Negative Capability.
Prose poetry combines the characteristics of poetry with the superficial appearance of prose. Other forms include narrative poetry and dramatic poetry, used to tell stories and so resemble novels and plays.
This document contains two book reviews. The first review summarizes a new edition of Barnabe Riche's obscure Renaissance tale "Brusanus, Prince of Hungaria" edited by Joseph Khoury. The second review discusses a book titled "Restoration Plays and Players: An Introduction" by David Roberts that provides an overview of Restoration theatre from 1660-1714.
This document provides an overview of the poetic form of the sonnet over eight centuries, including its origins and evolution. It discusses key sonnet styles like the Petrarchan and Shakespearean forms. It also examines various literary devices commonly found in sonnets, such as rhyme schemes, meter, and the use of the couplet and quatrain. Finally, it profiles several famous poets who worked extensively in the sonnet form, from Petrarch in the 14th century to Wilfred Owen in the 20th century.
This document provides an overview of a study that examines words in poems through a "logocentric" or word-centered approach. It analyzes words within various contexts, including the poem itself, the author's body of work, and literary tradition. The study also explores the prominence of the word "Wanderer" in Goethe and Romantic poetry. It argues that this logocentric approach can help interpret poems and resolve mysteries in literary works. The document outlines the theoretical basis of this approach, derived from Saussure's distinction between langue and parole - the systematic and spoken aspects of language.
This document provides a summary of Samuel Taylor Coleridge's Biographia Literaria. It discusses Coleridge's new approach of "appreciative criticism" and how he sought to interpret works of art rather than judge them. It outlines Coleridge's views on the two cardinal points of poetry: fidelity to nature and the power of imagination. Coleridge also distinguishes between poetry and prose, defines what makes a legitimate poem, and discusses the difference between a poem and poetry itself.
This document summarizes and analyzes Katherine Anne Porter's use of stream-of-consciousness techniques in her novella Pale Horse, Pale Rider. It discusses how Porter employs free association and interior monologue to convey the thoughts and feelings of the main character, Miranda, regarding the horrors of World War I and her personal losses from the war and influenza pandemic. Miranda's consciousness is portrayed as fluid and chaotic through her free associations. Her interior monologues directly express her dislike for the war and her grief over the death of her lover Adam. Porter also uses Miranda's dreams to symbolize the accumulated suffering caused by the war.
Derrida's Deconstruction Imprisoned in Performance Poetryshafieyan
This document summarizes and analyzes the relationship between Derrida's concept of deconstruction and performance poetry. It argues that performance poetry diverges from deconstruction in several ways. Performance poetry emphasizes orality over writing, giving importance to the poet's physical presence and the timing of the performance. It also references specific works to show how poets like Amiri Baraka prioritize the performance over the written text. The document examines issues of referentiality and how concrete poetry maintains references within the text rather than referring to something outside the text, as Derrida claimed. Overall, it concludes that performance poetry in many ways differs from deconstructive stances due to its focus on presence, sound, and the experience of live
This document compares the epics of Homer and Valmiki. It discusses that while Homer and Valmiki lived in different time periods and regions, they were both considered epic poets who composed their works orally rather than in written form. The document examines similarities in the structure and themes of their works, such as both being centered around conflicts or journeys of heroic figures. It also discusses debates around dating the works and differences in opinions among scholars on when exactly the Ramayana was composed in its current form.
Poetry can be differentiated from prose, which is language meant to convey meaning in a less condensed way, using more logical or narrative structures. This does not imply poetry is illogical. Poetry is often created from the desire to escape the logical, as well as expressing feelings and other expressions in a tight, condensed manner. English Romantic poet John Keats termed this escape from logic Negative Capability.
Prose poetry combines the characteristics of poetry with the superficial appearance of prose. Other forms include narrative poetry and dramatic poetry, used to tell stories and so resemble novels and plays.
This document contains two book reviews. The first review summarizes a new edition of Barnabe Riche's obscure Renaissance tale "Brusanus, Prince of Hungaria" edited by Joseph Khoury. The second review discusses a book titled "Restoration Plays and Players: An Introduction" by David Roberts that provides an overview of Restoration theatre from 1660-1714.
This document provides context on the early Japanese poets Kakinomoto no Hitomaro and Yamabe no Akahito. It discusses their works' development of lyricism from a ritualized oral tradition to a more literary written form. Hitomaro's poetry represented a turning point, balancing public and personal elements. Though influenced by Hitomaro, Akahito diverged in focusing more on natural imagery and individual perspective over ritual exaltation. This shift reflected Japan's cultural movement from oral performance to written literature. The document analyzes how Hitomaro and Akahito occupied different sides of this change through examining their travel poetry and works praising Yoshino.
Thoughts-1984 to 2014-on the Metaphysical PoetsRon Price
When I was teaching English literature to matriculation students at a polytechnic in Perth Western Australia back in the early 1990s, in my last decade employed as a FT teacher and lecturer, I had my first serious and systematic contact with the metaphysical poets. It was, though, only a brief contact, since I was also up-to-my-ears-and-eyes in many other aspects of literature, to say nothing of the history and psychology courses I was also teaching at the time in a vocational college which did not then, and does not now, expect its charges to be highly-tuned to the intricacies of poetry in particular and literature in general.
This document discusses the difference between the words "eminent" and "imminent". It then provides examples of their usage. It outlines the agenda for an English class, which includes paraphrasing a poem by Ezra Pound called "In a Station of the Metro". Guidelines are provided for how to properly paraphrase a poem. Students are then instructed to take part in a group discussion to paraphrase and analyze the poem. This is followed by an introduction to the poet William Carlos Williams, discussing his background and rise to prominence as an important modernist poet in America.
This document discusses George Orwell's allegorical novel Animal Farm. On the surface, it is an entertaining story about farm animals vying for power that even children can enjoy. However, beneath the surface it serves as an allegory for the ruthless totalitarianism that arose in Soviet Russia after the Bolshevik Revolution. The novel uses the farm animals to symbolize different factions within Soviet society and the power struggle that occurred.
The document provides an agenda and materials for an English class. It includes terms and definitions, information about author Langston Hughes, discussions of racial passing from two of his works, and instructions for writing a summary and paraphrasing a poem. The class will cover characterization, dialogue, epistles, irony, literal interpretation, literature, and paraphrasing. It will also include a lecture on Hughes and discussions of passing as depicted in his short story and poem of the same name. Students will complete in-class writing assignments involving a summary and paraphrasing.
The document discusses Christopher Marlowe, recognizing him as one of the greatest English poets and playwrights. It notes that he was praised by his contemporaries and later critics for his poetic excellence and for being the first major English poet to use drama as a medium for poetic expression. Marlowe perfected the use of blank verse in plays, introducing flexibility of rhythm and shifting caesura. While making great contributions to Elizabethan drama, he is regarded by some critics as a stronger poet than dramatist since his plays did not fully develop character and plot. Overall, the document examines Marlowe's significant role in developing English poetry and blank verse through his plays.
Influence of John Donne on Tagore’s Poetry A Critical Analysisijtsrd
This paper attempts to critically understand the relation and influence of English metaphysical poet John Donne 1572 1631 on Rabindranath Tagore’s 1861 1941 poems. The research will try to understand the features and philosophy of metaphysical poetry in the seventeenth century in England and how it was reflected in the writing of Tagore between the late 19 and early twenty century. The article aims to access the role of British Metaphysical poetry in the Bengali writers by the example of Rabindranath Tagore. The study concerns it with the impact of rapidly accelerating change in form, theme, and philosophy of poetry. The empirical study analyses changing the facts of the literary terms, approach, and subject matter of his poetry in Bengali poetry. The paper focuses on significant features of British Metaphysical poetry and Tagore’s poetry. Abdul Awal "Influence of John Donne on Tagore’s Poetry: A Critical Analysis" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-5 | Issue-4 , June 2021, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.compapers/ijtsrd43624.pdf Paper URL: https://www.ijtsrd.comother-scientific-research-area/literature/43624/influence-of-john-donne-on-tagore’s-poetry-a-critical-analysis/abdul-awal
1) The document discusses the history and development of concrete poetry since its origins in the 1950s. It argues that concrete poetry has expanded beyond the strictly modernist forms of its early period and proposes that it can be understood through rhizomatic and non-signifying readings that reject close reading and the search for hidden meanings.
2) It proposes a view of concrete poetry that embodies flows of non-verbal energy and oppositional forces that struggle against the constraints of grammar and representation. This movement in concrete poetry rejects representing in favor of ambiguity and brief eruptions of non-meaning.
3) It suggests concrete poetry can articulate a poetics that troubles the capitalist narrative by prioritizing excesses and
International Journal of Humanities and Social Science Invention (IJHSSI)inventionjournals
This document summarizes a research paper that examines the use of parenthetical expressions in Ahmadou Kourouma's novel "The Suns of Independence". The study identifies different types of parenthetical expressions used in the novel, such as those in parentheses, between commas, and between a comma and period. It analyzes examples of each type of parenthetical expression to understand their linguistic impact and contribution to meaning. The research finds that while parenthetical expressions are not essential to the meaning of the sentences they appear in, they provide important context and help interpret implied sociocultural meanings in the text.
Intertextuality of Rumi’s Masnavi with Quran: Author’s intentional effort and...inventionjournals
The notion of intertextuality emphasized that all literary texts are related to or influenced by the texts prior them. However in some cases the intertextual relation between the former and the later text is specifically intentional. This specific intertextual relationship is the one that Gerad Genette called hypertextuality, which although like all intertextual relationships is depended on the relation between two concepts of the later text, hypertext and the earlier one, hypotext, pays special attention to the intentionality of the intertextual relationship. Being sensible toward this sort of deliberate relationships that the author of a hypertext crated in his/her work is one of the essentialities of translation practices. It seems that in some of the recent English translations of Rumi’s poetry the noted sensitivity on the hypertextual relationships was totally neglected and caused the text to be located in a different context. This article by shedding light on the concept of intertextual relationship between Rumi’s Masnavi and Quran, aimed to demonstrate the real context of Rumi’s poetry to those Rumi’s audiences who read his poetry in another language other than Persian.
Coleridge provides a summary and critique of Wordsworth's views on poetic diction as expressed in the preface to Lyrical Ballads. He objects that not all of Wordsworth's characters are truly from low and rustic life, and their language cannot be attributed solely to their environment. Additionally, the language of rustics is too limited to form the basis of poetic language, as it lacks ideas, thoughts, and vocabulary derived from reflection. While Wordsworth aimed to use natural language, Coleridge argues the best parts of language come from thinking on noble concepts, not the direct expressions of rustics. Their views thus differ on the proper sources and qualities of language suitable for poetic works.
The document analyzes the poem "The Falling Leaves" by Margareth Postgate Cole. It finds the poem uses extensive metaphor to depict soldiers dying in World War I as autumn leaves falling from trees. The falling leaves represent the vast numbers of young men killed in battle, their lives cut short unexpectedly. Through metaphor and simile, the poem vividly conveys the senseless waste of human life during the war in just 12 lines. It concludes the poem is a moving tribute to soldiers who lost their lives, using natural imagery to reflect on the tragedy of death in conflict.
it includes
objections and defence
Review of each paragraph
essence and existence
prose and poetry
meter
effects of meter
principles of writing
coleridge as a critic
This document provides the guidelines for a research paper on Joseph Conrad's Heart of Darkness. Students must identify and analyze two critical views on racism or imperialism in the novel from eight provided essays. They must argue which view is more compelling based on evidence from the text. The paper must follow a specific format, citing sources, and include an introduction with thesis, two body paragraphs on each view, a conclusion, and works cited page.
This document provides an overview of a PhD thesis that examines three novels by Amitav Ghosh from a deconstructionist perspective. The thesis includes 7 chapters that analyze Ghosh's writings through concepts like binarism, plurality of meanings, and historiographic metafiction. Key points of analysis for the three novels are themes of migration, nationalism, and diaspora. The concluding chapter summarizes that Ghosh's narratives embrace pluralistic and non-linear techniques consistent with deconstructionist principles.
This document discusses the relation between Hegel and the Marquis de Sade through the lens of 20th century French thinkers. It argues that while Hegel and Sade's discourses cannot directly speak to each other, thinkers like Bataille, Blanchot, and Derrida positioned Sade's philosophy of transgression and excess as opposing Hegel's totalizing system. Derrida's text Glas is identified as a key work that opposes Hegel and Genet, with Genet serving as a proxy for Sade. The document aims to examine what is at stake in interpretations of Hegel when considering the pressure brought by the Sadean philosophical tradition through French thinkers.
Willing suspension of disbelief by samuel taylor coleridgeDayamani Surya
Willing suspension of disbelief is a term coined by Samuel Taylor Coleridge. It would mean suspend one's critical faculties and believe the unbelievable; sacrifice of realism and logic for the sake of judgement.
This article is an analysis of William Blake’s poem “The Fly” from the angles of Responsibility and Thought. The article agrees with much of the secondary literature that “The Fly” introduces an attempted identification between an inattentive philosophizing narrator and fly in the first three stanzas and then challenges it in the final two. However, the article makes the novel case that the narrator’s initial attempt at contemplative union with the fly is not completely rebuffed by the quizzical non sequitur contained in the final two stanzas. Blake’s oblique allusion to God is connected to the narrator’s recognition that he and the fly share a real and significant union, even if the two parties interpolate each other in completely alien forms.
Contemporary Drama in the Arab World: Commencement and Evolution (1) المسرح ا...Al Baha University
Drama has echoed and paralleled the life, customs, conduct, and general living traditions of society from its dim commencements on the ancient auditoriums and the banks of the Nile in olden Egypt approximately six thousand years ago. Drama is an advanced and simple means of recording and documenting human effort. There are many central playwrights significantly contributed to the progress and evolution of Arabic drama and theater and tended to perform dramatic representations within many Arabic countries throughout time and place.
This study is an attempt to shed light on two pioneer dramatists who were the first innovators, paving the way for the development of Arabic drama and theater. The first is the Lebanese Marun An-Naqqash, and the second is the Syrian Ahmad Abu Khalil Al-Qabbani. The paper is analytically and critically charted with an introduction. Then, it deals with a brief notion on the meaning of drama, focusing mainly on poetic drama and the origin and development of Arabic Drama. The central part copes with the two pioneers, An-Naqqash, and Al-Qabbani, shedding light on the struggle they made to give life to a very famous genre called drama. The paper reaches the end with a brief conclusion and recommendations if any.
This document discusses plants that Indian women have traditionally used to enhance beauty and skin care. It summarizes the uses and benefits of 11 plants from 11 families: turmeric, tulsi, amla, carrot, cucumber, papaya, potato, sandalwood, nutmeg, gram flour, and aloe vera. These plants are commonly used in home remedies and cosmetic products due to their skin healing, anti-aging, and beautifying properties. The key active compounds and uses of each plant are described, such as using turmeric for glowing skin, tulsi for skin infections, and amla for hair growth and skin glow. Indian women's traditional knowledge of herbal beauty treatments is discussed.
1. Uttar Pradesh remains the most populated state in India with almost 200 million people, while Sikkim has the least population of only 607,000 people.
2. Some key factors that influence population distribution in India include ecological factors like climate, landforms, soils and resources, as well as cultural factors such as economic activities and demographic factors such as birth and death rates and migration trends.
3. Areas with fertile soils, abundant water resources, and proximity to rivers tend to have higher population densities, while mountainous, desert, or low rainfall areas are more sparsely populated.
This document provides context on the early Japanese poets Kakinomoto no Hitomaro and Yamabe no Akahito. It discusses their works' development of lyricism from a ritualized oral tradition to a more literary written form. Hitomaro's poetry represented a turning point, balancing public and personal elements. Though influenced by Hitomaro, Akahito diverged in focusing more on natural imagery and individual perspective over ritual exaltation. This shift reflected Japan's cultural movement from oral performance to written literature. The document analyzes how Hitomaro and Akahito occupied different sides of this change through examining their travel poetry and works praising Yoshino.
Thoughts-1984 to 2014-on the Metaphysical PoetsRon Price
When I was teaching English literature to matriculation students at a polytechnic in Perth Western Australia back in the early 1990s, in my last decade employed as a FT teacher and lecturer, I had my first serious and systematic contact with the metaphysical poets. It was, though, only a brief contact, since I was also up-to-my-ears-and-eyes in many other aspects of literature, to say nothing of the history and psychology courses I was also teaching at the time in a vocational college which did not then, and does not now, expect its charges to be highly-tuned to the intricacies of poetry in particular and literature in general.
This document discusses the difference between the words "eminent" and "imminent". It then provides examples of their usage. It outlines the agenda for an English class, which includes paraphrasing a poem by Ezra Pound called "In a Station of the Metro". Guidelines are provided for how to properly paraphrase a poem. Students are then instructed to take part in a group discussion to paraphrase and analyze the poem. This is followed by an introduction to the poet William Carlos Williams, discussing his background and rise to prominence as an important modernist poet in America.
This document discusses George Orwell's allegorical novel Animal Farm. On the surface, it is an entertaining story about farm animals vying for power that even children can enjoy. However, beneath the surface it serves as an allegory for the ruthless totalitarianism that arose in Soviet Russia after the Bolshevik Revolution. The novel uses the farm animals to symbolize different factions within Soviet society and the power struggle that occurred.
The document provides an agenda and materials for an English class. It includes terms and definitions, information about author Langston Hughes, discussions of racial passing from two of his works, and instructions for writing a summary and paraphrasing a poem. The class will cover characterization, dialogue, epistles, irony, literal interpretation, literature, and paraphrasing. It will also include a lecture on Hughes and discussions of passing as depicted in his short story and poem of the same name. Students will complete in-class writing assignments involving a summary and paraphrasing.
The document discusses Christopher Marlowe, recognizing him as one of the greatest English poets and playwrights. It notes that he was praised by his contemporaries and later critics for his poetic excellence and for being the first major English poet to use drama as a medium for poetic expression. Marlowe perfected the use of blank verse in plays, introducing flexibility of rhythm and shifting caesura. While making great contributions to Elizabethan drama, he is regarded by some critics as a stronger poet than dramatist since his plays did not fully develop character and plot. Overall, the document examines Marlowe's significant role in developing English poetry and blank verse through his plays.
Influence of John Donne on Tagore’s Poetry A Critical Analysisijtsrd
This paper attempts to critically understand the relation and influence of English metaphysical poet John Donne 1572 1631 on Rabindranath Tagore’s 1861 1941 poems. The research will try to understand the features and philosophy of metaphysical poetry in the seventeenth century in England and how it was reflected in the writing of Tagore between the late 19 and early twenty century. The article aims to access the role of British Metaphysical poetry in the Bengali writers by the example of Rabindranath Tagore. The study concerns it with the impact of rapidly accelerating change in form, theme, and philosophy of poetry. The empirical study analyses changing the facts of the literary terms, approach, and subject matter of his poetry in Bengali poetry. The paper focuses on significant features of British Metaphysical poetry and Tagore’s poetry. Abdul Awal "Influence of John Donne on Tagore’s Poetry: A Critical Analysis" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-5 | Issue-4 , June 2021, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.compapers/ijtsrd43624.pdf Paper URL: https://www.ijtsrd.comother-scientific-research-area/literature/43624/influence-of-john-donne-on-tagore’s-poetry-a-critical-analysis/abdul-awal
1) The document discusses the history and development of concrete poetry since its origins in the 1950s. It argues that concrete poetry has expanded beyond the strictly modernist forms of its early period and proposes that it can be understood through rhizomatic and non-signifying readings that reject close reading and the search for hidden meanings.
2) It proposes a view of concrete poetry that embodies flows of non-verbal energy and oppositional forces that struggle against the constraints of grammar and representation. This movement in concrete poetry rejects representing in favor of ambiguity and brief eruptions of non-meaning.
3) It suggests concrete poetry can articulate a poetics that troubles the capitalist narrative by prioritizing excesses and
International Journal of Humanities and Social Science Invention (IJHSSI)inventionjournals
This document summarizes a research paper that examines the use of parenthetical expressions in Ahmadou Kourouma's novel "The Suns of Independence". The study identifies different types of parenthetical expressions used in the novel, such as those in parentheses, between commas, and between a comma and period. It analyzes examples of each type of parenthetical expression to understand their linguistic impact and contribution to meaning. The research finds that while parenthetical expressions are not essential to the meaning of the sentences they appear in, they provide important context and help interpret implied sociocultural meanings in the text.
Intertextuality of Rumi’s Masnavi with Quran: Author’s intentional effort and...inventionjournals
The notion of intertextuality emphasized that all literary texts are related to or influenced by the texts prior them. However in some cases the intertextual relation between the former and the later text is specifically intentional. This specific intertextual relationship is the one that Gerad Genette called hypertextuality, which although like all intertextual relationships is depended on the relation between two concepts of the later text, hypertext and the earlier one, hypotext, pays special attention to the intentionality of the intertextual relationship. Being sensible toward this sort of deliberate relationships that the author of a hypertext crated in his/her work is one of the essentialities of translation practices. It seems that in some of the recent English translations of Rumi’s poetry the noted sensitivity on the hypertextual relationships was totally neglected and caused the text to be located in a different context. This article by shedding light on the concept of intertextual relationship between Rumi’s Masnavi and Quran, aimed to demonstrate the real context of Rumi’s poetry to those Rumi’s audiences who read his poetry in another language other than Persian.
Coleridge provides a summary and critique of Wordsworth's views on poetic diction as expressed in the preface to Lyrical Ballads. He objects that not all of Wordsworth's characters are truly from low and rustic life, and their language cannot be attributed solely to their environment. Additionally, the language of rustics is too limited to form the basis of poetic language, as it lacks ideas, thoughts, and vocabulary derived from reflection. While Wordsworth aimed to use natural language, Coleridge argues the best parts of language come from thinking on noble concepts, not the direct expressions of rustics. Their views thus differ on the proper sources and qualities of language suitable for poetic works.
The document analyzes the poem "The Falling Leaves" by Margareth Postgate Cole. It finds the poem uses extensive metaphor to depict soldiers dying in World War I as autumn leaves falling from trees. The falling leaves represent the vast numbers of young men killed in battle, their lives cut short unexpectedly. Through metaphor and simile, the poem vividly conveys the senseless waste of human life during the war in just 12 lines. It concludes the poem is a moving tribute to soldiers who lost their lives, using natural imagery to reflect on the tragedy of death in conflict.
it includes
objections and defence
Review of each paragraph
essence and existence
prose and poetry
meter
effects of meter
principles of writing
coleridge as a critic
This document provides the guidelines for a research paper on Joseph Conrad's Heart of Darkness. Students must identify and analyze two critical views on racism or imperialism in the novel from eight provided essays. They must argue which view is more compelling based on evidence from the text. The paper must follow a specific format, citing sources, and include an introduction with thesis, two body paragraphs on each view, a conclusion, and works cited page.
This document provides an overview of a PhD thesis that examines three novels by Amitav Ghosh from a deconstructionist perspective. The thesis includes 7 chapters that analyze Ghosh's writings through concepts like binarism, plurality of meanings, and historiographic metafiction. Key points of analysis for the three novels are themes of migration, nationalism, and diaspora. The concluding chapter summarizes that Ghosh's narratives embrace pluralistic and non-linear techniques consistent with deconstructionist principles.
This document discusses the relation between Hegel and the Marquis de Sade through the lens of 20th century French thinkers. It argues that while Hegel and Sade's discourses cannot directly speak to each other, thinkers like Bataille, Blanchot, and Derrida positioned Sade's philosophy of transgression and excess as opposing Hegel's totalizing system. Derrida's text Glas is identified as a key work that opposes Hegel and Genet, with Genet serving as a proxy for Sade. The document aims to examine what is at stake in interpretations of Hegel when considering the pressure brought by the Sadean philosophical tradition through French thinkers.
Willing suspension of disbelief by samuel taylor coleridgeDayamani Surya
Willing suspension of disbelief is a term coined by Samuel Taylor Coleridge. It would mean suspend one's critical faculties and believe the unbelievable; sacrifice of realism and logic for the sake of judgement.
This article is an analysis of William Blake’s poem “The Fly” from the angles of Responsibility and Thought. The article agrees with much of the secondary literature that “The Fly” introduces an attempted identification between an inattentive philosophizing narrator and fly in the first three stanzas and then challenges it in the final two. However, the article makes the novel case that the narrator’s initial attempt at contemplative union with the fly is not completely rebuffed by the quizzical non sequitur contained in the final two stanzas. Blake’s oblique allusion to God is connected to the narrator’s recognition that he and the fly share a real and significant union, even if the two parties interpolate each other in completely alien forms.
Contemporary Drama in the Arab World: Commencement and Evolution (1) المسرح ا...Al Baha University
Drama has echoed and paralleled the life, customs, conduct, and general living traditions of society from its dim commencements on the ancient auditoriums and the banks of the Nile in olden Egypt approximately six thousand years ago. Drama is an advanced and simple means of recording and documenting human effort. There are many central playwrights significantly contributed to the progress and evolution of Arabic drama and theater and tended to perform dramatic representations within many Arabic countries throughout time and place.
This study is an attempt to shed light on two pioneer dramatists who were the first innovators, paving the way for the development of Arabic drama and theater. The first is the Lebanese Marun An-Naqqash, and the second is the Syrian Ahmad Abu Khalil Al-Qabbani. The paper is analytically and critically charted with an introduction. Then, it deals with a brief notion on the meaning of drama, focusing mainly on poetic drama and the origin and development of Arabic Drama. The central part copes with the two pioneers, An-Naqqash, and Al-Qabbani, shedding light on the struggle they made to give life to a very famous genre called drama. The paper reaches the end with a brief conclusion and recommendations if any.
This document discusses plants that Indian women have traditionally used to enhance beauty and skin care. It summarizes the uses and benefits of 11 plants from 11 families: turmeric, tulsi, amla, carrot, cucumber, papaya, potato, sandalwood, nutmeg, gram flour, and aloe vera. These plants are commonly used in home remedies and cosmetic products due to their skin healing, anti-aging, and beautifying properties. The key active compounds and uses of each plant are described, such as using turmeric for glowing skin, tulsi for skin infections, and amla for hair growth and skin glow. Indian women's traditional knowledge of herbal beauty treatments is discussed.
1. Uttar Pradesh remains the most populated state in India with almost 200 million people, while Sikkim has the least population of only 607,000 people.
2. Some key factors that influence population distribution in India include ecological factors like climate, landforms, soils and resources, as well as cultural factors such as economic activities and demographic factors such as birth and death rates and migration trends.
3. Areas with fertile soils, abundant water resources, and proximity to rivers tend to have higher population densities, while mountainous, desert, or low rainfall areas are more sparsely populated.
Rural health administration in Maharashtra faces several challenges. The majority of rural residents live in abysmal conditions without access to clean water or adequate nutrition, and most deliveries are conducted at home without trained birth attendants. While India has experienced improvements in some health indicators, disparities remain high between urban and rural areas. Rural areas are underserved by health infrastructure, with 31% of hospitals and 20% of beds located rurally. Increased focus on specialist doctors has also failed to address rural communities' primary health needs.
1) The document examines the correlation between population distribution and various physical and non-physical determinants in Haryana, India.
2) It finds a moderate positive correlation between rainfall and population distribution, and a low negative correlation between forest area, net sown area, commercial crop area, irrigation, and population distribution.
3) A low positive correlation exists between the level of economic development and population distribution. The study finds that population growth in Haryana is influenced most by economic development and rainfall.
1. The document discusses electronic contracts, which are formed through methods like email exchanges, website order forms, and online agreements.
2. Key aspects of electronic contracts include offer and acceptance, lawful consideration, and the ability to perform the contract terms. Electronic signatures and records must also be legally recognized.
3. There are similarities between traditional and electronic contracts, including the need for offer, consent, lawful purpose and competence of parties. Electronic contracts enable fast, convenient transactions online.
This document summarizes a study on solid waste management in Bandhgora, India. It finds that as populations and industries have grown, they generate large amounts of hazardous solid waste like plastics, metals, glass and chemicals. This waste pollutes the local environment and poses many health risks by breeding diseases. If not managed properly, uncollected waste can clog drains and spread illness. The document recommends both pre-measures like reducing plastic use and post-measures like proper waste collection and disposal to address this important issue.
The document summarizes a research paper on the relationship between teacher effectiveness and intelligence among secondary school teachers. It finds that teacher effectiveness has a positive and significant correlation with intelligence. Specifically:
1. Teacher effectiveness is positively correlated with intelligence overall among secondary school teachers.
2. Teacher effectiveness is positively correlated with intelligence for teachers with 1-10 years of experience.
3. Teacher effectiveness is positively correlated with intelligence for teachers with 11 or more years of experience.
The study concludes that increased intelligence is generally associated with greater teacher effectiveness at the secondary school level.
This document summarizes a research paper about simulating traditional Gota embroidery designs of Rajasthan using CorelDraw software. The paper documents common Gota embroidery motifs like flowers, leaves, and animals. It then discusses how the traditional manual design process is tedious and time-consuming. The researchers explored traditional Gota motifs, and used CorelDraw to digitize and stylize the motifs into innovative contemporary designs. They created 9 new digital designs by manipulating motif shapes and layouts. The paper concludes that digitizing traditional embroidery helps preserve cultural heritage while allowing for new design variations.
The document discusses issues with India's higher education system and the need for reforms. It notes that the system produces graduates lacking practical skills, leading to unemployment despite skilled labor shortages. Standards are low and declining at many institutions. Private institutions have grown chaotically with minimal oversight. The regulatory system fails to maintain quality. Reforms are needed to align the education system with the demands of the economy and produce a skilled workforce to help India's development.
This document summarizes a study on the use of information and communication technologies (ICT) among female students studying arts in India. Some key findings of the study include:
- Only 60% of the female students had received computer training, and an even lower percentage had used the internet before. Lack of training and demonstration limited their understanding of how ICT could help them.
- While over half of the students owned mobile phones, only 2 out of 35 used social networking sites. Confidence levels in using ICT independently were also relatively low.
- Limited access was a major barrier, as less than 20% had internet at home. Most accessed the internet at cyber cafes, but were hesitant due
This document discusses the field of pragmatics. It defines pragmatics as the study of language use and linguistic communication in context. It traces the origin of the term pragmatics to philosopher Charles Morris, who distinguished between semantics, syntax and pragmatics. Pragmatics focuses on analyzing meaning based on the context and speaker's intended meaning, rather than just the literal meaning of sentences. The document provides examples to illustrate the differences between sentence meaning and utterance meaning, and semantics versus pragmatics.
This document appears to be a collection of 6 unfiled notes pages that do not contain any discernible information. The pages are blank and provide no context or substance to summarize.
This document discusses three main approaches to ESP (English for Specific Purposes) course design: language-centered, skills-centered, and learning-centered. The language-centered approach aims to directly connect target situation analysis to course content but fails to consider learners. The skills-centered approach focuses on developing reading abilities based on theoretical and pragmatic hypotheses but may not achieve goals. The learning-centered approach sees learning as determined by learners and influenced by their knowledge and motivation; it negotiates between target needs and learning situations at every stage.
This document provides an analysis of Toni Morrison's novel "The Bluest Eye" and the theme of identity. It discusses how the main characters Pecola Breedlove, Cholly Breedlove, and Pauline Breedlove struggle with their identity and quest for acceptance. Pecola yearns for blue eyes and white beauty standards. She is rejected by her family and community. Cholly was abandoned as a child and his search for his father left him scarred. Pauline finds identity and satisfaction working for a white family but neglects her own. The document analyzes how society and lack of community support impacted the characters' formation of identity.
Needs analysis questionnaire 10 may 2010 maf.mod.gov.mypendidikanborangborang...Hameed Al-Zubeiry
This document contains a needs analysis questionnaire to assess the requirements for an English curriculum design course. It collects information about the purpose, students, duration and target course for the curriculum being designed. It asks questions about the type of English course (general, ESP, EAP), level, skills focus (listening, speaking, reading, writing), content materials, and language requirements for students. The questionnaire aims to gather details about the curriculum project that will be used to design, develop and document an English course specific to the respondent's unit or command during the curriculum design course.
This document is a scholarly essay that analyzes the poem "That Now Are Wild and Do Not Remember" by David Ferry as an example of traumatic poetry. The essay discusses how the poem depicts the crisis of language, disruption of linear time, and destruction of a sense of place that are characteristics of the literature of trauma. Through repetition and an inability to fully articulate the traumatic event, the poem's speaker, like characters in trauma fiction, struggles to narrate their experience. The essay argues that poetry is an effective medium for communicating trauma and should be considered alongside other forms in discussions of the traumatic aesthetic.
This document discusses various concepts and terms used in literary criticism, including:
- Affective fallacy and intentional fallacy, which were concepts introduced by Wimsatt and Beardsley regarding separating a work from reader response and authorial intent.
- Pathetic fallacy, allegory, allusion, ambiguity, and other concepts related to interpreting and analyzing literature.
- Archetype, binary opposition, carnival theory, conventions, contradiction, and other terms used in structuralist and post-structuralist criticism to examine cultural and linguistic patterns.
The document provides definitions and examples of various literary devices and poetic forms, including alliteration, rhyme, meter, sonnets, stanzas, and more. It discusses poetic techniques like rhyme schemes, line structure, and figurative language. The document is intended as a reference for understanding basic poetry terminology.
Introduction to poetry and the literally devicesTebogo Mothibeli
The document discusses various elements and concepts related to poetry. It defines poetry and notes that it combines precise word meanings with emotional associations, sounds, and rhythms. It then examines different poetic forms such as sonnets and free verse. Various literary devices used in poetry are also outlined, including metaphor, simile, personification, and onomatopoeia. The document provides examples to illustrate different poetic elements, forms, and literary techniques.
This document provides definitions and examples of various poetry terms including scansion, meter, rhyme scheme, and poetic forms. It defines common poetic devices such as alliteration, assonance, and consonance. It also explains different types of poetic feet including iamb, trochee, anapest and dactyl. Additionally, it provides examples of well-known poems that demonstrate different meters, forms, and poetic techniques.
1) Muriel Spark was a master of using sound in her poems to convey meaning in subtle and complex ways. She carefully crafted the arrangement of sounds through techniques like alliteration, repetition of phonemes, and variation of meter.
2) Other poets like Hopkins, Williams, and Heaney also skillfully employed sound symbolism and unusual rhythmic structures to add symbolic meaning and enhance comprehension beyond the literal words.
3) The document discusses how language and poetry can be understood as a kind of music, with poets experimenting with the musical possibilities of sounds and rhythms to express ideas in novel and intricate forms.
A Formalist Analysis on Shakespeare s Sonnet.pdfSarah Morrow
This document provides an analysis of Shakespeare's Sonnet 18. It discusses the poem's structure, including its 14 lines organized into three quatrains and a couplet. It also analyzes various sound devices used, including iambic pentameter meter, end rhyme scheme, assonance, consonance, alliteration, and repetition. The analysis examines specific lines to identify examples of these literary techniques. It suggests Sonnet 18 serves as a good example of a Shakespearean sonnet's form and explores how its popularity stems from its ambiguity and complexity that still resonates with modern readers and scholars.
This document provides an overview of poetry terms and types. It defines poetry as the creative use of words to stir emotion in the audience. Poetry can take fixed or free form and cover different subjects. The main types are lyric, narrative, and dramatic poetry. Examples of each type are given. Literary devices like simile, metaphor, rhyme and rhythm are explained. Different poetic forms like sonnets and couplets are also defined. The document concludes with a reflection activity asking students to discuss what they like and dislike about poetry.
Literary terms and their meanings.
Literary terms, such as, allegory, alliteration, consonance, conceit, tragicomedy, tragedy, comedy, etc all are explained.
This document discusses the purpose and principles of stylistics analysis. It explains that stylistics explores creativity in language use to enrich understanding of texts. A rigorous, retrievable, and replicable methodology is important. Various levels of language are identified that can be analyzed, including phonology, graphology, morphology, syntax, lexicology, semantics, and pragmatics. Literary texts have an individualizing rather than social function through their unconventional and ambiguous language. Poetry in particular uses language playfully to create imaginary worlds and reflect emotions.
This document defines and explains the key elements of poetry. It discusses that poetry uses imaginative language and rhythmic devices to evoke emotion. Some core elements defined include stanzas, rhyme schemes, imagery, diction, persona, refrain, repetition, theme, symbolism, and literary devices such as metaphor, simile and personification. It provides examples for most elements to illustrate their usage and effect.
Metaphysical poetry is characterized by elaborate metaphors and conceits, unconventional comparisons, and an exploration of the relationship between the physical and spiritual world. It originated in the 17th century with poets like John Donne, who employed complex analogies and unconventional language. While Samuel Johnson criticized metaphysical poetry as artificial, he acknowledged it occasionally uses surprising imagery and discoveries to examine profound topics.
1) The document discusses the challenges of objectively analyzing literature and determining the meaning and context of words within poems.
2) It examines Robert Browning's use of religiously-charged words in some of his poems and argues this suggests an underlying mystical or religious dimension, contrary to how the poems may seem at face value.
3) The document also discusses debates around whether the context for analyzing a work should be just the work itself or if external contexts like the author's overall body of work or historical time period should also be considered.
This document summarizes key elements of poetry form, including physical form, types of poetry, language devices, imagery, allusion, theme, rhyme, rhythm, tone and meaning. It discusses sound devices, structural devices, sense devices, logical sequence and association in poetry form. It provides examples of types of poetry like lyric, dramatic, pastoral and sonnet. It also defines figures of speech like metonymy, paradox and irony. Additionally, it covers imagery, allusion, theme, rhyme, rhythm, tone and levels of meaning in poetry.
In our secular age literary critics tend to deny that literary texts reveal 'truth' in a religious sense even though great authors like Milton and Robert Browning saw themselves as divine messengers. Even poets such as Shelley imbued their works with a spiritual quality in defiance of tendencies to regard poetry as outmoded and alien to progressive and rationalit thought. Perhaps it is time to rise to poetry's defence as Shelley did.
A Metremic Analysis Of The Poetry Of YeatsKarla Adamson
This thesis analyzes the poetry of William Butler Yeats using a new system of metrical analysis called "metremic analysis." The thesis begins by outlining the conflict between traditional and modern linguistic approaches to metrical theory. It then presents a new analytical method that aims to reconcile these two perspectives. Several of Yeats's poems are analyzed in detail using this system to illustrate how it can provide empirical support for Yeats's own impressionistic comments on poetic form and style. The conclusion suggests potential applications of metremic analysis to the broader study of poetry.
A verse by verse commentary on Lamentations 1 dealing with the severe judgment of God on Judah because of her many sins. Jerusalem once honored is now despised,
International Journal of Humanities and Social Science Invention (IJHSSI) is an international journal intended for professionals and researchers in all fields of Humanities and Social Science. IJHSSI publishes research articles and reviews within the whole field Humanities and Social Science, new teaching methods, assessment, validation and the impact of new technologies and it will continue to provide information on the latest trends and developments in this ever-expanding subject. The publications of papers are selected through double peer reviewed to ensure originality, relevance, and readability. The articles published in our journal can be accessed online.
This document provides an introduction to analyzing Neil Gaiman's graphic novel The Sandman using principles from Horace's Ars Poetica as a framework. It summarizes the key topics covered in the Ars Poetica that will be used for analysis. These include the use of language and technique, artistic handling of literary material, dramatic and visual presentation, and the role of the poet. The document argues that while comics were once seen as trivial, The Sandman demonstrates their ability for serious literary discourse, and the Ars Poetica continues to provide relevant aesthetic principles despite its age.
This document provides guidance on writing introductions and conclusions for academic papers. It discusses the purpose and structure of introductions and conclusions. Introductions should provide context and background on the topic, and end with a clear thesis statement. Conclusions should summarize the main points of the paper and reiterate the thesis. The document provides examples of effective introductory and concluding paragraphs and emphasizes that introductions and conclusions have different purposes and should not simply repeat each other.
The document discusses applied linguistics (AL), including its history and definitions provided by scholars like Corder, Crystal, and Strevens. AL is the application of linguistic knowledge to real-world problems by drawing on various related fields such as linguistics, sociology, psychology, and education. It aims to explore second language learning and teaching, investigate language learning and teaching problems, and find practical solutions to address those issues. AL is important because it helps solve language-related challenges, and language plays a crucial role in human activities.
The document discusses selecting a research topic and defining a research problem. It explains that selecting a topic is difficult for novice researchers due to limited experience. A research topic can have many aspects, and the specific aspect being investigated is the research problem. A research problem can be an interesting phenomenon to study, factors that affect it, or an idea or argument that needs supporting. The document also provides a diagram of how topics are selected within a field of study, discusses qualities of a good topic like being investigable and significant, and provides an example scale for evaluating and selecting between multiple topics.
1. The document discusses research methods in linguistics and literature. It covers topics like the branches of linguistics, what constitutes research, objectives of language research, and establishing reliability and validity in research.
2. It defines linguistics as the scientific study of language and literature as the art of language conveyed through various media.
3. Research is defined as an organized and systematic process of finding answers to questions through reliable and valid methods. Ensuring ethical validity is also important.
Applied linguistics is related to several areas including language teaching, language policy and planning, speech pathology/therapy, lexicography and dictionary making, translation, and computer assisted language learning. It provides intellectual foundations for advances in language teaching and assists language planners. Applied linguistics also incorporates into professional training for speech therapists and the training of translators. A new generation of lexicographers is influenced by applied linguistics, and computer programs have been developed to assist language learning.
The document discusses three airstream mechanisms - pulmonic, glottalic, and velaric - that refer to how air is moved in speech production. Pulmonic involves lung air, glottalic involves pharynx/mouth air moved by the glottis, and velaric involves mouth air moved by the tongue. It also discusses four states of the glottis - voiceless, voiced, breathy, and creaky - which impact phonation and voicing. Sounds can be produced with pulmonic egressive (outward airflow), pulmonic ingressive (inward), glottalic egressive, glottalic ingressive, or velaric ingressive airstreams.
The document discusses the role of the ESP (English for Specific Purposes) teacher. It identifies five key roles for ESP practitioners: teacher, collaborator who works with subject specialists, course designer and provider of suitable materials, researcher to evaluate materials, and evaluator who provides feedback to students. It also notes three main problems ESP teachers face: a lack of established orthodoxy to guide them, needing expertise in new subject matter domains, and navigating changes in the status of English teaching from a subject to a service industry for other specialisms.
This lecture discusses the application of an ESP course design. It covers the key elements of an ESP course design including the syllabus, materials, methodology, and evaluation procedures. For each element, the lecture provides details on how to design the syllabus, evaluate materials, develop methodology, and assess learners and evaluate the overall course. The goal is to demonstrate how to implement an ESP course design in a practical, hands-on manner.
1. Needs analysis involves gathering information about the target needs of learners as well as their learning needs. It determines what language is needed for a target situation and how learners can acquire that language.
2. Target needs refer to what language is necessary for learners to function effectively in their field or profession. Learning needs consider how learners currently learn and what resources are available to support their language acquisition.
3. Performing a needs analysis involves collecting data through questionnaires, interviews, observation, and consultation to understand the target situation, learners, learning environment, and how the ESP course can meet both target and learning needs. It is an ongoing process that requires negotiating different perspectives.
This document discusses phonetics and the production of speech sounds. It covers three key points:
1. Phonetics is the study of speech sounds, including their articulation, transmission, and perception. It examines the movement of speech organs like the lungs, larynx, tongue, and lips.
2. There are three main systems involved in sound production: the respiratory system which provides air flow from the lungs, the phonatory system involving the larynx and vocal cords, and the articulatory system comprising structures like the pharynx, tongue, and lips that modify the sound.
3. Speech sounds are produced when air from the lungs passes through the vocal cords in the larynx, which can
This document discusses different aspects of pragmatics including micropragmatics and macropragmatics. Micropragmatics examines language use in smaller contexts and deals with phenomena like reference, deixis, anaphora, and presupposition. Macropragmatics concerns language use in various settings and looks at principles of cooperation, conversation implicature, speech acts, indirect language, and cross-cultural communication. The document also provides examples and explanations of reference, deixis, anaphora, and how context is important for pragmatic interpretation.
Feedback provides learners information about their performance on exams, homework, and other assignments to reduce anxiety, reinforce correct answers, and encourage improved effort. It informs learners about what they have learned correctly or incorrectly, and helps strengthen correct links in memory while weakening incorrect links. Feedback stimulates learning, increases motivation, and helps teachers and learners understand strengths and areas for improvement.
The document summarizes research on Arab EFL learners' writing difficulties at the tertiary level. It discusses how previous research primarily blamed learners for their weak writing, without considering educational policies. The study aims to show how outdated approaches and resources used in writing courses can also contribute to writing problems. It analyzes writing courses in three Arab universities and finds they rely on approaches from the 1940s-1950s, rather than incorporating new linguistic and writing theories. The document concludes that unless universities update their writing syllabi, Arab EFL learners will continue facing writing difficulties.
A classroom experiment in student oriented design and textbookHameed Al-Zubeiry
This document discusses a process approach to providing feedback on student writing. It argues that traditional feedback focused only on grammatical errors is inadequate and does not help students improve as writers. A process approach considers writing a complex process involving generating, organizing, and refining ideas. Effective feedback should address both form and content at various stages of writing. Feedback should also motivate students to self-correct, and allow opportunities to revise based on feedback before final evaluation.
LAND USE LAND COVER AND NDVI OF MIRZAPUR DISTRICT, UPRAHUL
This Dissertation explores the particular circumstances of Mirzapur, a region located in the
core of India. Mirzapur, with its varied terrains and abundant biodiversity, offers an optimal
environment for investigating the changes in vegetation cover dynamics. Our study utilizes
advanced technologies such as GIS (Geographic Information Systems) and Remote sensing to
analyze the transformations that have taken place over the course of a decade.
The complex relationship between human activities and the environment has been the focus
of extensive research and worry. As the global community grapples with swift urbanization,
population expansion, and economic progress, the effects on natural ecosystems are becoming
more evident. A crucial element of this impact is the alteration of vegetation cover, which plays a
significant role in maintaining the ecological equilibrium of our planet.Land serves as the foundation for all human activities and provides the necessary materials for
these activities. As the most crucial natural resource, its utilization by humans results in different
'Land uses,' which are determined by both human activities and the physical characteristics of the
land.
The utilization of land is impacted by human needs and environmental factors. In countries
like India, rapid population growth and the emphasis on extensive resource exploitation can lead
to significant land degradation, adversely affecting the region's land cover.
Therefore, human intervention has significantly influenced land use patterns over many
centuries, evolving its structure over time and space. In the present era, these changes have
accelerated due to factors such as agriculture and urbanization. Information regarding land use and
cover is essential for various planning and management tasks related to the Earth's surface,
providing crucial environmental data for scientific, resource management, policy purposes, and
diverse human activities.
Accurate understanding of land use and cover is imperative for the development planning
of any area. Consequently, a wide range of professionals, including earth system scientists, land
and water managers, and urban planners, are interested in obtaining data on land use and cover
changes, conversion trends, and other related patterns. The spatial dimensions of land use and
cover support policymakers and scientists in making well-informed decisions, as alterations in
these patterns indicate shifts in economic and social conditions. Monitoring such changes with the
help of Advanced technologies like Remote Sensing and Geographic Information Systems is
crucial for coordinated efforts across different administrative levels. Advanced technologies like
Remote Sensing and Geographic Information Systems
9
Changes in vegetation cover refer to variations in the distribution, composition, and overall
structure of plant communities across different temporal and spatial scales. These changes can
occur natural.
বাংলাদেশের অর্থনৈতিক সমীক্ষা ২০২৪ [Bangladesh Economic Review 2024 Bangla.pdf] কম্পিউটার , ট্যাব ও স্মার্ট ফোন ভার্সন সহ সম্পূর্ণ বাংলা ই-বুক বা pdf বই " সুচিপত্র ...বুকমার্ক মেনু 🔖 ও হাইপার লিংক মেনু 📝👆 যুক্ত ..
আমাদের সবার জন্য খুব খুব গুরুত্বপূর্ণ একটি বই ..বিসিএস, ব্যাংক, ইউনিভার্সিটি ভর্তি ও যে কোন প্রতিযোগিতা মূলক পরীক্ষার জন্য এর খুব ইম্পরট্যান্ট একটি বিষয় ...তাছাড়া বাংলাদেশের সাম্প্রতিক যে কোন ডাটা বা তথ্য এই বইতে পাবেন ...
তাই একজন নাগরিক হিসাবে এই তথ্য গুলো আপনার জানা প্রয়োজন ...।
বিসিএস ও ব্যাংক এর লিখিত পরীক্ষা ...+এছাড়া মাধ্যমিক ও উচ্চমাধ্যমিকের স্টুডেন্টদের জন্য অনেক কাজে আসবে ...
Beyond Degrees - Empowering the Workforce in the Context of Skills-First.pptxEduSkills OECD
Iván Bornacelly, Policy Analyst at the OECD Centre for Skills, OECD, presents at the webinar 'Tackling job market gaps with a skills-first approach' on 12 June 2024
A review of the growth of the Israel Genealogy Research Association Database Collection for the last 12 months. Our collection is now passed the 3 million mark and still growing. See which archives have contributed the most. See the different types of records we have, and which years have had records added. You can also see what we have for the future.
A workshop hosted by the South African Journal of Science aimed at postgraduate students and early career researchers with little or no experience in writing and publishing journal articles.
This presentation includes basic of PCOS their pathology and treatment and also Ayurveda correlation of PCOS and Ayurvedic line of treatment mentioned in classics.
Leveraging Generative AI to Drive Nonprofit InnovationTechSoup
In this webinar, participants learned how to utilize Generative AI to streamline operations and elevate member engagement. Amazon Web Service experts provided a customer specific use cases and dived into low/no-code tools that are quick and easy to deploy through Amazon Web Service (AWS.)
This presentation was provided by Steph Pollock of The American Psychological Association’s Journals Program, and Damita Snow, of The American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE), for the initial session of NISO's 2024 Training Series "DEIA in the Scholarly Landscape." Session One: 'Setting Expectations: a DEIA Primer,' was held June 6, 2024.
ISO/IEC 27001, ISO/IEC 42001, and GDPR: Best Practices for Implementation and...PECB
Denis is a dynamic and results-driven Chief Information Officer (CIO) with a distinguished career spanning information systems analysis and technical project management. With a proven track record of spearheading the design and delivery of cutting-edge Information Management solutions, he has consistently elevated business operations, streamlined reporting functions, and maximized process efficiency.
Certified as an ISO/IEC 27001: Information Security Management Systems (ISMS) Lead Implementer, Data Protection Officer, and Cyber Risks Analyst, Denis brings a heightened focus on data security, privacy, and cyber resilience to every endeavor.
His expertise extends across a diverse spectrum of reporting, database, and web development applications, underpinned by an exceptional grasp of data storage and virtualization technologies. His proficiency in application testing, database administration, and data cleansing ensures seamless execution of complex projects.
What sets Denis apart is his comprehensive understanding of Business and Systems Analysis technologies, honed through involvement in all phases of the Software Development Lifecycle (SDLC). From meticulous requirements gathering to precise analysis, innovative design, rigorous development, thorough testing, and successful implementation, he has consistently delivered exceptional results.
Throughout his career, he has taken on multifaceted roles, from leading technical project management teams to owning solutions that drive operational excellence. His conscientious and proactive approach is unwavering, whether he is working independently or collaboratively within a team. His ability to connect with colleagues on a personal level underscores his commitment to fostering a harmonious and productive workplace environment.
Date: May 29, 2024
Tags: Information Security, ISO/IEC 27001, ISO/IEC 42001, Artificial Intelligence, GDPR
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ISO/IEC 27001, ISO/IEC 42001, and GDPR: Best Practices for Implementation and...
Historyofrhyme
1. Engl 503
Prof. Gordon Fulton
Term Paper
Dec. 13 2002
The Beste Rym I Kan: The Emergence of Rhyme in English
Baba Brinkman
0135748
2. When discussing the general significance and tumultuous history of rhyme in the
English language, most scholars are conspicuously unable to mask their biases.
Explications of the function of rhyme in poetry often incarnate as thinly-veiled crusades
for the holy grail of verse theory: a rhetorically sound account of why rhyme holds such
enduring sway over human emotions. Some have come commendably close to achieving
this peculiar trophy, a prize implicitly synonymous with a catharsis of each critic's own
frustrating preoccupation with rhyme. In fact, the overwhelming impression given by
these critics is that most serious writing about the phenomenon of rhyme is ultimately
motivated by a deeply visceral infatuation with it, and a desire to defend it against post-
Miltonic attacks. This often threatens to undermine the integrity of their work, and
occasionally becomes the subject of it: "perhaps, too, [rhyme's] tinkle was merely an echo
of the brass and cymbals of inept critical praise of its function"(Hollander, 134). Those
scholars unaffected (or negatively affected) by poetry's most potent phonetic
phenomenon tend to simply gloss it in favour of content-based criticism. With no
pretense to greater objectivity or detachment, I propose to revisit the early history of
rhyme in English poetry, examining its rapid emergence and eventual displacement of
alliteration as the dominant mode of versification during the fourteenth century. This
transition occurred over a relatively short period, and although the complex causes
behind it have been touched on many times individually, they have yet to be synthesized
into a coherent whole.
There are three overlapping veins through which I wish to approach this question
of causation. One is historical, relying on internal evidence from surviving OE and ME
manuscripts, the fossil record of rhyme's evolution in English verse. These texts reveal
3. possible sources for rhyme's introduction into English, trends in the ensuing degrees of
hybridity between rhyme and alliteration, and most importantly perforations and
exceptions to the slow-change model of the transition. The most important single figure
in this formal metamorphosis is Geoffrey Chaucer, whose prolific and hugely influential
body of writing, mostly rhymed verse, signaled the end of alliteration as a unifying force
in English. Another approach is linguistic, looking to changes in the English language
after the Norman conquest for evidence of comparative syntactic and lexical receptivity
to the use of rhyme. Reciprocally, there is also a sense in which rhyme contributed to the
incursion of foreign-derived words into English, since multi-lingual poets like Chaucer
and the Gawaine scribe compensated for the scarcity of English rhymes by drawing from
alien sources. My third inroad into the roots of rhyme in English is based on what has
loosely been called "rhyme theory," the result of extensive twentieth-century scholarship
on the subject of rhyme's general function in verse. Although this sort of formal enquiry
may not have been available in Chaucer's England, its applications are usually offered as
universal, and many concepts developed by rhyme theory can be fruitfully applied to this
study. These new developments are specifically relevant to the individual decisions of
Chaucer and other poets to use or to not use rhyme, as dictated by their respective
audiences, tastes, abilities, and circumstances. In a sense, all questions of versification
are reducible to this context.
Since it will have to inform the bulk of my analyses, I will begin with a general
discussion of rhyme theory. The significance of rhyme has been approached from
virtually every possible angle by scholars of verse, but for simplicity's sake I will accept
4. John Hollander's division of rhyme theory into four headings, representing increasing
spheres of complexity. These include the mnemonic, schematic, musical, and semantic
functions of rhyme. Each of these aspects of rhyme respectively confers a greater degree
of poetic fitness on the device, contributing to its appeal and widespread use. The
mnemonic and schematic functions are predominantly pragmatic, and can be dealt with
briefly. The first refers to the greater facility that rhyme allows in memorization, and the
tendency of rhymes to resonate in our minds, even if we don't intend them too. This is
useful both to the performing poet wishing to recite from memory, and also in the
transmission of simple information in the form of slogans, jingles, aphorisms, and the
like. The schematic function concerns the use of rhyme as a marker to distinguish
stanzas with different patterned rhyme schemes. These stanzas have come to be
associated with distinct genres and themes, creating a wider range of formal options
available to the poet. I submit these two functions of rhyme as pragmatic because their
relevance lies more in the past (composition) and the future (mental retention) than in the
present (performance) state of verse; mnemonics and schematics must therefore be
considered secondary characteristics.
The primary reason for rhyme's existence, according to most rhyme theory,
derives from its inherent musical and semantic qualities. It is only in these two
overlapping spheres that great rifts of difference begin to appear between effective and
ineffective uses of rhyme. In The Physical Basis of Rhyme, Henry Lanz analyses
phonetic graphs produced by regular speech and by rhyming verse, comparing these latter
sound charts to those of music. The musical nature of rhyme, according to Lanz, is
responsible for its historical success and resilience: "Physical analysis shows the presence
5. of musical motion in a series of uttered words. It further shows that only rime, i.e., a
return to the original tone, makes the motion actually melodic by furnishing it with a
definite center of reference"(199). The pleasure derivable from this melodic or musical
quality of rhyme is not contended; what is controversial, however, is the degree to which
sound depends on sense for its rhetorical effect. W.K Wimsatt, in The Verbal Icon, was
one of the first to suggest the correlation between the sonorous and semantic value of
rhymes: "the words of a rhyme, with their curious harmony of sound and distinction of
sense, are an amalgam of the sensory and the logical, or an arrest and precipitation of the
logical in sensory form; they are the icon in which the idea is caught"(W.K. Wimsatt,
165). More recently, James Wimsatt (no relation) has criticized this view, suggesting the
two systems operate independently. "To say that sound in a poem has semiotic force, a
kind of nondiscursive meaning independent of the verbal sense, is to assert that poetic
sound adheres to its own proper values, neither obediently subserving nor being
subsumed in verbal sense"(J. Wimsatt, 4). Although J. Wimsatt may be right about the
existence of an independent semiotic value for sound, it is virtually impossible to discuss
this value meaningfully without any reference to the sense of the words. As W.K.
Wimsatt points out, "verses composed of meaningless words afford no pleasure of any
kind and can scarcely be called rhythmical--let them even be rhymed"(165).1
Rather than attempting vainly to separate the musical and semantic value of
rhymes, it is more productive to discuss their interlaced and symbiotic relationship. Lanz
describes the extent to which the semantic value of rhymes relies on sound: "Rime
produces an artistic effect, not because it invents an empty verbal echo to be
mechanically produced between the two rows of words, but because it confronts and
6. conveys different ideas through the harmony of identical sounds"(164). This harmony
compels us to discover semantic links that would otherwise be overlooked, and the power
of rhyme is derived from these new links between words: "Combinations of ideas that
would probably never occur to us may be easily suggested by a given rime. In arranging
his rimes the poet may hit upon new and original ideas. In this sense rimes are creative
of new meanings"(Lanz, 166). Lanz's emphasis on "new meaning" echoes the traditional
view of "surprise" as the primary pleasure of rhyme, a tension between anticipation and
catharsis. This would explain why hackneyed or predictable rhymes have little appeal,
since they lack surprise. However, W.K. Wimsatt wisely refuses to accept surprise alone
as the deciding factor:
The greater the difference in meaning between rhyme words the more marked and the
more appropriate will be the binding effect. Rhyme theorists have spoken of the
"surprise" which is the pleasure of rhyme, and surely this surprise is not merely a matter
of coming upon a similarity which one has not previously anticipated. It cannot be a
matter of time. Even after the discovery, when the rhyme is known by heart, the
pleasurable surprise remains. It must depend on some incongruity or unlikelihood
inherent in the coupling. (164, Wimsatt's emphasis)
Instead of a surprise that emerges only once and is spent, enduring rhymes somehow
capture and enshrine the essence of a new semantic link, so that it can repeat its
emergence indefinitely. This suggests it is the creative reach of the poet at the moment of
composition that determines the difference between successful and unsuccessful rhyme.
The standard complaint against rhyme is that it constrains and oppresses the
motions of verse, or that "its demands are likely to turn the poet aside from the normal
order of his ideas"(Alden, 122). It is this same constraint, however, that also potentially
captures something valuable:
The bridging, associating, linking function of rhyme is a dialectical turn upon its ability
to handcuff. Rhyme links syllables, and thereby words, and thereby lines, and thereby
7. larger versified structures, and at each level of linkage, it performs another sort of
"musical" or "rhetorical" work. (Hollander, 119)
Arthur Melville Clark's metaphor of buoyancy and resistance clearly articulates this
relationship, answering the difficulty inherent in versification with reference to the
potential rewards:
It is a mistake, too, to regard the resistances offered either by the poet's medium or by his
chosen form only as obstacles and not also as supports. They are indeed like the water
through which a swimmer has to force his way, but which at the same time buoys him up
and without which he could not swim at all. (173)
As we shall see, the challenges faced by poets intent on writing under formal constraint
tend to fluctuate erratically in response to historical, linguistic, and social contexts,
leading to various degrees of buoyancy and ballast in their work.
It has been shown convincingly by Henry Lanz that serious attempts to trace
rhyme to its ultimate origin using textual evidence will inevitably be met with failure.2
Several attempts have been made, (one of the most thorough being Lanz's own), and
these suggest several degrees of antiquity for the genesis of rhyme, but no conclusion can
come of this approach:
We cannot lay hand on one particular literary document and say: here is the origin of
rime. We cannot even trace the early paths of rime within any particular literature we
know. It has been justly remarked that rime lies so deep in human nature and in human
language that it is as little worth while to discuss the origin of rime as that of dancing or
singing. (Lanz, 106)
Here Lanz is reaching much farther back than is necessary for this enquiry, however, and
it will suffice for us to accept that rhyme is much older than the English language, and
that the native verse form was alliteration, and not rhyme. The versification of OE is
described by William Harmon as follows: "alliteratively unified, four-beat lines with a
heavy reliance on designs that could match the two-by-two verse line: parallelism,
8. apposition, epithets, repetition, parataxis, and so forth"(Harmon, 14). Rhymes occurred
occasionally in pre-conquest English verse, but seem for the most part to have been
avoided.
The process by which rhymes first entered English has been the source of
exhaustive debate. The traditional view, represented by Schipper in A History of English
Versification, has been to view rhymed Latin hymns as the culprit, positing Christian
influence as the reason for rhyme's spread: "It's adoption into all modern literature is due
to the extensive use made of it in the hymns of the Church"(12). Certainly rhymed Latin
hymns did exist in medieval England, but with one conspicuous exception rhyme seems
not to have been taken up by Anglo-Saxon poets, despite the presence of Latin examples,
as well as others. Raymond Alden looks to French as well as Latin sources:
End-rime being a stranger to the early Germanic languages, its appearance in any of them
may commonly be taken as a sign of foreign influence. In general, of course, rime and
the stanza were introduced together into English verse, under the influence of Latin
hymns and French lyrics. (Alden, 121)
Lanz offers two other possibilities into the debate:
Latin may have been one of the channels through which rime penetrated into English
poetry, but it was by no means the only one. French, no doubt, was another channel.
Celtic Welsh, according to Guest, constitutes still another probability. Finally, the
process of spontaneous generation is not at all excluded. (Lanz, 125)
These approaches, however, rely on a "whodunnit" model of verse change, supposing
rhyme to be so virulent that once it infects a country's literature there is no stopping it,
and literary historians need only identify a carrier to find their cause. Even allowing for
the possibility of spontaneous generation, as Lanz suggests, the evidence is strongly
against this view of rhyme, at least without further qualification.
One early outbreak that warrants attention is the "Old English Riming Poem,"
which appears in the Exeter Book, circa 900. This is the most conspicuous
9. counterexample to the overall consistency of Anglo-Saxon versification. The "Riming
Poem" follows the same four-stress alliterative aa ax pattern as other OE verse, but also
includes end-rhymes terminating each line, and internal rhymes preceding each caesura.
For this reason, the poem has been widely censured for sacrificing sense in service of
sound.3
It is an early example of alliterative/rhyme hybrid poetry, which would become
much more common after the conquest; however, since it is usually dated in the tenth
century, the "Riming Poem" may represent the closest thing to spontaneous generation of
rhyme in English. It certainly had no English precedents, though what is most interesting
about the poem's form is not that it rhymes, but that it rhymes so much. Two lines will
suffice to convey this peculiarity: "Lisse lengdon lustum glengdon / Scrifen scrad glad
Purh gescad in brad"(14). The density of rhyme and lack of analogues suggests an
idiosyncratic and experimental temperament on the poet's part,4
though presumably a
creative mind need only encounter a single rhyme to develop such a form. This is also
noted by the poem's most recent editor: "a basis for experiment in adding rhyme to
vernacular poetry was obviously present, and a work like Riming Poem could obviously
be developed" (Macrae-Gibson, 25). Where the poet got the idea to rhyme is irrelevant;
what is important is the manifest accessibility of rhyme to early poets of the English
language, demonstrating that the form could be used, even excessively. This suggests
that the virtual absence of rhyme in Anglo Saxon verse is attributable to something other
than unfamiliarity. Pearsall's account of early rhyme in Old English and Middle English
Poetry follows this logic as well:
Rhyme was always known in Anglo-Saxon times, since the rhymed Latin accentual
hymns were very familiar from the sixth century onwards: rhyming phrases appear in the
charms and in some of the laws…as well as sporadically in all Anglo-Saxon poetry. On
this interpretation, it was the normal concern of Anglo-Saxon poets to avoid rhyme,
10. perhaps because they considered it popular, perhaps because they considered it
rhythmically subversive. (72, original emphasis)
To augment speculation over the reason for rhyme's absence from most Anglo-Saxon
verse, we must turn to the contribution of linguistics.
William Harmon's vast and ambitious essay, "English Versification: Fifteen
Hundred Years of Continuity and Change" offers a new and compelling explanation for
the origin of rhyme in English:
The enduring dominance of the iamb, as well as the emergence of rhyme as a unifying
expressive and mnemonic device, can be accounted for by reference to a single linguistic
principle: Indo-European language tend to change from one morphological disposition to
another. They change, that is, from a state of being sythetic-suffixal toward a state of
being analytic-prefixal. (15)
This may be a slight overstatement, since no linguistic principle alone can account for
such a complex phenomenon as rhyme; nevertheless, Harmon has identified an important
factor in rhyme's suitability to various languages. This argument is based on the
observation that inflected or "synthetic-suffixal" languages like OE are poorly disposed
to rhyme because, "the overwhelming majority of rhymes will be either multiple, with
one or more unstressed syllables succeeding the truly rhyming syllable, or just
homeoteleuton"(Harmon, 27). "Homeoteleuton" is a phenomenon first identified by
Aristotle, referring to rhymes based on common suffixes, which tend to be unstressed.
Since the musical value of rhyme is based on stress -- cleverly illustrated by Harmon
with the non-rhymes "Charlton" and "Heston" -- as opposed to common endings alone,
languages with more unstressed suffixes will be more prone to "reject rhyme"(27).5
In
addition to the lack of musicality in unstressed suffixal rhymes, there is also a lack of
semantic difference, identified by Wimsatt as crucial to the function of rhyme: "the
11. greater the difference in meaning between rhyme words the more marked and the more
appropriate will be the binding effect"(W.K. Wimsatt, 164). Homeoteleuton offers the
least possible semantic difference, with the exception of identical rhyme, since common
suffixes usually signify common inflections.
By this reckoning, the changes in the English language following the Norman
conquest drastically increased its receptivity to the use of rhyme:
Much of this new resource has to do with the establishment of English as an ever more
analytic-prefixal language with plenty of materials for patterning in the dynamic iambic
rhythm along with plenty of stressed monosyllables and other configurations that invite
the free use of agreeable rhyme. (Harmon, 25)
Rhyme was thus enabled by the blending of English with Anglo-Norman, which
produced a greater variation in the degree of stress each word could possess: "The
eventual synthesis is verse in a language with syllables that can be contrasted binarily as
strong or weak, or else in some more complex way that takes account of the three of four
levels of stress audible in spoken English"(Harmon, 15). Middle English combined the
stress patterns of OE and Anglo-Norman with a new lexicon of imported words and a
much less inflected native lexicon to allow for greater musical and semantic variation in
rhyme possibilities. Middle English, and indeed English in general, is in many ways a
language better suited to rhyme, according to the principles of rhyme theory, than most
others:
Partly because of the hybrid origin of English and partly because of their multiform
shapes, our words, especially the Anglo-Saxon ones which form the core and to a large
extent the substance of our poetic diction, have a much greater variety of terminations
than have the vocabularies of less mixed and more uniform languages. (Clark, 186)
Once rhyme began to take hold, its advance was relatively constant, first blending with
alliteration, then competing as a distinct form, and eventually dominating. Donald
Wesling describes the intermediate period of flux as:
12. A moment of paradigm crisis and uncertainty. A poetic device fostered by the church in
its hymns, and brought from France, is gaining influence over a strictly indigenous
related device. For a time the two overlap, until the insurgent device takes over. The
coexistence is also a form of debate, though never aggressively argued. Indeed so cordial
are the relations between the differing prosodies, that on occasion they are employed in
the same poem. (45)
The relationship between alliteration and rhyme during this period does not appear to
have been antagonistic, and if there was heated debate, little evidence of it remains. Our
modern sense of rhyme's inherent contentiousness, conditioned by centuries of attacks
and defenses, may not be directly applicable to the early uses of rhyme in English, during
a time when "there were no treatises on English verse"(Woods, 21).6
Ironically, rhyme was not only enabled by the changes occurring in ME,
apparently it also actively contributed to those changes. In a survey of the etymological
roots of various words used in the fourteenth century poem, "Pearl," James Windsatt
discovered a correlation between the poet's word choice and the relative value of the
word in the poem's complex prosody. Like the "Riming Poem," "Pearl" combines
alliteration with end-rhyme, although it mercifully does not attempt internal rhyme as
well. Nevertheless, the strenuous demands of the verse form often caused the poet to
search outside of his native lexicon, causing a greater proportion of foreign-derived
words to be used both in rhymes and alliteration:
A summary comparison of the various charts above indicates that as the requirements of
the prosody increase, so does the proportion of words of non-English etymology increase.
We may hypothesize that the stressed words in Pearl that involve no rhyme, neither
alliteration nor end-rhyme, represent the most natural word choice of the poet.
Alliteration (initial rhyme), involving a single sound, requires a somewhat larger exertion
of artistry. And end-rhyme, consisting of a sequence of vowels and consonants, requires
still more. Consequently, the use of both French and Norse words increases as the artistic
requirements increase. (J. Wimsatt, 14)
The implications would be extensive if this were proven to be the predominant trend in
rhymed ME verse, (as I suspect it would). By this reckoning, the speed of rhyme's uptake
13. in English might have partially been the result of a self-perpetuating linguistic cycle, or
positive feedback loop, where changes in the language promoted the use of rhyme, and
the demands of rhyme caused more and more words to be imported, further changing the
language. This would have continued roughly until written standardization was achieved.
When Chaucer began writing poetry around the mid-fourteenth century, rhyme
had been present in England in some form for almost a millennium, and had been widely
used in English verse for over two hundred years. Harmon characteristically overstates
when he situates Chaucer at the apex of linguistic changes in English: "Chaucer was
among the first major English poets in a position to take advantage of two relatively new
possibilities of versification: iambic rhythm and masculine rhyme"(17). Certainly there
were many poets before Chaucer whose positioning was equally good; however, as far as
we know, Chaucer was the first poet ready willing and able to take full advantage of the
potential of rhyme in English. Strangely enough, not much has been said about Chaucer's
decision to use rhyme instead of alliteration as his preferred verse form, probably because
it seems like a foregone conclusion in the context of his great success with rhyme.
However, "end rhyme was but one of several possibilities when Chaucer had just begun
writing"(Wesling, 44). The alliterative revival of the fourteenth century had strongly
reasserted the potential of the alliterative long line for narrative verse. Any cursory read
of a stanza of Sir Gawaine and the Green Knight followed by a stanza from one of the
metrical romances would effectively advertise the inferiority of rhyme for narrative
purposes:
The short couplet, the tail-rhyme stanza, the septenary/alexandrine - lacked the strength,
elevation and versatility of alliterative verse, and it was only when Chaucer introduced
14. anglicized versions of European poetic forms that the commanding heights of
metropolitan and court culture were finally annexed. (Pearsall, 45)
In light of the available models Chaucer was faced with, his decision to use rhyme, like
his decision to use English, must be seen as somewhat visionary.
There is some internal evidence in Chaucer's poetry regarding his views on verse
form. He uses alliteration notably for the tournament in the Knight's Tale, drawing on the
clamour of clashing consonants to represent the sounds of battle: "He thurgh the thikkeste
of the throng gan threste; / Ther stomblen steedes stronge, and doun gooth al"(I (A)
2612). Here Chaucer is paying tribute to the most resilient feature of alliteration, its
aptitude for describing violence. The Parson explicitly contrasts alliteration and rhyme in
the prologue to his tale: "I kan nat geeste 'rum, ram, ruf' by lettre / Ne, God woot, rym
holde I but litel bettre"(X 42). The formal hierarchy suggested here is confused
somewhat by the use of different verbs, the first regarding comprehension, and the
second esteem. "Geeste," or alliteration, is rejected because the parson doesn't know how
to use it, but rhyme is rejected because of how he "holdes" it. What is suggested,
perhaps, is the withdrawal of alliteration from the national, or at least the southern, sphere
of formal debate, ceding to rhyme, which is then held in variable esteem compared to
prose.
This formal hierarchy is also suggested in the Thopas/Melibee link, after
Chaucer's Tale of Sir Thopas mock-romance has been interrupted. The Host instructs
Chaucer to choose another form, having proven himself unworthy of rhyme: "Sire, at o
word, thou shalt no lenger ryme. / Lat se wher thou kanst tellen aught in geeste, / Or telle
in prose somwhat, at the leest"(VII 932). These few short lines effectively dramatize and
condense the entire formal debate in England at the time. The couplets themselves
15. represent the highest form, drawing no unwarranted attention, while deftly executing the
bulk of Chaucer's narrative practice. The sort of rhyming the narrator is barred from,
the octosyllabic tale-rhyme romance style, resembles the previously dominant rhyme
form in English, which Chaucer therefore had to define himself against. Of the options
offered in default of rhyme, the first is "geeste," or alliteration, which was already archaic
yet still held in some esteem, soon to fade. The option Chaucer accepts for his second
tale, prose, is valued "at the leeste," since it represents complete forfeiture of formalized
expression.
David Burnley provides us with some insight into the external equivalent of the
tensions dramatized internally in the Thopas/Melibee link:
The perennial struggle of the poet with his language is that of manipulating language so
that he can, at one and the same time, communicate his complex meanings (without too
many inappropriate ones) to an audience, whilst still observing the formal and metrical
constraints he has voluntarily placed upon himself by his decision to write in verse. (117)
Chaucer's rhyming practice reveals a marked divergence from that of his predecessors,
signaling a refusal to succumb to the weight of his metrical constraints. Burnley surveys
Chaucer's rhymes for the word "knight," comparing them to the rhymes found in two
early London romances, Kyng Alisaunder and Arthur and Merlin. This survey reveals
five rhymes Chaucer shared with both poems, six shared with one or the other
exclusively, and six rhymes not found in either romance. The one conspicuous omission
from Chaucer's work is the most common rhyme in the romance tradition, and the most
obvious semantic pairing: "fight." This prompts Burnley to speculate: "Although its
omission may be in part dependent upon Chaucer's subject matter, one is nevertheless
tempted to assume that its complete absence may own something to his perception of it as
a hackneyed rhyme"(131). Since Chaucer often writes of knights getting in fights, there
16. is little chance that this omission can be attributed to subject matter. Chaucer may have
been the first English poet to pay any mind to the avoidance of hackneyed rhyme, both in
his practice and explicitly in his poetry. Indeed, the word "doggerel" is a Chaucerian
coinage, appearing for the first time in the English language during the Host's tirade over
Sir Thopas: "'Now swich a rym the devel I biteche! / This may wel be rym dogerel,' quod
he"(VII 924).7
We may, in fact, owe the very concept of dogerel to Chaucer, since he
was evidently the first to explicitly identify it as a pitfall of rhyme, and managed to
crystallize it so vividly in the Thopas/Melibee link. Burnley rightly attributes Chaucer's
doggerel sensibility to an awareness of audience: "Although he was often content to
employ familiar and tradition rhymes, there is also evidence of resourcefulness in seeking
unusual rhymes, as well as of avoiding rhymes which might have proved unacceptable to
his audience"(131).
Two other aspects of Chaucer's rhyming practice are noteworthy in this context.
One is his aversion to ending every clause with a rhyme, which adds to the fluidity of his
narrative style and varies the syntactic location of rhymes, which is a form of Wimsatt's
semantic difference. Susanne Woods points out the contrast between Chaucer's work and
that of his predecessors in this respect:
Typically, Chaucer ends his tumultuous action, and the sentence, in the middle of
a couplet. This structural linking of one section to another and downplay of rime
as a formal device is also characteristic of The Canterbury Tales and, to a lesser
extent (given the stanzaic structure involved), of Troilus and Criseyde. It
contributes to Chaucer's dynamic narrative style, as opposed to the more static
lyric styles of the Provencal poets, whose coblas were to coincide perfectly with
units of thought or narrative. (Woods, 36)
The other peculiarity of Chaucer's rhyming practice is his tendency to play occasionally
with polysyllabic rhymes and internal rhymes not attributable to homeoteleuton. One
17. notable example of chiastic internal rhyme occurs in the "Miller's Tale": "For curteisie,
he sayde, he wolde noon. / The moone, whan it was nyght, ful brighte shoon,"(I (A)
3351). Examples of polysyllabic end-rhyme occur in the "Knight's Tale": "Swownynge,
and baar hire fro the corps away. / What helpeth it to tarien forth the day,"(I (A) 2819)
and the "Franklin's Tale": "And with my deth I may be quyt, ywis. / Hath ther nat many a
noble wyf er this,"(V (F) 1363).8
These occasional phonetic flourishes reveal a subtle
savvy in Chaucer about the nature of rhyme and its need to be continuously refreshed.
Chaucer's rhyming practice and his dramatization of different forms in The
Canterbury Tales offers compelling evidence that he understood the principles of rhyme
theory very well, and applied that understanding in his creative process to ensure the
success of his work. The four basic functions of rhyme as defined by twentieth century
rhyme theorists, though often complexly articulated, would not be terribly difficult for a
keen mind to intuit under prolonged exposure to rhyme in its various forms. The
differences between doggerel and excellent verse emerge most clearly from simple
observation of the reactions of an audience to performance. Chaucer's mastery of rhyme
as a formal device was instrumental in his later influence: "When a poet rhymes well, he
has mastered his medium thoroughly. The result is as if he had invented a language
which has rhyme as one of its natural characteristics and which by an unforeseen luck
turns out to be intelligible to his readers"(Clark, 176 - original emphasis). This is true of
no one so much as Chaucer, whose critically appointed role as originator of both the
English language as we know it and the ensuing tradition of English poetry carries along
with it the honourary title of originator of rhyme. None of these titles is absolute in its
accuracy, but neither are there any serious contenders threatening to dethrone him.
18. I have focussed on the emergence of rhyme before Chaucer simply because after
his death rhyme was finally established as the dominant form in English for centuries,
eradicating competing forms through the prestige and influence of Chaucer and his
imitators.9
The emergence of rhyme in Middle English can therefore be described in the
same terms as the emergence of English itself as the language of court: "Chaucer's poetry,
in its bulk and quality, is the main evidence for this change, the main product of it, and
perhaps even its major precipitant"(Pearsall, 190). Unfortunately, the prestige of rhyme
was subsequently undermined by the persistent ineptitude of succeeding poets unable to
do it justice, and it eventually gave up its crown to free verse. The story of rhyme in
English after Chaucer, however, has been told many times by more able scholars than
myself.
1
The difficulty raised by this generalization is the undeniable pleasure derivable from listening to poetry in
an unknown foreign language, which does have sense, though we cannot decipher it. The question for
experiment would be, how would our pleasure be effected if we were told that the poetry was put on,
composed of gibberish words made to sound like foreign speech? I suspect most listeners would be put off
by this information.
2
The most obvious explanation for this, which Lanz fails to offer, is that the first written rhymes merely
represent oral transactions, and it was certainly in oral poetry that rhyme originated.
3
See Macrae-Gibson p. 12
4
The "Riming Poem" composer could be likened, perhaps, to an Anglo-Saxon John Skelton, struck by the
same fascination with rhyme as many of the theorists I refer to.
5
Also implied but not explicitly stated by this argument is the unsuitability of prefixes for alliteration.
Since alliteration uses correlating sounds at the beginning of words, prefixes presumably would be as
disfunctional in alliteration as suffixes are in rhyme, which correlates the ends of words.
19. 6
Wesling comes close to contradicting himself when he generalizes: "There is no time in the history of
rhyme when this device was not a matter of contention, whether in practice or in prosodic theory. There
are conflicting poetic of rhyming and rhymelessness, or of one type of rhyming as against another"(40). In
the case of ME, however, the contention took the subtler form of poetic practice.
7
Commendations to Alan Gaylord for pointing this out.
8
This phenomenon has not been noted yet by scholarship, as far as I know.
9
The significance of rhyme in English verse immediately after Chaucer is somewhat overestimated by
Clark:
Not only does rhyme steady the average listener and clarify his metrical sense, but on one
occasion at least it saved our poetry. In the century and a half between the death of Chaucer and
the publication of Tottel's Miscellany (1557) there had been a time of prosodic welter when the
verse-makers were mumbling something between decayed Middle English and immature Modern
English. In that transitional period it was rhyme which kept the tradition of poetry from utter
extinction, and it was from the support of rhyme that the new poetry recovered its step. (183)
Works Cited:
Alden, Raymond Macdonald. English Verse: Specimens Illustrating its Principles and
History. AMS Press. New York, NY. 1970.
Benson, Larry D. (gen. ed.) The Riverside Chaucer. The Houghton Mifflin
Company. Boston, Mass. 1987
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