This study examined the relationship between parental imposition of hegemonic masculinity and the psychological well-being of young sexual minority men. The researchers found that young men who were told by parents to act less feminine reported lower self-esteem and higher levels of depression and anxiety. Additionally, experiencing multiple disciplinary actions from parents to change gender expression was associated with a dose-response relationship with poorer psychological well-being. The findings suggest family-based interventions could help redirect parents' motivations away from enforcing rigid gender norms and improve sensitivity to issues of gender and sexuality.

1. Hegemonic Masculinity and the Psychological
Well-being of Young Sexual Minority Men
Laura Jadwin-Čakmak, MPH
Steven Meanley, MPH
Emily Yeagley, MPH
Emily S. Pingel, MPH
Gary W. Harper, PhD, MPH
José A. Bauermeister, PhD, MPH

2. Presenter Disclosures
Laura Jadwin-Čakmak
(1)
The following personal financial relationships
with commercial interests relevant to this
presentation existed during the past 12 months:
No relationships to disclose

3. Agenda
 Background and theoretical rationale
 Sample description and procedures
 Relationship between caregiver-based hegemonic
masculinity and young gay and bisexual men’s
psychological well-being
 Implications for practice and future research

4. Objectives
 Identify how parental imposition of hegemonic
masculinity impacts the psychological well-being of
young sexual minority men.
 Consider how family-level interventions might use
these findings.

5. Background
 Primary caregivers regularly ‘police’
boys’ gendered behavior
 Hegemonic masculinity - a set of socially
accepted masculine behaviors and
beliefs designed to legitimate male power
 Caregivers may respond to gender nonconformity
with disciplinary actions
 Own discomfort with behavior
 Fear societal stigma (child or self)

6. Background
 Pressures of hegemonic masculinity negatively linked
to health and well-being of gay and bisexual youth and
young men
 Limited research on relationship between parentbased hegemonic masculinity and mental health in
young adulthood

7. Theoretical Rationale
 Minority stress theory
 Messages designed to impose hegemonic masculinity
are forms of discrimination and societal stigma
 May facilitate gay and bisexual men’s susceptibility to
psychological stress

8. Sample
 Online cross-sectional observational study
 N = 1,507
 Eligibility criteria:
 Self-identify as male
 Have sex with men
 Ages 18-24
 Single
 Resident of United States
 Most (94%) identified as gay

9. Measures
 Did your parent(s) or the person(s) who raised you
ever tell you to act less feminine?
 What did they do to try to make you change?
 Told me to change my behavior
 Punished me or restricted my activities
 Sent me to counseling
 Sent me to talk to a priest/minister/religious figure
 Other; please specify ___________________

10. Measures
 Self-Esteem
Rosenberg, M. (1965). Society and the adolescent self-image.
Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
 Depression (CES-D)
Radloff, L. S. (1977). The CES-D Scale: A Self-Report Depression Scale
for Research in the General Population. Applied Psychological
Measurement, 1, 385-401.
 Anxiety (BSI)
Derogatis, L. R., & Melisaratos, N. (1983). The Brief Symptom
Inventory: an introductory report. Psychological Medicine, 3, 595605.
 Sociodemographics

11. Data Analysis
 Two multivariant models
 Model 1: Relationship between being told to act less
feminine and psychological well-being
 Model 2: Dose-response relationship between
number of disciplinary actions experienced and
psychological well-being

12. Results
Did your parent(s) or the person(s) who raised you
ever tell you to act less feminine?
Yes
N = 564
37%
No
N = 943
63%

13. Number of Disciplinary Actions
Experienced
Results
2.6%
4 or more
What did they do to try to
make you change?
Told to Change
Behavior
Punished /
Restricted Actions
4.2%
3
9.6%
2
524
34.8%
20.6%
1
184
12.2%
0
Sent to Counseling
111
7.4%
0
Sent to Religious
Figure
80
5.3%
Abuse
38
2.5%
9
0.6%
Placed in Masculine
Activities
63.0%
200
400
600
800
1000

14. Self-Esteem
Being told to act less feminine associated with lower
self-esteem
Adjusted for age, education, race, and student status (full-time or part-time)

15. Self-Esteem
Dose response relationship between number of
disciplinary actions and self-esteem
Adjusted for age, education, race, and student status (full-time or part-time)

16. Depression
Being told to act less feminine associated with increased
depression symptoms
Adjusted for age, education, race, and student status (full-time or part-time)

17. Depression
Dose response relationship between number of
disciplinary actions and depression
Adjusted for age, education, race, and student status (full-time or part-time)

18. Anxiety
Being told to act less feminine associated with increased
anxiety symptoms
Adjusted for age, education, race, and student status (full-time or part-time)

19. Anxiety
Dose response relationship between number of
disciplinary actions and anxiety
Adjusted for age, education, race, and student status (full-time or part-time)

20. Implications
 Practice
 Family-based interventions
 Family counseling
 Redirect parents’ motivation to protect their sons
away from enforcing hegemonic masculinity and
toward enhancing their own sensitivity around issues
of gender and sexuality.

21. Strengths & Limitations
 Strengths
 Large national sample of young men
 Dosage hypothesis
 Carrying over from one developmental period to another
 Limitations
 Non-representative sample
 Cross-sectional
 Self-report / recall bias
 Measurement of disciplinary actions
 Gender vs. other policing

22. Thank You
Acknowledgements
National Institutes of Mental Health
Center for Sexuality & Health Disparities (SexLab)
Virtual Love Study Participants
Contact Information
Laura Jadwin-Čakmak
Communications Director
Center for Sexuality & Health Disparities (SexLab)
University of Michigan School of Public Health
ljadwin@umich.edu