The document discusses the Gullah language and culture. It provides background on the Gullah people and where they lived, along the coasts of South Carolina, Georgia, and northern Florida. It describes how the Gullah language developed among slaves from different African ethnic groups and how it incorporated elements of various African languages and dialects, as well as English. The document also includes translations of the Lord's Prayer and the 23rd Psalm into Gullah by Alphonso Brown.
The document summarizes the colonization of South Africa by Dutch and British colonists between the 17th and 20th centuries. The Dutch established the first European settlement in Cape Town in 1652 and brought slaves from Asia as laborers. Britain took control of Cape Town in 1795 and formally annexed the Cape Colony in 1806. In the 1830s, Boers migrated northward to establish their own republics to escape British rule. Tensions between the British and Boers led to the Anglo-Boer Wars in the late 19th century, resulting in the republics being annexed by Britain. Formal apartheid policies were implemented in the 20th century that legally enforced racial segregation and discrimination against non-white populations
Slavery has existed throughout much of recorded human history. The transatlantic slave trade began in the 16th century, bringing millions of Africans to the Americas to work on plantations. While conditions were brutal and inhumane, enslaved people maintained strong family and community bonds, cultural traditions, and religion. The abolition movement and Civil War ultimately led to the end of slavery in the United States in 1865 with the 13th amendment, though discrimination continued.
The document summarizes the history of slavery in Africa and the Atlantic slave trade. It describes how slavery existed in Africa prior to European contact, with slaves typically being war captives with no rights. The slave trade expanded dramatically with the arrival of Europeans due to demand for slaves in the Americas. Slaves were captured through raids and wars, transported in inhumane conditions where many died, and then sold at auctions and used as labor on plantations. Over 12 million Africans were ultimately transported through this system, devastating Africa's population and economy.
This document provides an overview of the origins and history of slavery in the United States and the abolition movement. It discusses how slavery began in ancient civilizations and was introduced to the American colonies by indentured servants from England being replaced by the African slave trade. The plantation system and institution of slavery expanded across gender and ages. The abolitionist movement grew in opposition to slavery, led by key figures like William Lloyd Garrison, Frederick Douglass, Harriet Tubman, and others. Important documents and events related to slavery included the Fugitive Slave Act, Emancipation Proclamation, and the 13th Amendment. The American Civil War further divided the nation between slave-holding Confederate states and free Union states.
The slave trade had numerous negative impacts on Africa that still affect the continent today. It significantly reduced Africa's population by taking millions of young, strong workers, leaving fewer people to farm and support themselves. This caused problems like poverty and worse health as resources became scarcer. However, some African kings did benefit financially from capturing and selling other Africans as slaves.
Slave factories were located along the coast of Africa and served as prisons where captured Africans were held until being transported overseas. Gangs would kidnap or capture Africans through debt or war and force them to make long difficult journeys in chains to the factories. Conditions in the factories were poor, with disease and violence common. Africans were sometimes held for months until being selected for transport on slave ships to the Americas, where they faced an uncertain future across the Atlantic.
Before European contact, native populations across North America developed diverse social, political, and economic structures adapted to their environments. Some groups, like the Maya, Aztecs, and Incas, formed large empires with advanced agricultural systems, while others like those in North America lived in smaller, nomadic societies relying on hunting and gathering. Beginning in the 15th century, Europeans began exploring and colonizing, seeking wealth, trade, and empire. Spain claimed much of North and South America and forced native populations into oppressive systems like encomiendas, dramatically reducing their numbers through violence and disease. Debates emerged around how to classify and treat indigenous peoples.
Atlantic Slave Trade - why did slavery startmrmarr
Slavery started because there was increasing demand for sugar but not enough workers to produce it. Africans were taken as slaves to grow sugar in the Americas as they were more resistant to European diseases than native tribes. This forced transportation of slaves from Africa to the Americas to support the sugar industry became known as the Triangular Trade due to the three stages of the journey: goods to Africa, slaves to Americas, produced goods from Americas to Europe.
The document summarizes the colonization of South Africa by Dutch and British colonists between the 17th and 20th centuries. The Dutch established the first European settlement in Cape Town in 1652 and brought slaves from Asia as laborers. Britain took control of Cape Town in 1795 and formally annexed the Cape Colony in 1806. In the 1830s, Boers migrated northward to establish their own republics to escape British rule. Tensions between the British and Boers led to the Anglo-Boer Wars in the late 19th century, resulting in the republics being annexed by Britain. Formal apartheid policies were implemented in the 20th century that legally enforced racial segregation and discrimination against non-white populations
Slavery has existed throughout much of recorded human history. The transatlantic slave trade began in the 16th century, bringing millions of Africans to the Americas to work on plantations. While conditions were brutal and inhumane, enslaved people maintained strong family and community bonds, cultural traditions, and religion. The abolition movement and Civil War ultimately led to the end of slavery in the United States in 1865 with the 13th amendment, though discrimination continued.
The document summarizes the history of slavery in Africa and the Atlantic slave trade. It describes how slavery existed in Africa prior to European contact, with slaves typically being war captives with no rights. The slave trade expanded dramatically with the arrival of Europeans due to demand for slaves in the Americas. Slaves were captured through raids and wars, transported in inhumane conditions where many died, and then sold at auctions and used as labor on plantations. Over 12 million Africans were ultimately transported through this system, devastating Africa's population and economy.
This document provides an overview of the origins and history of slavery in the United States and the abolition movement. It discusses how slavery began in ancient civilizations and was introduced to the American colonies by indentured servants from England being replaced by the African slave trade. The plantation system and institution of slavery expanded across gender and ages. The abolitionist movement grew in opposition to slavery, led by key figures like William Lloyd Garrison, Frederick Douglass, Harriet Tubman, and others. Important documents and events related to slavery included the Fugitive Slave Act, Emancipation Proclamation, and the 13th Amendment. The American Civil War further divided the nation between slave-holding Confederate states and free Union states.
The slave trade had numerous negative impacts on Africa that still affect the continent today. It significantly reduced Africa's population by taking millions of young, strong workers, leaving fewer people to farm and support themselves. This caused problems like poverty and worse health as resources became scarcer. However, some African kings did benefit financially from capturing and selling other Africans as slaves.
Slave factories were located along the coast of Africa and served as prisons where captured Africans were held until being transported overseas. Gangs would kidnap or capture Africans through debt or war and force them to make long difficult journeys in chains to the factories. Conditions in the factories were poor, with disease and violence common. Africans were sometimes held for months until being selected for transport on slave ships to the Americas, where they faced an uncertain future across the Atlantic.
Before European contact, native populations across North America developed diverse social, political, and economic structures adapted to their environments. Some groups, like the Maya, Aztecs, and Incas, formed large empires with advanced agricultural systems, while others like those in North America lived in smaller, nomadic societies relying on hunting and gathering. Beginning in the 15th century, Europeans began exploring and colonizing, seeking wealth, trade, and empire. Spain claimed much of North and South America and forced native populations into oppressive systems like encomiendas, dramatically reducing their numbers through violence and disease. Debates emerged around how to classify and treat indigenous peoples.
Atlantic Slave Trade - why did slavery startmrmarr
Slavery started because there was increasing demand for sugar but not enough workers to produce it. Africans were taken as slaves to grow sugar in the Americas as they were more resistant to European diseases than native tribes. This forced transportation of slaves from Africa to the Americas to support the sugar industry became known as the Triangular Trade due to the three stages of the journey: goods to Africa, slaves to Americas, produced goods from Americas to Europe.
Slavery began in America in 1619 when the first Africans were brought to Jamestown, Virginia by Dutch traders who had seized them from a Spanish ship. Over the next few centuries, slavery grew significantly as slave ships transported Africans to America against their will to be sold at auctions and forced to work on plantations under inhumane conditions. Slaves faced brutal punishments if they disobeyed and had no rights. The Underground Railroad and abolitionists worked to help escaped slaves reach freedom. Ultimately, the Civil War from 1861 to 1865 led to the end of slavery with Lincoln's Emancipation Proclamation and the 13th Amendment.
1) The transatlantic slave trade transported 10-20 million Africans to the Americas over 300 years, mostly to Brazil, the Caribbean, and Spanish colonies. Less than 5% went to North America.
2) Enslaved Africans were subjected to brutal conditions during capture, the Middle Passage voyage, and on plantations where they produced crops like cotton, sugar, and tobacco.
3) The slave trade had devastating impacts on Africa's population and development while fueling economic growth in Europe through plantation agriculture.
1. The document discusses the growing influence and interests of the United States in foreign affairs between the late 19th century and early 20th century.
2. These interests included commercial expansion, strategic and military concerns related to naval power, social Darwinist thinking, religious missionary activities, and closing the American frontier.
3. Key events discussed include the Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine, the Spanish-American War, the annexation of Hawaii, the Philippines, and Puerto Rico, the building of the Panama Canal, and various military interventions in Latin America in this time period.
- The Haitian Revolution began in 1791 as a slave rebellion against French colonial rule led by Toussaint L'Ouverture. It proved highly successful, overthrowing the brutal slave system and establishing the first black republic in 1804.
- However, Haiti's victory came at great cost after years of war. The country was left with a devastated agriculture system, no formal economy or education, and deep instability that allowed dictatorial rule.
- While Haiti achieved the remarkable feat of being the first free black nation in the Americas, independence did not solve the challenges of development under such dire conditions from the revolution.
The document discusses the origins and impacts of the Atlantic slave trade. It began with African kingdoms practicing slavery for centuries before Europeans greatly increased demand. Slaves were transported in horrific conditions on ships to the Americas to work plantations growing cash crops like sugar. An estimated 11 million Africans were enslaved, with millions dying during the Middle Passage. The slave trade profoundly disrupted African societies and economies while fueling plantation economies in the Americas through centuries of slave labor.
The new england, middle, and southern colonies 3.2 8th grade Ms Vanko kvanko
The document discusses the characteristics of the New England, Middle, and Southern colonies. The New England colonies focused on small farms, fishing, lumbering and shipbuilding due to their rocky terrain and cold climate. The Middle colonies had a more diverse population and mix of woodlands and farming valleys. The Southern colonies had fertile soil and rivers well-suited for cash crops like tobacco, rice and cotton grown on large plantations worked by indentured servants and slaves.
The American revolutionary war (1775 1783)cati1garcia
The American Revolutionary War began in 1775 due to growing tensions between the American colonies and Great Britain over taxation and lack of representation. Key events that fueled the growing conflict included the Intolerable Acts passed in 1774 in response to the Boston Tea Party. The Declaration of Independence was ratified in 1776 declaring the colonies independent states. While the British army was powerful, the colonists used guerrilla tactics and received aid from France and Spain to eventually force Britain's surrender at Yorktown in 1781, recognizing American independence in the 1783 Treaty of Paris.
This document discusses urbanization in late 19th century America, including the movement from farms to cities, changing immigration patterns, and the rise of ethnic neighborhoods. It also examines the women's suffrage movement and Progressive Era reforms led by activists like Jane Addams. New immigrants came from Southern and Eastern Europe, spoke non-English languages, and practiced Catholicism, Orthodoxy, or Judaism. They faced nativism, and laws like the Chinese Exclusion Act restricted immigration. Settlement houses helped new immigrants adapt to urban life.
The document summarizes the triangular trade route between Europe, Africa, and the Americas that was central to the Atlantic slave trade. The Henrietta Marie, a slave ship from London, is used to illustrate a typical slave trading voyage. It would carry manufactured goods to Africa to trade for enslaved Africans, transporting them in horrific conditions to the Caribbean on the Middle Passage. There, the slaves were sold and the ship loaded with sugar and other goods to bring back profits to Europe, completing the triangle. The slave trade resulted in the forced migration and deaths of millions of Africans for European economic gain.
American Revolution, also called United States War of Independence or American Revolutionary War, (1775–83), insurrection by which 13 of Great Britain’s North American colonies won political independence and went on to form the United States of America.
American imperialism in the late 19th and early 20th century was driven by four main factors:
1) Business interests seeking new markets and raw materials as industrial capacity grew.
2) A belief in social Darwinism and the white man's burden to civilize other races.
3) The closing of the American frontier increasing the focus outward.
4) Growing military and strategic interests to secure new naval bases and protect business investments abroad.
This led the U.S. to aggressively expand its influence and territory through wars in Cuba, Puerto Rico, and the Philippines as well as political and economic dominance in Latin America and Asia through the early 1900s.
Colonial Life-children, school, and medicineCasey Patrick
Colonial children received basic education through hornbooks, primers, and one-room schoolhouses. Their days consisted of school, chores, and play with few toys. Manners and obedience were strictly enforced. Society was divided into classes like gentry, merchants, farmers, slaves. Healthcare was rudimentary, relying on home remedies, bloodletting, and apothecaries. Disease and accidents resulted in high infant mortality and short life expectancy.
The Columbian Exchange resulted in the survival of European countries (The Old World) when they exchanged food with the New World (The Americas).
The New World lost immensely from the exchange because of the diseases that were transfered from Europe to them of which the did not have immunity
The document summarizes the Atlantic slave trade that took place between 1450 and 1865. It discusses the different phases of the slave trade including the capture of Africans in their homelands, transporting them on the brutal Middle Passage across the Atlantic Ocean, and seasoning them through forced labor in the Caribbean. It notes that 30 million Africans were taken from their homes, with 10 million dying during the capture phase and another 10 million dying during the Middle Passage. The document also examines the triangular trade route between Africa, the Caribbean and North America, and the growth of the slave population in the Americas to over 4 million by 1860 due to demand for labor and inventions like the cotton gin.
The Bill of Rights was passed by the English Parliament in 1689. It affirmed certain civil liberties that could not be taken away, including freedom of speech, freedom from cruel punishment, and freedom to elect members of Parliament. It also declared that William and Mary were the rightful monarchs in place of James II, and that no Catholic monarch would rule England in the future. The Bill of Rights helped establish constitutional limits on royal power and influenced the future constitution of the United States.
The document summarizes slave resistance to the institution of slavery in the United States from 1800 to the Civil War. It describes various slave rebellions and uprisings led by Denmark Vessey, Gabriel Prosser, Nat Turner, and John Brown. It also discusses the Underground Railroad and the role of Harriet Tubman in helping slaves escape. The document also profiles prominent abolitionists and activists including David Walker, Maria Stewart, Frederick Douglass, and Sojourner Truth who resisted slavery through pamphlets, speeches, and moral persuasion.
The document provides background information on the French and Indian War (1754-1763), which was a colonial conflict between France and Britain in North America that was part of a larger imperial war between the two powers called the Seven Years' War. It discusses key events that led to the start of the war such as territorial disputes in the Ohio River Valley and George Washington's involvement at Fort Necessity. It also summarizes several major battles during the war including General Braddock's defeat at Fort Duquesne and the massacre of British soldiers at Fort William Henry.
The document summarizes the Atlantic slave trade, which involved the transport of enslaved Africans by European powers to the Americas between the 16th and 19th centuries. Millions of Africans were captured from their homes and shipped across the Atlantic to work on plantations, mines, and other facilities in the Americas. The slave trade developed a triangular route, with European goods traded for African slaves, who were then transported to the Americas to be sold, with American goods then brought back to Europe. The journey, known as the Middle Passage, was horrific, with captives packed tightly into ship holds where many died from disease and poor treatment. The slave trade had devastating impacts on African societies and cultures but contributed greatly to the
The triangular trade involved three stages: 1) European traders brought goods to Africa and traded for slaves. 2) Slaves were then transported to the Americas through the grueling Middle Passage. 3) Goods produced by slaves in the Americas, such as sugar, cotton, and tobacco, were brought back to Europe for sale, completing the triangle.
the american revolution 1775 1781 powerpoint for all lessons!christinadoyle89
The document provides background information on the American Revolution. It describes how the Enlightenment ideas of self-rule and British taxation without representation led the colonists to rebel. Key events that increased tensions included the Boston Massacre, the Boston Tea Party, and the Battles of Lexington and Concord, which marked the beginning of the Revolutionary War. The colonists declared independence in 1776 and formed the United States of America with a constitution that established a democratic federal government with protected rights and liberties.
Language and identity - individual, social, national .docxDIPESH30
This document discusses the relationship between language and identity. It makes three key points:
1. Language displays one's identity through markers like accent and vocabulary, but identity is complex and can change over time or situation. People may choose to change languages and identities for social or economic reasons.
2. The emphasis placed on a language as an identity marker depends on social and political contexts. Minority languages often take on stronger identity roles than majority languages.
3. Identity is a fluid, dynamic concept that is shaped both by external factors and individual choices. While language provides cues to identity, it does not determine identity in an absolute sense. People have some ability to choose which identities they wish to claim or display through
Born A Crime - Asri, Antonio & Shamsa .pptxAsresachAddis
Trevor Noah was born in 1984 in South Africa during Apartheid to a white Dutch father and black Xhosa mother. As a mixed-race person, he was considered "coloured" but identified as black. He grew up speaking several African languages with his black relatives. Noah addresses issues of identity, language, and discrimination in his memoir Born a Crime. During Apartheid, South Africa enforced racial segregation and mixed relationships were illegal. Language was used to determine social status, education levels, and intelligence. By code-switching between languages, Noah was able to navigate different social situations and reduce the effects of racial discrimination, showing how language can act as a bridge across racial boundaries.
Slavery began in America in 1619 when the first Africans were brought to Jamestown, Virginia by Dutch traders who had seized them from a Spanish ship. Over the next few centuries, slavery grew significantly as slave ships transported Africans to America against their will to be sold at auctions and forced to work on plantations under inhumane conditions. Slaves faced brutal punishments if they disobeyed and had no rights. The Underground Railroad and abolitionists worked to help escaped slaves reach freedom. Ultimately, the Civil War from 1861 to 1865 led to the end of slavery with Lincoln's Emancipation Proclamation and the 13th Amendment.
1) The transatlantic slave trade transported 10-20 million Africans to the Americas over 300 years, mostly to Brazil, the Caribbean, and Spanish colonies. Less than 5% went to North America.
2) Enslaved Africans were subjected to brutal conditions during capture, the Middle Passage voyage, and on plantations where they produced crops like cotton, sugar, and tobacco.
3) The slave trade had devastating impacts on Africa's population and development while fueling economic growth in Europe through plantation agriculture.
1. The document discusses the growing influence and interests of the United States in foreign affairs between the late 19th century and early 20th century.
2. These interests included commercial expansion, strategic and military concerns related to naval power, social Darwinist thinking, religious missionary activities, and closing the American frontier.
3. Key events discussed include the Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine, the Spanish-American War, the annexation of Hawaii, the Philippines, and Puerto Rico, the building of the Panama Canal, and various military interventions in Latin America in this time period.
- The Haitian Revolution began in 1791 as a slave rebellion against French colonial rule led by Toussaint L'Ouverture. It proved highly successful, overthrowing the brutal slave system and establishing the first black republic in 1804.
- However, Haiti's victory came at great cost after years of war. The country was left with a devastated agriculture system, no formal economy or education, and deep instability that allowed dictatorial rule.
- While Haiti achieved the remarkable feat of being the first free black nation in the Americas, independence did not solve the challenges of development under such dire conditions from the revolution.
The document discusses the origins and impacts of the Atlantic slave trade. It began with African kingdoms practicing slavery for centuries before Europeans greatly increased demand. Slaves were transported in horrific conditions on ships to the Americas to work plantations growing cash crops like sugar. An estimated 11 million Africans were enslaved, with millions dying during the Middle Passage. The slave trade profoundly disrupted African societies and economies while fueling plantation economies in the Americas through centuries of slave labor.
The new england, middle, and southern colonies 3.2 8th grade Ms Vanko kvanko
The document discusses the characteristics of the New England, Middle, and Southern colonies. The New England colonies focused on small farms, fishing, lumbering and shipbuilding due to their rocky terrain and cold climate. The Middle colonies had a more diverse population and mix of woodlands and farming valleys. The Southern colonies had fertile soil and rivers well-suited for cash crops like tobacco, rice and cotton grown on large plantations worked by indentured servants and slaves.
The American revolutionary war (1775 1783)cati1garcia
The American Revolutionary War began in 1775 due to growing tensions between the American colonies and Great Britain over taxation and lack of representation. Key events that fueled the growing conflict included the Intolerable Acts passed in 1774 in response to the Boston Tea Party. The Declaration of Independence was ratified in 1776 declaring the colonies independent states. While the British army was powerful, the colonists used guerrilla tactics and received aid from France and Spain to eventually force Britain's surrender at Yorktown in 1781, recognizing American independence in the 1783 Treaty of Paris.
This document discusses urbanization in late 19th century America, including the movement from farms to cities, changing immigration patterns, and the rise of ethnic neighborhoods. It also examines the women's suffrage movement and Progressive Era reforms led by activists like Jane Addams. New immigrants came from Southern and Eastern Europe, spoke non-English languages, and practiced Catholicism, Orthodoxy, or Judaism. They faced nativism, and laws like the Chinese Exclusion Act restricted immigration. Settlement houses helped new immigrants adapt to urban life.
The document summarizes the triangular trade route between Europe, Africa, and the Americas that was central to the Atlantic slave trade. The Henrietta Marie, a slave ship from London, is used to illustrate a typical slave trading voyage. It would carry manufactured goods to Africa to trade for enslaved Africans, transporting them in horrific conditions to the Caribbean on the Middle Passage. There, the slaves were sold and the ship loaded with sugar and other goods to bring back profits to Europe, completing the triangle. The slave trade resulted in the forced migration and deaths of millions of Africans for European economic gain.
American Revolution, also called United States War of Independence or American Revolutionary War, (1775–83), insurrection by which 13 of Great Britain’s North American colonies won political independence and went on to form the United States of America.
American imperialism in the late 19th and early 20th century was driven by four main factors:
1) Business interests seeking new markets and raw materials as industrial capacity grew.
2) A belief in social Darwinism and the white man's burden to civilize other races.
3) The closing of the American frontier increasing the focus outward.
4) Growing military and strategic interests to secure new naval bases and protect business investments abroad.
This led the U.S. to aggressively expand its influence and territory through wars in Cuba, Puerto Rico, and the Philippines as well as political and economic dominance in Latin America and Asia through the early 1900s.
Colonial Life-children, school, and medicineCasey Patrick
Colonial children received basic education through hornbooks, primers, and one-room schoolhouses. Their days consisted of school, chores, and play with few toys. Manners and obedience were strictly enforced. Society was divided into classes like gentry, merchants, farmers, slaves. Healthcare was rudimentary, relying on home remedies, bloodletting, and apothecaries. Disease and accidents resulted in high infant mortality and short life expectancy.
The Columbian Exchange resulted in the survival of European countries (The Old World) when they exchanged food with the New World (The Americas).
The New World lost immensely from the exchange because of the diseases that were transfered from Europe to them of which the did not have immunity
The document summarizes the Atlantic slave trade that took place between 1450 and 1865. It discusses the different phases of the slave trade including the capture of Africans in their homelands, transporting them on the brutal Middle Passage across the Atlantic Ocean, and seasoning them through forced labor in the Caribbean. It notes that 30 million Africans were taken from their homes, with 10 million dying during the capture phase and another 10 million dying during the Middle Passage. The document also examines the triangular trade route between Africa, the Caribbean and North America, and the growth of the slave population in the Americas to over 4 million by 1860 due to demand for labor and inventions like the cotton gin.
The Bill of Rights was passed by the English Parliament in 1689. It affirmed certain civil liberties that could not be taken away, including freedom of speech, freedom from cruel punishment, and freedom to elect members of Parliament. It also declared that William and Mary were the rightful monarchs in place of James II, and that no Catholic monarch would rule England in the future. The Bill of Rights helped establish constitutional limits on royal power and influenced the future constitution of the United States.
The document summarizes slave resistance to the institution of slavery in the United States from 1800 to the Civil War. It describes various slave rebellions and uprisings led by Denmark Vessey, Gabriel Prosser, Nat Turner, and John Brown. It also discusses the Underground Railroad and the role of Harriet Tubman in helping slaves escape. The document also profiles prominent abolitionists and activists including David Walker, Maria Stewart, Frederick Douglass, and Sojourner Truth who resisted slavery through pamphlets, speeches, and moral persuasion.
The document provides background information on the French and Indian War (1754-1763), which was a colonial conflict between France and Britain in North America that was part of a larger imperial war between the two powers called the Seven Years' War. It discusses key events that led to the start of the war such as territorial disputes in the Ohio River Valley and George Washington's involvement at Fort Necessity. It also summarizes several major battles during the war including General Braddock's defeat at Fort Duquesne and the massacre of British soldiers at Fort William Henry.
The document summarizes the Atlantic slave trade, which involved the transport of enslaved Africans by European powers to the Americas between the 16th and 19th centuries. Millions of Africans were captured from their homes and shipped across the Atlantic to work on plantations, mines, and other facilities in the Americas. The slave trade developed a triangular route, with European goods traded for African slaves, who were then transported to the Americas to be sold, with American goods then brought back to Europe. The journey, known as the Middle Passage, was horrific, with captives packed tightly into ship holds where many died from disease and poor treatment. The slave trade had devastating impacts on African societies and cultures but contributed greatly to the
The triangular trade involved three stages: 1) European traders brought goods to Africa and traded for slaves. 2) Slaves were then transported to the Americas through the grueling Middle Passage. 3) Goods produced by slaves in the Americas, such as sugar, cotton, and tobacco, were brought back to Europe for sale, completing the triangle.
the american revolution 1775 1781 powerpoint for all lessons!christinadoyle89
The document provides background information on the American Revolution. It describes how the Enlightenment ideas of self-rule and British taxation without representation led the colonists to rebel. Key events that increased tensions included the Boston Massacre, the Boston Tea Party, and the Battles of Lexington and Concord, which marked the beginning of the Revolutionary War. The colonists declared independence in 1776 and formed the United States of America with a constitution that established a democratic federal government with protected rights and liberties.
Language and identity - individual, social, national .docxDIPESH30
This document discusses the relationship between language and identity. It makes three key points:
1. Language displays one's identity through markers like accent and vocabulary, but identity is complex and can change over time or situation. People may choose to change languages and identities for social or economic reasons.
2. The emphasis placed on a language as an identity marker depends on social and political contexts. Minority languages often take on stronger identity roles than majority languages.
3. Identity is a fluid, dynamic concept that is shaped both by external factors and individual choices. While language provides cues to identity, it does not determine identity in an absolute sense. People have some ability to choose which identities they wish to claim or display through
Born A Crime - Asri, Antonio & Shamsa .pptxAsresachAddis
Trevor Noah was born in 1984 in South Africa during Apartheid to a white Dutch father and black Xhosa mother. As a mixed-race person, he was considered "coloured" but identified as black. He grew up speaking several African languages with his black relatives. Noah addresses issues of identity, language, and discrimination in his memoir Born a Crime. During Apartheid, South Africa enforced racial segregation and mixed relationships were illegal. Language was used to determine social status, education levels, and intelligence. By code-switching between languages, Noah was able to navigate different social situations and reduce the effects of racial discrimination, showing how language can act as a bridge across racial boundaries.
This document provides brief introductions to 26 different languages from A to Z. Each entry includes 1-3 facts about the language such as where it is spoken, how many speakers it has, and its origins or writing system. Many entries also include short videos, songs, or other media demonstrating the language. The document is intended to expose readers to the diversity of human languages around the world.
This document provides brief introductions to 26 different languages from A to Z. Each entry includes 1-3 facts about the language such as number of speakers, origins, or unique linguistic features. The goal is to expose readers to the diversity of human languages around the world in a concise, easy-to-digest alphabetized format.
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1. Ethnicity refers to identification with a social group based on common cultural traits like language, religion, and ancestry rather than biological factors.
2. While race is often linked to biology, ethnicity is more closely associated with cultural expression and identity. However, both are social constructs used to categorize populations.
3. Language can be an important part of ethnic identity and differentiation, as seen in examples like the divergence between African American Vernacular English and White English dialects in the US due to social and geographic separation of ethnic groups.
This document is a critical term paper analyzing how the standardization of American English in public schools promotes racism and white language ideologies. It discusses how children develop their "Sound House" or accent from a young age, and how the promotion of Standard American English as the ideal accent devalues other accents and languages. The standardization of American English empowers white people and their language while dismissing other ways of speaking. This entrenches racism in society by forcing assimilation to white language norms and attacking the identities of non-white English speakers. The paper examines the historical roots of this standardization dating back to the founding of the U.S. and explores the theoretical concepts of language ideologies and hegemony to explain how
This document provides information about various languages and linguistic topics through a series of questions and answers. It discusses the Proto-Indo-European language, the creation of the Korean alphabet known as Hangul, linguistic theories such as the Kurgan hypothesis, and notable linguists such as August Schleicher and J.R.R. Tolkien. It also defines linguistic terminology like alphabets, abjads, and abugidas.
The Gullah and Geechee people were able to preserve their African culture and traditions due to their isolation on Sea Island plantations from other slave communities. Living apart from whites allowed them to maintain their own language, which incorporated words and structures from various African languages. They also blended Christianity with African religious practices, holding communal worship services that incorporated elements like ring shouts. Through generations of isolation and cultural practices like their distinct language and religion, the Gullah Geechee people successfully preserved much of their West African heritage.
African American Vernacular English (AAVE) developed from English-based pidgins and creoles spoken by African slaves in America. Certain grammatical and phonological features of AAVE, such as dropping final consonants and replacing /th/ with /f/ or /d/, can also be found in Southern white dialects due to the influence of black wet nurses. AAVE utilizes signifying, where expressions have hidden meanings understood only by slaves. Terms from AAVE such as "calling someone out of their name" and the n-word are examined, in addition to vocabulary from hip hop language like "izzle" words and terms referring to relationships.
This document discusses the extinction of languages and the dominance of English globally. It notes that languages are going extinct at an unprecedented rate, with over half predicted to be extinct by 2100. The main causes of extinction are globalization and migration, as dominant languages like English replace local tongues. While the spread of English has negative impacts like loss of cultural identity, it can also have positive effects by facilitating new creative expressions and empowering marginalized groups. The relationship between dominant and minority languages is complex with both restrictive and liberating elements.
Black History Month began as Negro History Week in 1926 to recognize African Americans' role in shaping US history. It is celebrated in February to honor the birthdays of Frederick Douglass, Abraham Lincoln, and Langston Hughes. Black History Month provides an opportunity to learn about the achievements and contributions of African Americans throughout history and their ongoing impact on American society.
1) Language is closely intertwined with ethnic identity and group membership. Members of ethnic groups often learn the linguistic varieties associated with that group.
2) In the United States, differences exist between the English spoken by white and black Americans, and ethnicity can often be identified based on language alone. However, these linguistic differences result from learned behavior within communities rather than innate qualities.
3) The situation in former Yugoslavia demonstrates how ethnic identities and linguistic varieties can change over time and in response to political situations. Serbo-Croatian was once considered a single language but is now considered separate Serbian and Croatian languages.
Slang is informal language used among groups who are familiar with each other, like teenagers. It can make speech more emotionally expressive and concise. Slang evolves over time as new words and phrases are generated by youth and spread through popular culture. American slang in particular has become a global phenomenon, with youth worldwide adopting English terms from music and media to signal their membership in global pop culture.
1. Facultad de humanidades y Ciencias de la Educación:
Licenciatura en Lingüística-
Prof. María Noel Caño-Guiral
María Zinnia Bardas Hoffmann
Gullah dialects
2. The Gullah Language
• Gullah is an English-based, creolized
language that naturally evolved from the
unique circumstances of, and was spoken by,
the slaves in South Carolina and Georgia.
• It is not written language. It is sometimes
referred to as the patios of the Lowcountry.
•
3. • Along with many of the African and English
words and expressions, it also contains
some other foreign languages or whatever
could be picked up, depending on the
nationality of the slave owner.
4. • The word Gullah is believed to be a
mispronunciation of the African word Gora
or Gola, which were names of tribes living
in Sierra Leone, West Africa.
8. Living in the Sea Islands off the coast of South
Carolina, Georgia and northern Florida ( and
about 30 miles inland) is the Gullah/Geechee
Nation, comprised of the descendants of
Africans once enslaved in the Lowcountry and
Coastal Empire.
The words Gullah and Geechee refer to West
African ethnic groups. “However, amongst
ourselves, we don‟t use these designations,”
notes historian Marquetta L. Goodwine. “We
know we‟re all kin. We‟re all the same culture,
heritage, and legacy.”
9. Gullah language combines elements of West African
dialects with English pidgin bases. Gullah is the only
surviving English-based Creole language in America.
The language developed as a way for Africans of
various tribes to communicate with one another, a
way that plantation owners would not understand.
Gullah is an oral history, and younger generations
have kept the traditional spirit of Gullah alive through
language, religion, arts, crafts, stories, and song.
Gullah/Geechee people reflect a more African
influence in their behavior, self-expression, and
beliefs than any other African American group in the
United States of America.
10. • The Lord’s Prayer
Translated to Gullah by Alphonso Brown
Our Fadduh awt‟n Hebb‟n, all-duh-weh be dy holy
„n uh rightschus name. Dy kingdom com.‟ Oh lawd
leh yo‟ holy „n rightschus woud be done, on dis ert‟
as-‟e tis dun een yo‟ grayt Hebb‟n. „N ghee we oh
Lawd dis day our day-ly bread. “N f‟gib we oh
Lawd our trus-passes, as we also f‟gib doohs who
com‟ sin „n truspass uhghens us. „N need-us-snot
oh konkuhrin‟ King een tuh no moh ting like uh sin
„n eeb‟l. Fuh dyne oh dyne is duh kingdom, „n duh
kingdom prommus fuh be we ebbuh las‟n glory.
Amen.
• Listen to the Lord’s Prayer in Gullah
11. • The Twenty Third Psalm
Translated to Gullah by Alphonso Brown
De Lawd, „E duh my sheppud. Uh een gwoi‟ want. „E meck me fuh
lay down een dem green passuh. „E Khah me deh side dah stagnant
wahtuh. „E sto‟ muh soul; „E lead me een de pat‟ ob right-juss-niss
fuh „E name sake. Aae doh Ie wark shru‟ de whalley ob dem grayb
yaad Ie een gwoi‟ skayed uh dem dead people, fuh Ie know de
Lawd, „E duh deh wid me; „E stick wha‟ „E khah een „E han‟ „n de
staff een de udduh han‟ gwoi‟ cumpit me‟ „E fix up uh table fuh me
fuh grease muh mout‟ „n muh enemies een gwoi‟ git none. „E „noint
muh head wid uhl. Muh cup obbuh flo.‟ Sho‟ nuff all „E goodnes,‟ „n
„E muhcy gwoi‟ be wid me all de day ob muh life „n Ie gwoi‟ lib deh
een de house ob de Lawd fuh ebbuh „n ebbuh. Amen
Listen to the 23rd Psalm in Gullah
http://gullahtours.com/gullah/hear-and-read-gullah
12. “I Have A Dream,”
by Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr.
Translated to Gullah by Alphonso Brown
Ie say tuh unnuh teday, mye frien‟, eeb‟n dough we duh face dees haad
time yuh ob teday „n temorruh, Ie still hab uh dreem. „E uh dreem wuh
staat way down een America dreem.
Ie hab disshuh dreem dat one day dis America gwi‟ come up „n be tru‟
mout‟ ob de law wah call de Creed: “We hol‟ dees trut‟ fuh be sef-
ebbuhdent, dat all man duh mek equal.”
.
13. Ie hab uh dreem dat my fo‟ leetle chill‟n gwi one
uh dees day lib een America weh deh een gwi‟
be judge by de culluh ob deh skin but by dey
weh dey khaah „e sef. Ie hab uh dreem teday!
Ie hab uh dreem dat one uh dees ol‟ day, way
down een Allybameh…yeh, right down een
Allybameh, dat leet‟l black by‟s „n leet‟l black
gals gwi‟ be able fuh jy‟n up han‟ wid leet‟l white
by‟s „n gals „n wark tegettuh like sistuh „n
brudduh. Ie hab uh dreem!‟.”
14. Ie hab uh dreem dat one uh dees ol‟ day, ebby wally
gwi‟ be raise up, ebby hill „n mount‟n gwi‟ be mek lo‟
down, de haad ruff place gwi‟ be mek plain, „n de
crookit place gwi‟ be mek skrate, „n de glory ob de
Lawd gwi‟ be sho‟ up, „n ebbyboddy gwi see um
tegedduh.
Dees duh wah we look fo‟. Did yuh duh de fate dat Ie
gwi‟ hol‟ teh de Sout‟ wid.
Wid dis fate, we gwi‟ be able fuh cut fum de mount‟n
ob nutt‟n, a stone ob hope. Wid dis fate, we gwi‟ be
ab‟le fuh change up de uglynes‟ ob we nayshun ento
uh bootiful tegedduhness ob brudduhhood.
15. Wid dis fate we gwi‟ be able fuh wark tegedduh, „n
pray tegedduh, skrugg‟l tegedduh „n raise up tall fuh
freedum tegedduh, „n „e stan‟ so, dat we gwi‟ be free
one day.
„N dah sho‟nuf gwi be de day. Dis gwi‟ be de day
wen all Gawd chill‟n gwi‟ hice de chune wid new
mee‟nin, “My country „tis ob dee, sweet lan‟ ob
libuhty, ob dee Ie sing. Lan‟ weh my fadduh dead,
lan‟ ob de Pilgrum pride, fum ebby mount‟n side leh
freedum ring.” “‟N eff America gwi‟ be uh bettuh
nayshun, dis mus‟ be fo‟ real.
16. Ebonics
• It s (a blend of the words ebony
and phonics) is a term that was originally
intended to refer to the language of all people
descended from enslaved Black Africans,
particularly in West Africa, the Caribbean,
and North America.
• Since the 1996 controversy over its use by
the Oakland School Board, the
term Ebonics has primarily been used to refer
to African American Vernacular
English (AAVE.
17. • The word Ebonics was originally coined in
1973 by African American social
psychologist Robert Williams in a
discussion with linguist Ernie Smith (as
well as other language scholars and
researchers) that took place in a
conference on "Cognitive and Language
Development of the Black Child", held
in St. Louis, Missouri.
18. • His intention was to give a name to the
language of African Americans that
acknowledged the linguistic consequence
of the slave trade and avoided the
negative connotations of other terms like
"Nonstandard Negro English
19. • We need to define what we speak. We
need to give a clear definition to our
language...We know that ebony means
black and that phonics refers to speech
sounds or the science of sounds.
20. • Thus, we are really talking about the
science of black speech sounds or
language.
• 1975, the term appeared in Ebonics: The
True Language of Black Folks, a book
edited and cowritten by Williams
21. • A two-year-old term created by a group of black scholars,
Ebonics may be defined as "the linguistic and paralinguistic
features which on a concentric continuum represent the
communicative competence of the West African, Caribbean,
and United States slave descendant of African origin. It
includes the various idioms, patois, argots, idiolects, and
social dialects of black people" especially those who have
adapted to colonial circumstances. Ebonics derives its form
from ebony (black) and phonics (sound, the study of sound)
and refers to the study of the language of black people in all
its cultural uniqueness.
• Other writers have since emphasized how the term represents
a view of the language of Black people as African rather than
European.
• he term was not obviously popular even among those who
agreed with the reason for coining it. Even within Williams's
book, the term Black English is far more commonly used than
the term Ebonics.[
22. • John Baugh has stated that the term Ebonics is used in four ways by
its Afrocentric proponents.
It may:
• 1. be "an international construct, including the linguistic
consequences of the African slave trade";
• 2. refer to the languages of the African diaspora as a whole;or it may
refer to what is normally regarded as a variety of English: either
• 3. it "is the equivalent of black English and is considered to be a
dialect of English" (and thus merely an alternative term for AAVE), or
• 4. it "is the antonym of black English and is considered to be a
language other than English" (and thus a rejection of the notion of
"African American Vernacular English" but nevertheless a term for
what others term AAVE, viewed as an independent language and
not a mere ethnolect).
25. • An overheard conversation inspired Lorenzo Dow Turner, PhD‟26, to
become a linguistic detective. While teaching summer school at
South Carolina State College in 1929, Turner listened as two
students spoke what sounded like broken English.
• To others, that‟s all it was—a remnant of a pidgin language that
slaves adapted from white influences. Turner, who had a Harvard
master‟s degree in education along with an English PhD from
Chicago, heard the echoes of something more formal, although he
couldn‟t understand a word.
• He asked the students what language they were speaking. “We‟re
Gullah,” they said, referring to cloistered communities of slave
descendants on the Sea Islands of South Carolina and Georgia.
Their response sparked what would grow into the defining ambition
of Turner‟s professional life: tracing the roots of Gullah vocabulary
and culture. Other linguists had studied it before, but they
determined that it contained no vestiges of African languages.
26. • Reed Smith of the University of South Carolina believed that
Gullah emerged as slaves altered the European-influenced
English of white settlers. The Africans, he wrote in a 1926
pamphlet, would “wrap their tongues around it, and reproduce it
changed in tonality, pronunciation, cadence, and grammar to suit
their native phonetic tendencies.”
• About the time Turner first heard Gullah, University of North
Carolina‟s Guy B. Johnson declared, “This strange dialect turns
out to be little more than the peasant English of two centuries
ago.” He found the perceived absence of African language
influences “startling” but attributable to slavery‟s devastating
cultural effects.
• Turner believed African influences remained. Although there is
very little in Gullah that is not drawn from English, says University
of Chicago linguistics scholar Salikoko Mufwene, PhD‟79, Turner
was the first to prove that “one cannot account for the origins ...
ignoring the languages that the slaves had brought from Africa.”
27. • Born in Elizabeth City, North Carolina on
October 21, 1890, Turner was the
youngest of four sons of Rooks Turner and
Elizabeth Freeman. His father completed
his masters degree at Howard University,
although he had not begun first grade until
he was twenty-one years old.
28. • His mother gained the education allowed
to black women at the time (six years).
Two of Turner's brothers earned degrees
in medicine and law. Turner's family's
strong emphasis on education inspired
him and helped him achieve academic
success.
29. • Turner earned a master's degree from Harvard and a
Ph.D. in English literature from the University of
Chicago. He taught at Howard University from 1917 to
1928, and during his last eight years, he served as
Head of the English Department. After leaving
Howard, he founded the Washington Sun newspaper,
which closed after one year.
• In 1946 he began teaching at Roosevelt University in
Chicago, where he was Chairman of the African
Studies Program. In the early 1960s, he cofounded the
Peace Corps training program to prepare young
volunteers for service in Africa. Turner retired from
Roosevelt in 1967.
30. • Lorenzo Dow Turner is best remembered
as the father of Gullah studies. His interest
in the Gullah people began in 1929 when
he first heard Gullah speakers while
teaching a summer class at South
Carolina State College (now University).
• Although established scholars then viewed
Gullah speech as a form of substandard
English, Turner sensed that Gullah was
strongly influenced by African languages.
31. • He set out to study the language. For the
next 20 years, he made trips to the Gullah
region in coastal South Carolina and
Georgia, interviewing Gullahs (often in
isolated locations) and making detailed
notes on their language. He also made
recordings in the 1930s of Gullah
speakers talking about their culture, folk
stories and other aspects of life.
32. • As part of his studies, Turner traveled to several locations in
Africa, specifically Sierra Leone, to learn about the
development of Creole languages, as well as to Louisiana and
Brazil, to study Creole and Portuguese, respectively.
• He did research at University of London School of Oriental
and African Studies (on various African language systems).
• He wanted to be able to provide context for the obvious
"Africanisms" he discovered in his Sea Islands research.
• "Such depth and breadth allowed Turner to locate Gullah
culture and language within the broader complexities of the
African diaspora in the New World, ... firmly outside the
reductionist theoretical model of cultural assimilation."
33. • When Turner finally published his classic work
Africanisms in the Gullah Dialect in 1949, he made an
immediate impact on established academic thinking.
• His study of the origin, development and structure of
Gullah was so convincing that scholars quickly
accepted his thesis that Gullah is strongly influenced
by African languages.
• He showed the continuity of language and culture
across the diaspora. Many scholars have followed
Turner over the years in researching the African roots
of Gullah language and culture. He created a new field
of study by his work and an appreciation for a unique
element of African-American culture.
34. • Lorenzo Dow Turner was strongly influenced
by the American linguistic movement, which
he joined at its inception.
• Through his Gullah research, he gave shape
to several academic specialties: Gullah
studies, dialect geography and creole
linguistics, as well as being an important
predecessor to the field of African American
studies, which developed in the 1960s and
70s.
• Turner died of heart failure at Michael Reese
Hospital in Chicago, Illinois, on February 10,
1972.
35.
36. • To gain entry into that close-knit environment.
• Turner sought out community leaders to
verify his credentials.
• “The Gullah culture is still a very closed
culture. You can‟t get in and just get things
done. You have to be introduced, and people
have to say that you are bona fide,” Amos
says. “He was a very cordial and polite man,
and he would sit down and talk and get
himself friendly with the people.”
37. • The effort paid off with a glimpse into the
conditions that allowed the culture to endure
slavery. On Sapelo Island, Georgia, for
example, “the slaves were the majority of the
population; they were very isolated,” Amos
says.
• “There was the white family that owned the
island and the plantation, and then everybody
else was black. Even sometimes the
overseers—the drivers, as they were called—
were African. So in that sense the culture
could develop and could be kept.”
38. Zora Neale Hurston
Grab the broom of anger and drive off the beast of fear.
Fear, Off, Anger Zora Neale Hurston
39. • Born on January 7, 1891 in Notasulga, Alabama,
Hurston was the fifth out of eight children. At the
age of three, Hurston and her family moved to
Eatonville, where they lived on five acres of land
in an eight-room house.
• Her writings reveal no recollection of Alabama,
and Hurston said that Eatonville always felt like
home.She was immersed in black folk life.
• Her father, John Hurston, was a Baptist
preacher, tenant farmer, and carpenter who
became the mayor of Eatonville.
42. • Charlotte Jenkins is the author of "Gullah
Cuisine: By Land and By Sea," a collection of
stories and recipes taken from Charlotte and
her husband Frank Jenkins' lives and
traditions in and outside their Gullah family
kitchens.
43. Gullah Tours
• The language and culture still thrive today in
and around the Charleston/Beaufort, South
Carolina region. Gullah Tours explores the
places, history, and stories that are relevant
to the rich and varied contributions made by
Black Charlestonians..
• Of course, if Gullah was spoken throughout
the tour, you would not understand, nor would
you enjoy the beautiful and interesting sites
of Charleston.
44. Glossary*
http://gullahtours.com/gullah/gullah-words
ANUDDUH another
DEEF deaf
DEN then, than
DISSO just so
YEZ ear, ears (human or animal)
YEYE eye, eyes; so pronounced when preceded by a
soft vowel sound ” ‘E yeye red”his or her eyes
are bloodshot with anger
ZACKLY exactly (See “puhzackly”)
46. • Gullah Fambly” by: Carter Elysse Nunez (kudipeaches)
[just for tay tay :) <3]
• I „memba grinin‟
De rice, mashin‟ up tettuh
Me fingas fumblin‟
Wile me mind try fuh keep‟up
Wit Granmuddah hans‟ rhythm
Unk playin‟ him heart on de guitar
Chillun wat come frum cross‟de‟way
Fuh nyam all we rice
An‟ clap dey feet tuh “We Gwine Fuh Heb‟n”
Miss Rosa bringin‟ de chit‟l‟n‟
Granpapa stirrin‟ him secret sauce ;
We all know it gonna „cawch we tongue
But still we douse de chickin‟ en it
Swattin‟ „way dem crow wat try dey beak
On de fried cawn
48. To speak or not to speak
The Rights of Persons Belonging to
Linguistic Minorities
• UN Sub-Committee on the rights of minorities Dr Fernand de
Varennes Murdoch University, Australia21 March 1997
Minority Rights and Other "Linguistic Rights": What the UN
Declaration Does Not Containt
• It is essential to emphasise certain limitations to the UN
Declaration in relation to language. It apparently was never
intended to be a comprehensive code of all human rights,
recognised or nascent in international law, which directly or
indirectly relate to language.
• Strictly speaking, it should mainly be seen to address those
rights linked to Article 27 of the International Covenant on
Civil and Political Rights, the only "minority" provision in the
covenant.
49. • The origins of the UN
Declaration can thus explain
certain omissions. Freedom of
expression, for example, is not
mentioned specifically in the UN
Declaration, even though it is
now clear that this freedom
protects the private use of
language.
50. • For persons who belong to linguistic minorities,
freedom of expression can be an extremely
important right in relation to the private use of a
language, but it is not a right which they can claim
as members of a minority group.
• Everyone has freedom of expression, whether one
belongs to a majority or to a minority. Seen in this
light, it is clear that whilst freedom of expression
may be of great significance for the protection of
linguistic minorities in some countries, it does not
originate per se from Article 27 of
the International Covenant on Civil and
Political Rights.
51. • It is not contained explicitly in the UN
Declaration because some individual
human rights that may have a role in
matters such as language (and religion or
culture) are not minority rights. Since they
are not minority rights, they fall outside the
UN Declaration.
52. • The UN Declaration is also silent on the right to
an interpreter in criminal proceedings when an
accused does not understand the language
used by the court.
• Once again, as this is an individual right and not
a minority right, it is not mentioned in the UN
Declaration, despite considered by many to be a
fundamental right in international law.
53. • A final example of a relevant individual
right which the UN Declaration does not
directly address is the growing
acknowledgment of the impact of non-
discrimination in the area of language
preferences by public authorities.
54. • Although the interpretation of this aspect of
the right of non-discrimination in international
law is still going through a process of
clarification, there is increasing support for the
view that the operation of non-discrimination
must take into account the need to balance a
state's legitimate interests and goals in
prescribing certain preferences with the
ensuing disadvantage, denial or burden this
may effect on individuals.