Growth and development

2/22/2021
Jones H.M-MBA
1
Growth and
development
Presented by Mr. Jones H.M-
MBA

Definition of Terms
– Growth: Is an increase in weight and size
which also involve the cell size and number
– Development: Is an integrated, differentiation
and growth leading to maturity and
independent action or function.
It is the special kind of change that is
cumulative and occurs over time in the
context of social setting.
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Factors affecting growth and
development (Environment)
 Environment: Psychologists under this
school of thought believe that the
environment plays an important role in
developmental psychology.
Developmental psychologist like John Watson
(1924 to 1958 ) a prominent American
psychologist wrote “give me a dozen of health
infants well formed and my own specified
world to bring them up in and
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Environment as a factor
affecting growth and
development (Environment)
cont
I will guarantee to take any one at random and train him to
become any type of specialist I might select- doctor, lawyer,
merchant, chief and yes even beggar and thief regardless of
his talent ,tendencies, abilities, vocation, race of his
ancestor’.
This shows that according to him the environment tends to
influence growth and development.
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development (Genetics)
– Genetics: There is increasing evidence of the importance of
heredity in the formation of individual personality.
– There is genetic evidence that prove that physical
attributes like height, complexion, hair texture, etc and
internal structures are inherited.
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development (Genetics) cont
– These physical attribute affects personality
structure, e.g. identical twins who, because they
developed from the same original germ cell are
endowed with the same set of genes and tend to
posses the same pattern of intelligence.
– Non identical twin on the other hand who do not
share the same set of genes present intelligence
only as similar as that found in ordinary siblings
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development (Genetics) cont
– The other example is that persons with endogenous mental
defects certainly tend to produce mentally defective
offspring.
– Heredity may therefore be likened to a liquid contained in
the bottle of environment. Both the environment and
heredity are equally important and can not in reality be
consider independently.
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Forms of Human
development
– Cognitive development: This development of
mental processes that help us to deal with
the environment.
– Language development: This looks at the
development or acquisition of language.
– Personality development: It explore the
development of personality or principle of
underlying self.
– Social development: Development of gender
identity and gender roles
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Current theories of growth
and development
– There are a number of theories of
development .some of these include:
 Maturation theory
Psychosexual theory
Cognitive development theory
Social learning theory
Attachment theory.
In this lecture we shall just discuss cognitive
theory according to piaget and psychosexual
development theory by Sigmund Freud.
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9

Cognitive development
(Piaget)
– Piaget was interested in understanding the
mental processes that help us deals with the
environment.
– Jean Piaget (1896-1980) believed that cognitive
development takes place in distinct stages.
– His study was done through observation of his
subjects.
– He came up with four stages of cognitive
development
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(Piaget
– He said man always try to adapt to his
environment. This adaptation process
attempts to bring about equilibrium.
– The adaptation process takes place by
assimilation and accommodation.
– Assimilation: It means taking in new ideas or
experiences to knowledge that was
accumulated through prior experiences .e.g.
a new concept of a train may be assimilated
into the original concept of the car. In as far
as the child is concerned there is no
significant difference between train and car.
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11

(Piaget) cont
– The old knowledge offers a better “fit” to some of the new
experiences than others. If the fit is poor then something
should be done. This when accommodation comes in.
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(Piaget) cont
– Accommodation: This involves modification of the existing
schemata in order to understand the new one. e.g. when a
two year old is exposed for the first time to a cell phone ,
the child will in the first place try absorbing it into its
established schemata. acting toward it as a familiar object,
attempting to test it, bang it, bounce or throw it.
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(Piaget) cont
– However once he realizes the unique properties of the cell
phone he will develop a new schema of action to cover the
concept of the cell phone
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Stages of cognitive
development
– SENSORY MOTOR STAGE (0-2years) since infants neither
talk nor read and probably does not think like an adult.
– Piaget asserted that they learn by seeing ,hearing and
smelling and through motor activities by touching,
grasping, throwing things and so on. He therefore called
this stage sensory motor stage.
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Stages of cognitive development cont
– During this stage the infant progresses from
basically reflexes oriented activities which
are limited to organism’s awareness of
themselves, other people and objects in their
surrounding e.g..
– O-2 months the child has random activities
they don’t have goals in their activities.
– 2-4 months they begin to see purpose in their
activities and become more coordinated with
their hands and eyes.
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16

Stages of cognitive
development cont
– 4-8 months the child easily bring about
desired consequences e.g. the child can kick
or throw a toy
– At 12 months the child will begin to enjoy
activities like holding and dropping objects
– At 18 months just before 24 months the child
begins to develop some ability of
imagination, planning and creativity. The child
also learn to use language at this very stage.
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Stages of cognitive
development cont
– PRE OPERATIONAL STAGE (2 -7 years):
– Here the child begins to internalize the world
around it.
– Child engages in symbolic play e.g. use of
stick as a gun or doll as a real baby.
– The schemata is limited because it cant
categorize the world around it.
– There is over generalization e.g. if the child
saw a goat it might point at it and say dog
,because in as far vas the child is concerned
anything on four legs is a dog.
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Stages of cognitive
development cont
– Here the child also experiences
“egocentrism” inability to consider other
aspects of things or being self centered.
– For example the child might find it hard to
believe that its mother is also its daddy's wife
or its mother is also its brothers mother.
– During this stage the child may also talk to
him or herself.
– There is inability to understand the reverse of
things.
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Stages of cognitive
development cont
– CONCRETE OPERATIONAL STAGE(7-12 years). This is
characterized by:
– Ability to reverse actions, processes and activities.
– Child is able to over come egocentrism. The child become a
social being.
– They are able to play in groups
– They are able to categorize things in series
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Stages of cognitive
development cont
– The problem is that their mind is still concrete they
understand the world in terms physical objects. If they
want to change their action into cognition, they need a
teaching aid.
– They can not understand abstract things that have some
thing to do with symbolism.
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Formal operational stage 12
year and above
– At this stage the child is able to think like an adult.
– They are able to understand hypothetical situation.
– At this stage the person has all the mental tools needed to
adopt to its environment.
– The child also experience adolescent egocentrism.
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Formal operational stage 12
year and above
– They become self focused
– They think that the world revolve around them
– This is seen in talking, walking, dressing and selection of
friends ,even deviant behaviour.
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Implication to nursing
practice
– Children may be egocentric ,there the nurse should
exercise patience with the child.
– Children may not understand hypothetical situation,
therefore the nurse show be aware of the Child's limitation.
– Adolescents may be egocentric therefore should be
handled delicately, because the y may be fragile.
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PERSONALITY
DEVELOPMENT(SIGMUNG FREUD
1856-1939)
– PERSONALITY: This refers to one’s
characteristics or trait that set him/her apart
from everybody.
– Sigmund Freud lived at the time when there
was a belief that human being are controlled
by their own rational thinking.
– He was a psychiatrist, did psycho analysis.
– By working with his patients he came up with
the theory that human behavior is
determined by instinct or drives which are
largely unconscious
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PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT
(SIGMUNG FREUD 1856-1939)
– He said there are basically three hypothetical facets of
human personality i.e. Id. Ego and Superego.
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1. The Id
– The Id: This is the part of the mind that always seeks
pleasure and usually the kind of behavior it seeks is sexual
in nature.
– It operate on the pleasure principle without regard to what
is obtaining on the ground. it develops right from infancy
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– He said these body parts are what the child will be focused
on at various ages as it grows.
– He claimed that failure to gain gratification from these
areas will result in “fixation” in adulthood.
– As a result of this he came up with five (5) psychosexual
stages.
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– He argued that human life is predominated by
sexual instincts or pleasures. He called this sexual
energy “libido”
– This energy is released in order to have the
required satisfaction it craves.
– He also grouped up the will be different outlets
through which libido release will be met.
– He called these areas the ‘Erogenous zone’ or
erogenic zones.
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Oral stage (0-1years)
– At this stage the erogenous zone is the mouth.
– During this time the child enjoys in mouth manipulation
activities, such as sucking.
– Sucking is directed toward the beast or feeding bottle.
– If oral needs are not met appropriately in order to release
this sexual energy. Eg. By restriction of breast feeding.
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Oral stage (0-1years) cont
– The child will show sign of “oral fixation” such as thumb
sucking, finger nail bitting, pencil chewing in childhood,
overeating, chewing of gum and smoking later in life.
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Anal stage (1-3 years)
– Here the erogenous zone shifts from the mouth
to the anal region.
– The child will derive pleasure from anal activities
e.g. holding and releasing urine and faeces, they
may also enjoy excreting faeces anyhow.
– During this stage toilet training becomes critical.
– If the parents become too strict with the child it
will show signs of “anal fixation” because the
sexual energy is trapped.
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Anal stage (1-3 years) cont
– The manifestation will manifest in form of extreme
orderliness and cleanliness or messiness and disorder.
– It may even manifest in form of stinginess.
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Phallic stage (3-6years)
– The Id impulse now transfers to the genitals
– The child feel sexually attracted to the parent of the
opposite sex. This is called “Oedipus complex” for boys and
“Electra complex for girls.
– At this stage the girl child will show vivid inferiority as
compared to the boy child.
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Jones H.M-MBA
34

Phallic stage (3-6years) cont
– It will envy having a penis and become closer to the father.
– At this stage this is important because it sets a stage for
future heterosexual feelings.
– For fear of punishment the child will give up this desire,
such as castration the child will start identifying with some
sex parent.
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Jones H.M-MBA
35

Phallic stage (3-6years) cont
– This is called “identification”
– As a result the superego is formed.
– During the withdrawal period, if the child over identifies
with the parent of the same sex. This can lead to
homosexuality later in life.
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Latent stage/ stage limbo
(6-11years)
– During this stage the sexual instincts die down, and the
superego develops further.
– The child concentrates on developing gender roles.
– The child acquires social values from adults outside the
family and from play with the same sex peers.
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Genital stage (Adolescence)
– Puberty causes the same sexual impulses of the phallic
stage to reappear.
– The sexual feeling reappear but this it is with a higher
intensity.
– The feelings will be directed toward the opposite sex
(heterosexual) if the earlier stages were successful.
– This will lead to marriage and the birth and rearing of
children.
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Genital stage (Adolescence)
cont
– However if the were not the person will have strong feeling
towards same sex (homosexuality).
– The child will also be selective of the friends he/she
chooses.
– These experiences go into the unconscious as repressed
material. These repressed material manifest in form of wet
dream and slip of the tongue.
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2. The ego
– The ego screens the Id or materials from the Id
– It operates on reality principle and attempts to protect the
self from un desirable or threatening situations by the use
of the defense mechanisms such as:
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Functions of the ego
The common defense mechanism used by the Ego are:
 Repression
 Denial
 Projection
 Reaction formation
 Sublimation
 Compensation
 Introjections
 Identification
 Rationalization
 displacement
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Projection
– It is a mechanism where the guilt laden wish or
action by an individual are rejected by the person
and instead blamed on another person. E.g.
– A nurse on duty who wants to knock off early
asks the fellow nurse to give a report on her
behalf and if that person refuses, that he or she is
busy the person will accuse that person that you
have refused because you just want to go and
meet your boy friend.
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Repression
– This happens when the demand comes from the Id that is
inapproppriate.
– The ego will take into consideration the situation obtaining
on the ground.
– The ego will push this demand into the unconscious.
– This demand does not die but may find its expression in
the dream or slip of the togue.
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Repression cont
– E.g. if the a nurse feels attracted to the patient, then
he/she realizes that this is unprofessional
– This may come in form of this nurse addressing this patient
as darling only to realize that this is inappropriate he/she
may she sorry its just the slip of the tongue.
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Denial
The ego does not only protect the self from the id alone but
the environment as well e.g.. The ego may protect the self
from painful and stressful experiences and feelings by
denying their existence.
For example when a patient is told of the life threatening
disease such as AIDS he/she may say that its not true.
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Reaction formation
– It si a defense mechanism where instead of portraying your
exact emotion about something, you portray the exact
opposite.
– E.g. a person feels attracted to a certain person instead of
accepting the exact emotion, he may say he really irritates
me.
– This is in order to hide the exact feeling.
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regression
– This is where a person avoid s tension by reverting to a
behavior pattern which belong to an earlier developmental
stage.
– E.g. a an old man aged 90 who is about to die may start
calling out his mother’s name in a desperate attempt to
return to an earlier source of solace and support.
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Sublimation
– This usually occurs when the directy fulfillment of love and
hate outlets is denied us by the environment, then it
become necessary to rechannel the frustrated tension
energy into alternative socially acceptable love and hate
outlets.
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Sublimation cont
– For example a young pediatric nurse may successfully
rechannel of her own frustrated maternal love fulfillment
drive into love fulfillment with her child patient.
– This is a positive rechannelled love outlet
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Introjection
– This is where one unconsciously absorbs unto one self
tension outlet.emotional attitudes ,standard and ideals
from people around one.
– E.g. a person who grows up in a violent environment may
consider violence as a best solution to resolving
differences.
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Compensation
– A mechanism concerned with alternative satisfaction when
motivation for recognition, honour and physical powers are
frustrated by real or imagined inadequacy within the
individual.
– E.g a compensatory sense for blindness may be a sense of
smell, hearing and taste.
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Compensation cont
– However it may be a responsibility of the nurse and
occupational therapist to anticipate the sense of loss in the
patient and thus introduce compensatory activities before
depression, uselessness, isolation and despair sets in.
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Rationalization
– Here a person unconsciously justifies ideas and
behaviour about one feels guilty, inferior or
anxious.
– For example wre an incompetent nurse is told by
the in charge that she is unreliable and useless
and without any prospect of success.
– Instead of letting this destroy her self image, she
may simply say that sister does not like me.
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Displacement
– Is where one transfers the emotion concern with one
person onto another usually weak individual.
– For instance a nurse may be angry with her ward in charge
,but because she cant dare not reveal her true aggressive
feeling to the sister, she takes out on her patient in a
domineering behaviour, aggression or unkindness.
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Identification
– Is a way by which a person identifies with the agroup or
individual, sharing his emotions .
– E.g. when a person joins a group, he/she may want to be
like them
– The pattern of tension expresion adopted by the group
governs the way its members are expected to behave or
express themselves.
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Identification cont
– Identification may prove very valuable in achieving happy
and peaceful outlets in a hospital ward
– When the nursing staff create a happy, confident and
friendly atmosphere in the ward.
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Identification cont
– Individual patients will identify with them, directing their
own tension energy into positive outlets such as friendly
conversations, and helpfulness.
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THE SUPEREGO
– Apart from the ego the Id requires control from the
Superego.
– The superego is a collection of moral values of society. For
instance when you see some one beautiful you feel
attracted to the even if thy are someone's wife r husband.
– The superego will tell the Id that that is unacceptable in
this society.
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Superego cont
– The stronger the morals values the society one lives in the
stronger the superego is going to be.
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