The Roman Republic was initially ruled by two annually elected consuls who shared executive power. The Senate, composed of noble families, acted as lawmakers and advisors. The Assembly, made up of plebeian citizens, could vote on laws but had limited power. This system established principles of representative government and separation of powers. However, the Republic gradually moved towards dictatorship under Sulla and then a triumvirate formed by Caesar, Pompey, and Crassus dominated politics. After the deaths of Sulla and Crassus, the rivalry between Caesar and Pompey led to civil war, from which Caesar emerged as dictator with imperial power, ending the Republic.

1. Governments
Describe the government of the Roman Republic and
its contribution to the development of democratic
principles, including separation of powers,
representative government, and the notion of civic duty

2. Roman Republic

3. Roman government setup
• The straight ladder shows the typical path of advancement (theoretically open to all freeborn
male citizens), beginning with election to quaestor, the lowest office, and proceeding to consul,
the highest (of course very few men made it that far; it was quite exceptional when a man like
Cicero, who did not come from a noble family, was elected consul).
Red text designates “curule magistrates,” who had the right to sit on a special
ivory folding stool (sella curulis) as a symbol of their office; they also had the right to wear the
purple-bordered toga (toga praetexta). Offices marked with an asterisk carried imperium, the
highest political authority, which included the right to command an army, to interpret and carry out
the law, and to pass sentences of death. Magistrates whose title began with “pro” were in charge
of provinces; the Senate normally conferred these after the men had finished their term of office
in Rome. The more important provinces, especially those requiring large military forces, were
assigned to ex-consuls, while the less significant provinces were governed by ex-praetors. Most
of these offices remained in place throughout the empire, though their functions changed.
Most significantly, imperium was now reserved for the emperor, and advancement in rank
proceeded in orderly stages based on conditions laid down by the emperors rather than through
competitive electioneering. Thus the cursus honorum changed from a ladder of power (with
important social status attached) to a ladder of primarily social rank and status. The cursus
honorum was, of course, reserved for men. During the entire period of Roman history women
were prohibited from holding political office, though in the empire their roles as mothers, wives,
and daughters of emperors gave a few women very high social status and even a kind of indirect
rank. Even elite women who were not members of the imperial family sometimes claimed the
rank of their fathers or husbands (e.g., as consulares feminae, “consular women”).

4. Roman government setup

5. Monarchy
As the Roman empire moved to a monarchy
the people still had their freedoms but
there would be one person who ruled and
decided what was best for everyone. Until
Augustus the religion and state were
separate but in a different way than what
we think of today. When Julius Caesar
died he was made a Roman “god”.

6. Democratic Principles
• Separation of powers: Within the system of
government, the Roman republic had its own system of
checks and balances. The Senate nominated people to
the office of censor and they could approve or
disapprove any decisions made.Since the Romans did
not want one man to make all of the laws, they decided
to balance the power of the government between three
branches: the executive branch, the legislative branch,
and the judicial branch. The following table will tell you
what each branch of the Roman government did.

7. Executive Branch
• The two leaders of the executive branch,
the consuls, were elected for just one
year by the upper class. They supervised
the Senate and ordered the Roman army
during wars. Other members of the
executive branch were the tax collectors,
mayors, city police, and other people in
positions of power in cities.

8. Legislative Branch
• The most powerful part of the legislative
branch was the Senate. The Senate was a
group of about 300 male citizens who
owned land. They could tell the consuls
how much money they could spend and
on what. These men were appointed by
the consuls.

9. Judicial Branch
• The judicial branch had six judges who
were elected every two years. They were
in charge of deciding punishments that
criminals would receive. Their job was
similar to the job that judges have today in
the United States.

10. History of government structure
• Representative government structure: the
government of the Roman Republic was first a
republic and representative form of
government until Julius Caesar changed it to a
monarchy form of government with one ruler.

11. End of Monarchy
• Rome's era as a monarchy ended in 509 B.C.
with the overthrow of its seventh king, Lucius
Tarquinius Superbus, whom ancient historians
portrayed as cruel and tyrannical, compared to
his benevolent predecessors. A popular uprising
was said to have arisen over the rape of a
virtuous noblewoman, Lucretia, by the king's
son. Whatever the cause, Rome turned from a
monarchy into a republic, a world derived from
res publica, or "property of the people."

12. Late republic
• During the era of the late Republic, Rome suffered through a reign
of terror. Terror's tool was the proscription list, by which large
numbers of important, wealthy people, and often senators, were
killed; their property, confiscated. Sulla, Roman dictator at the time,
instigated this carnage:
• 31 Sulla now busied himself with slaughter, and murders without
number or limit filled the city. Many, too, were killed to gratify private
hatreds, although they had no relations with Sulla, but he gave his
consent in order to gratify his adherents. At last one of the younger
men, Caius Metellus, made bold to ask Sulla in the senate what end
there was to be of these evils, and how far he would proceed before
they might expect such doings to cease. "We do not ask thee," he
said, "to free from punishment those whom thou hast determined to
slay, but to free from suspense those whom thou hast determined to
save."

13. Sulla the roman dictator
• we think of dictators we think of men and women who want enduring
power, a Roman dictator was
• a legal official
• duly nominated by the Senate
• to handle a major problem,
• with a fixed, limited term.
• Sulla had been dictator for longer than the normal period, so what
his plans were, as far as hanging onto the office of dictator went,
were unknown. It was a surprise when he resigned from the position
of Roman dictator in 79 B.C. Sulla died a year later. The confidence
which he reposed in his good genius... emboldened him... and
though he had been the author of such great changes and
revolutions of State, to lay down his authority....
Plutarch Sulla's reign drained the Senate of power. Damage had
been done to the republican system of government. Violence and
uncertainty allowed a new political alliance to arise.

14. The first Triumvirate
• Between the death of Sulla and the beginning of the 1st Triumvirate in 59
B.C., 2 of the wealthiest and most powerful remaining Romans, Gnaeus
Pompeius Magnus (106-48 B.C.) and Marcus Licinius Crassus (112-53
B.C.), grew increasingly hostile to each other. This wasn't simply a private
concern, since each man was backed by factions and soldiers. To avert civil
war, Julius Caesar, whose reputation was growing because of his military
successes, suggested a 3-way partnership. This unofficial alliance is known
to us as the 1st triumvirate, but at the time was referred to as an amicitia
'friendship' or factio (whence, our 'faction').
• They divvied up the Roman provinces to suit themselves. Crassus, the
capable financier, would receive Syria; Pompey, the renowned general,
Spain; Caesar, who would soon show himself to be a skilled politician as
well as a military leader, Cisalpine and Transalpine Gaul and Illyricum.
Caesar and Pompey helped cement their relationship by Pompey's marriage
to Caesar's daughter Julia.
• The First Triumvirate, consisting of Julius Caesar, Crassus, and Pompey,
came to power in 59 BC when Caesar was elected consul.

15. Crassus
Syria

16. Pompey, the renowned general, got
Spain

17. Juilus Caesar got Rome

18. • Julia, wife of Pompey and daughter of Julius Caesar, died in 54, passively breaking the personal
alliance between Caesar and Pompey. (Erich Gruen, author of
The Last Generation of the Roman Republic argues against the significance of the death of
Caesar's daughter and many other accepted details of Caesar's relations with the Senate.)
• The triumvirate further degenerated in 53 B.C., when a Parthian army attacked the Roman army
at the Carrhae, and killed Crassus.
• Meanwhile, Caesar's power grew while in Gaul. Laws were altered to suit his needs. Some
senators, notably Cato and Cicero, were alarmed by the weakening legal fabric. Rome had once
created the office of tribune to give the plebeians power against the patricians. Among other
powers, the tribune's person was sacrosanct (they couldn't be harmed physically) and he could
impose a veto on anyone, including his fellow tribune. Caesar had both tribunes on his side when
some members of the senate accused him of treason. The tribunes imposed their vetoes. But
then the senate majority ignored the vetoes and roughed up the tribunes. They ordered Caesar,
now charged with treason, to return to Rome, but without his army.
• Julius Caesar returned to Rome with his army. Regardless of the legitimacy of the original
treason charge the tribunes had vetoed, the moment he stepped across the Rubicon river,
Caesar had, in legal fact, committed treason. Caesar could either be convicted of treason, or fight
the Roman forces sent to meet him led by Caesar's former co-leader, Pompey.
• Pompey had the initial advantage, but even so, Julius Caesar won at Pharsalus in 48 B.C. After
his defeat, Pompey fled, first to Mytilene, and then to Egypt, where he expected safety, but
instead met his own death.

19. Caesar's Rise
• After Pompey's wife Julia (Caesar's daughter) died in 54
B.C., and Crassus was killed in battle against Parthia
(present-day Iran) the following year, the triumvirate was
broken. With old-style Roman politics in disorder,
Pompey stepped in as sole consul in 53 B.C. Caesar's
military glory in Gaul and his increasing wealth had
eclipsed Pompey's, and the latter teamed with his
Senate allies to steadily undermine Caesar. In 49 B.C.,
Caesar and one of his legions crossed the Rubicon, a
river on the border between Italy from Cisalpine Gaul.
Caesar's invasion of Italy ignited a civil war from which
he emerged as dictator of Rome for life in 45 B.C.

20. Roman republic
• Describe the government of the Roman
Republic and its contribution to the
development of democratic principles,
including separation of powers,
representative government, and the notion
of civic duty

21. • Under the Republic, two (2) elected consuls shared the head of
government. Consuls were members of the Senate, who had been
elected to serve for a one year term in the position of Consul, the
highest position in government under the Republic. The consuls
most important power was that they controlled the army.
• The Senate was composed of leaders from the patricians, the
noble and wealthy families of ancient Rome. They were the law
makers. They controlled spending. Members of the Senate were not
elected. They were chosen by the Consuls. Once chosen, they
served for life. There were 300 seats in the Senate. When a seat
opened, a new Senator was selected by the current Consuls.
• The Assembly was composed of all the plebeian citizens of Rome,
the common man. The Assembly did not have a building. It was the
right of the common man to assemble in the Forum and vote.

22. • In the beginning, the Assembly had very limited power.
They could vote for or suggest laws, but the Senate
could block their decisions. The Assembly could vote to
declare war, but again, the Senate could override them.
• However, the Assembly had one power that was very
impressive - it was the Assembly who voted each year
on which two members of the Senate would serve as
Consuls. As a noble, if you wanted to rise to the level of
Consul, the highest position in government under the
Republic, you needed to gain the support of the plebeian
class. Since it was the Consuls who filled empty seats in
the Senate, if the Assembly chose their Consuls well,
they could slowly gain power in government by putting
people in charge who were sympathetic to their needs.

23. • Some members of the Assembly became quite powerful
in government in their own right. Some tradesmen were
very wealthy. There is an old expression - money talks -
which means the rich seem to be heard more easily than
the poor. In ancient Rome, certainly money talked, but
so did those who had the power of speech. The Romans
loved a great orator. When the Assembly met, down at
the Forum, many speeches were going on at the same
time. One speaker might say, "Rome's roads need
repair!" Another speaker might say, "We need to stop
crime in the streets." If you wanted your speech to have
an impact, it did not matter how rich or poor you were.
What mattered was how persuasive you were as a
speaker.

24. Structure of Government Under
the Republic
• 2 Consuls
Head of Government Senate (300 members)
Assembly
PATRICIANS PLEBEIANS 1 year term Life term Consuls chose the
Senators Elected the 2 Consuls Ran the government, overseeing
the work of other government officials. Advised the consuls. Advised
the Assembly. Elected government officials including judges.
Directed (commanded) the army Directed spending, including tax
dollars Acted as judges Approved or disapproved laws made by
the Assembly Voted on laws suggested by government officials In
an emergency, consuls could choose a dictator – a single ruler to
make quick decisions. Made decisions concerning relationships with
foreign powers Declared war or peace Both consuls had to agree on
their decisions. Each had the power to Veto the other. In Latin, veto
means “I forbid.”

25. Greek city-states
• In 510 BC, the city-state of Athens created the first democratic
government, and soon other Greek city-states imitated them. Even
city-states that weren't Greek, like Carthage and Rome,
experimented with giving the poor people more power at this time.
But Athenian democracy did not really give power to everyone. Most
of the people in Athens couldn't vote - no women, no slaves, no
foreigners (even Greeks from other city-states), no children. And
also, Athens at this time had an empire, ruling over many other
Greek city-states, and none of those people living in the other city-
states could vote either. Of course it is a lot easier to have a
democratic government when you are only deciding what other
people should do.
• (And many Greek city-states kept oligarchic government, or
tyrannies, or monarchies, through this whole time).

26. Summary
• Rome was ran by a vicious dictator named
Sulla.He ran a military government. after he died
The First Triumvirate, consisting of Julius
Caesar, Crassus, and Pompey, came to power
in 59 BC when Caesar was elected
consul.Rome was a republic and representative
form of government until Julius Caesar
changed it to a monarchy form of government
with one ruler.

27. Caesar's power

28. Pompey
• When the victorious Pompey returned to Rome, he
formed an uneasy alliance known as the First
Triumvirate with the wealthy Marcus Licinius Crassus
(who suppressed a slave rebellion led by Spartacus in 71
B.C.) and another rising star in Roman politics,Juilus
Caesar . After earning military glory in Spain, Caesar
returned to Rome to vie for the consulship in 59 B.C.
From his alliance with Pompey and Crassus, Caesar
received the governorship of three wealthy provinces in
Gaul beginning in 58 B.C.; he then set about conquering
the rest of the region for Rome.

29. Civic duty
• People felt it was their civic duty to vote men at least, since women
couldn’t vote or hold any power. They felt it was an honor and duty
to serve in the Roman army. Ancient Rome’s government would not
have been successful without the citizens who supported it. Ancient
Romans thought it was their responsibility and civic duty to the
empire to participate in government affairs. Their participation
included attending assembly meetings and voting in elections.
Voting in Ancient Rome was very complex and not every citizen was
allowed to vote as there were limitations.
People of wealth believed it was their responsibility to help the
Roman Empire by holding positions in office. In turn, this made them
quite powerful locally and provided them with much respect and
status among Ancient Romans.

30. The Roman Senate

31. Summary
• The roman senate was better because they had
specific laws to help the people of the roman
empire. It was also more organized than the
Greeks version of government. Roman leaders
tried to be more fair by involving the people of
ancient Rome. The Greeks took a long time to
get to democracy. I think I rather be in Rome if I
was alive then because it seemed more safer
environment and was the strongest empire at
the time.