The document discusses a study examining the relationship between religion, school denomination, and educational outcomes in the Netherlands. It uses a sample of over 8,000 kindergarten students from 432 schools. The results showed that school denomination did not affect cognitive or noncognitive outcomes. Effects of parents' religious affiliation on cognitive achievement, but not self-confidence or well-being, were found but disappeared when socioethnic background was considered. In summary, the study found little influence of religion or school denomination on educational outcomes once socioeconomic factors were accounted for.
This document provides an overview of publicly funded Islamic education programs in 9 Western countries. It finds that approaches vary significantly based on each country's political and historical context. Some countries like Germany and Austria offer Islamic religious education in public schools, while others like the UK and Sweden teach about Islam academically. France and the US do not provide religious education in schools. Despite differences, the document recommends 3 good practices: 1) high academic standards for teacher training programs, 2) fact-based textbooks, and 3) international exchange to improve practices. Publicly funded Islamic education lies at the intersection of debates around religious freedom, integration, and countering Islamophobia.
Geert Driessen & Michael Merry (2006) (IC) Islamic schools in the Netherlands...Driessen Research
This document summarizes an article about Islamic schools in the Netherlands. It discusses how Islamic schools have evolved since the first ones were founded in the 1980s, with 46 primary schools and 2 secondary schools now existing. The schools aim to strengthen students' cultural/religious identity and improve academic achievement. While some see the schools as promoting integration, others worry they could lead to isolation. Empirical studies found the schools generally meet legal requirements and curriculum standards, and do not have a fundamentalist character, though some early schools had issues with language of instruction and teacher qualifications. There remains a need for more Islamic schools to meet parental demand.
Michael Merry & Geert Driessen (2005) CE Islamic schools in three western cou...Driessen Research
This document summarizes and compares Islamic schools in three Western countries: Belgium, the Netherlands, and the United States. In Belgium, Islamic instruction is widely provided in public schools, so there is little demand for Islamic schools, with only one existing. In the Netherlands, Islamic schools have grown in number due to constitutional protections for religious schools. The US provides freedom for religious schools but no direct funding, resulting in inconspicuous growth of Islamic schools. Key differences and policies regarding funding, choice, and oversight of Islamic schools are examined in each country context.
Frederik Smit & Geert Driessen (2005). Ethnic minority parents’ and teachers’...Frederik Smit
Frederik Smit & Geert Driessen (2005). Ethnic minority parents’ and teachers’ orientation on collaboration between home and school: strategies and contexts

Resumen
Tras los atentados islamistas del 11-S y del asesinato del director de cine holandés Theo van Gogh, hay una tendencia creciente entre los políticos y profesores holandeses a preocuparse por la responsabilidad de los padres acerca del modo en que sus hijos se comportan en una socie- dad multicultural. En Holanda, la educación moral y el fomento de la cohesión social son prio- ritarios en la agenda política. En los últimos años, las tensiones sociales entre grupos étnicos han cambiado el clima social en este país con una tradición previa abierta y tolerante. Dos estudios en Educación Primaria y Secundaria, se llevaron a cabo sobre las expectativas de los padres y las relaciones de los profesores ante las circunstancias interculturales. Ambos estudios se reali- zaron en la ciudad de Rótterdam donde existe una gran diversidad étnica. Las conclusiones más importantes fueron que los padres de las minorías étnicas quieren tener mucha más implicación en la educación de sus hijos y que entre los profesores hay demasiadas diferencias en cuanto a conocimientos y conciencia de la interculturalidad. Para resolver estos problemas debería inter- venirse específicamente en la mejora de los déficits comunicativos en las escuelas.
The document describes a case study conducted by the author at a community center tutoring program for refugee students in Seattle. The author observed tutoring sessions to see how language acquisition and critical thinking skills were developed using techniques grounded in educational theory. Scaffolding techniques like assigning reading roles helped students access their zone of proximal development. Incorporating students' backgrounds and experiences made learning more relevant. Group discussions that encouraged critical questioning helped enable students' ideological development.
Cultural practices and education in ghana the effects of traditional culture...Alexander Decker
This document summarizes a study on the effects of traditional Ghanaian culture on parental involvement in education. The study used interviews and document analysis to examine perspectives of community elders, parents, teachers, and administrators at a community school. The study found that traditional cultural norms and beliefs strongly influence how parents allocate resources, with cultural conformity being prioritized over education. Specifically, parents provide little support for their children's education, like not providing books or school supplies. However, parents will spend money on cultural events. The study aims to understand this disconnect and how culture impacts the value parents place on education.
The document summarizes research on school diversity and integration policies in four cities: Houston, TX; St. Louis, MO; Berkeley, CA; and additional sources. It provides background on the demographics, political leanings, and responses to integration of each city. For Houston, it describes magnet school programs and a lawsuit that changed admissions policies. In St. Louis, it discusses a desegregation program and perspectives on integration. Berkeley is noted as a model of integration using neighborhood-based assignments. Unanswered research questions are also listed.
This document provides the program details for a congress on school desertion, factors, and solutions. The program includes panels and workshops over various topics related to school desertion such as pre-school programs, puberty and sexuality, academic resources, bullying, self-esteem, parental participation, stereotypes, and laws protecting children. The program runs from 8:30am to 4:30pm and features presentations from school boards, universities, community organizations, and other experts on supporting academic achievement and preventing students from leaving school.
This document provides an overview of publicly funded Islamic education programs in 9 Western countries. It finds that approaches vary significantly based on each country's political and historical context. Some countries like Germany and Austria offer Islamic religious education in public schools, while others like the UK and Sweden teach about Islam academically. France and the US do not provide religious education in schools. Despite differences, the document recommends 3 good practices: 1) high academic standards for teacher training programs, 2) fact-based textbooks, and 3) international exchange to improve practices. Publicly funded Islamic education lies at the intersection of debates around religious freedom, integration, and countering Islamophobia.
Geert Driessen & Michael Merry (2006) (IC) Islamic schools in the Netherlands...Driessen Research
This document summarizes an article about Islamic schools in the Netherlands. It discusses how Islamic schools have evolved since the first ones were founded in the 1980s, with 46 primary schools and 2 secondary schools now existing. The schools aim to strengthen students' cultural/religious identity and improve academic achievement. While some see the schools as promoting integration, others worry they could lead to isolation. Empirical studies found the schools generally meet legal requirements and curriculum standards, and do not have a fundamentalist character, though some early schools had issues with language of instruction and teacher qualifications. There remains a need for more Islamic schools to meet parental demand.
Michael Merry & Geert Driessen (2005) CE Islamic schools in three western cou...Driessen Research
This document summarizes and compares Islamic schools in three Western countries: Belgium, the Netherlands, and the United States. In Belgium, Islamic instruction is widely provided in public schools, so there is little demand for Islamic schools, with only one existing. In the Netherlands, Islamic schools have grown in number due to constitutional protections for religious schools. The US provides freedom for religious schools but no direct funding, resulting in inconspicuous growth of Islamic schools. Key differences and policies regarding funding, choice, and oversight of Islamic schools are examined in each country context.
Frederik Smit & Geert Driessen (2005). Ethnic minority parents’ and teachers’...Frederik Smit
Frederik Smit & Geert Driessen (2005). Ethnic minority parents’ and teachers’ orientation on collaboration between home and school: strategies and contexts

Resumen
Tras los atentados islamistas del 11-S y del asesinato del director de cine holandés Theo van Gogh, hay una tendencia creciente entre los políticos y profesores holandeses a preocuparse por la responsabilidad de los padres acerca del modo en que sus hijos se comportan en una socie- dad multicultural. En Holanda, la educación moral y el fomento de la cohesión social son prio- ritarios en la agenda política. En los últimos años, las tensiones sociales entre grupos étnicos han cambiado el clima social en este país con una tradición previa abierta y tolerante. Dos estudios en Educación Primaria y Secundaria, se llevaron a cabo sobre las expectativas de los padres y las relaciones de los profesores ante las circunstancias interculturales. Ambos estudios se reali- zaron en la ciudad de Rótterdam donde existe una gran diversidad étnica. Las conclusiones más importantes fueron que los padres de las minorías étnicas quieren tener mucha más implicación en la educación de sus hijos y que entre los profesores hay demasiadas diferencias en cuanto a conocimientos y conciencia de la interculturalidad. Para resolver estos problemas debería inter- venirse específicamente en la mejora de los déficits comunicativos en las escuelas.
The document describes a case study conducted by the author at a community center tutoring program for refugee students in Seattle. The author observed tutoring sessions to see how language acquisition and critical thinking skills were developed using techniques grounded in educational theory. Scaffolding techniques like assigning reading roles helped students access their zone of proximal development. Incorporating students' backgrounds and experiences made learning more relevant. Group discussions that encouraged critical questioning helped enable students' ideological development.
Cultural practices and education in ghana the effects of traditional culture...Alexander Decker
This document summarizes a study on the effects of traditional Ghanaian culture on parental involvement in education. The study used interviews and document analysis to examine perspectives of community elders, parents, teachers, and administrators at a community school. The study found that traditional cultural norms and beliefs strongly influence how parents allocate resources, with cultural conformity being prioritized over education. Specifically, parents provide little support for their children's education, like not providing books or school supplies. However, parents will spend money on cultural events. The study aims to understand this disconnect and how culture impacts the value parents place on education.
The document summarizes research on school diversity and integration policies in four cities: Houston, TX; St. Louis, MO; Berkeley, CA; and additional sources. It provides background on the demographics, political leanings, and responses to integration of each city. For Houston, it describes magnet school programs and a lawsuit that changed admissions policies. In St. Louis, it discusses a desegregation program and perspectives on integration. Berkeley is noted as a model of integration using neighborhood-based assignments. Unanswered research questions are also listed.
This document provides the program details for a congress on school desertion, factors, and solutions. The program includes panels and workshops over various topics related to school desertion such as pre-school programs, puberty and sexuality, academic resources, bullying, self-esteem, parental participation, stereotypes, and laws protecting children. The program runs from 8:30am to 4:30pm and features presentations from school boards, universities, community organizations, and other experts on supporting academic achievement and preventing students from leaving school.
This document provides the program details for a congress on school desertion, factors, and solutions. The program includes panels and workshops in both morning and afternoon sessions covering various topics related to school desertion such as pre-school programs, puberty and sexuality, academic resources, bullying, self-esteem, parental participation, stereotypes, and laws protecting children. The program aims to bring together parents, students, school trustees, educators, and community organizations to discuss challenges leading to school desertion and identify strategies for support.
Geert Driessen, Frederik Smit & Peter Sleegers (2005) BERJ. Parental involvem...Driessen Research
This document discusses parental involvement in education and its relationship to student achievement. It summarizes research showing that increased parental involvement is positively associated with improved cognitive and social outcomes for students. However, the level and forms of parental involvement vary depending on socioeconomic status and ethnicity, with disadvantaged groups showing less involvement. Schools aim to increase involvement among these groups to help improve their students' achievement and school experience. The document examines different types of parental involvement and initiatives to strengthen partnerships between schools, parents, and communities.
Eddie Denessen, Geert Driessen & Joep Bakker (2010) AERA Cognitive and non-co...Driessen Research
1. The document discusses research on the cognitive and non-cognitive effects of diversity in Dutch elementary schools. Small positive effects are found of classroom heterogeneity on student performance and intergroup attitudes.
2. Relations between classroom diversity and student outcomes are difficult to interpret due to the absence of teacher variables. The role of teachers is often neglected in large-scale studies on diversity effects.
3. International studies on diversity effects, including those from the Netherlands, generally find small or no effects of classroom diversity on student outcomes. Differences in findings across countries may be due to differences in how socioeconomic and ethnic diversity are defined and related to one another in different educational systems.
This document discusses Becca Lynn's research on homeschooling for an education course. It begins by outlining what Becca knows and wants to learn about homeschooling. The document then covers the history of homeschooling and different curriculum options. Research shows homeschoolers often perform well academically and socially. Parents choose homeschooling for reasons like more flexibility and individualized learning. The document concludes by discussing Becca's opinions, which include support for special needs students and a Montessori-inspired approach to homeschooling.
Effects of Social Class on Academic Achievement Hermela Assefa
The Future of Public Education. This was the name of a course I took my first year at Franklin and Marshall College that changed my life. This course exposed me to the harsh realities of our public education system. As I continually reflect on my experiences within this system from K-12 I always look past the significant impact my socioeconomic status had on my experience. Having immigrant parents that did not go through a formal education system shaped me to become a student who is not afraid to ask for help. I strive to provide assistance to students in my position who come from lower socioeconomic backgrounds. This paper allowed me to explore my curiosities and review the works of many scholars that have dedicated their time to explore the impact of social class on students' academic achievement.
The document discusses various topics related to sociology in education, including:
1) Early education was mostly for higher classes but now is available to all, possibly leading to greater organic solidarity.
2) Rising education costs have led some students to alternatives to college and may contribute to campus shootings.
3) Hitler convinced Germany that one race was the problem; does freedom prevent a similar situation in the US?
4) Increased AIDS funding in Africa may reduce the epidemic through Bush's ABC plan and increase democracy.
5) Less funding in countries like Indonesia negatively impacts education there.
Homeschooling involves parents educating their child at home rather than sending them to public or private school. There are various types of homeschooling like structured, virtual online, unschooling, and eclectic. Homeschooling has benefits like being family-oriented, flexibility in schedule, ability to customize curriculum to a child's interests and needs, and potential for academic success. However, there are also cons like less opportunities for socialization and some extracurricular activities. Parents have full control over what and when to teach subjects like religion and sex education. Homeschooling can also be beneficial for special needs children. Students are evaluated through standardized tests and parent assessments. Upon completion of high school courses, students can obtain a
This document discusses the need for more male teachers in schools. It notes that male students often perform worse than female students, dropping out of high school at higher rates. This performance gap exists in many developed countries. The document examines factors that may contribute to this issue, such as a lack of male role models for boys both at home and in school. Currently, about 80% of teachers are female, especially in early primary grades. The document argues that having more male teachers could help address this problem by providing an important role model for boys and utilizing different teaching styles and communication methods that may resonate better with male students. It maintains that gender influences pedagogical approaches and that both male and female perspectives are needed in education.
Geert Driessen (2019) Encyclopedia Parental involvement, parental participati...Driessen Research
Parental involvement and participation in a child's education is seen as important for improving educational outcomes, especially for disadvantaged students. There are various forms of involvement that can be initiated by parents or schools. This includes involvement at school through volunteering or governance, and at home through helping with homework or cognitive activities. Research shows that increased parental involvement is positively associated with improved student achievement, social and emotional adjustment, motivation, and other outcomes. However, the level and forms of involvement vary depending on factors like socioeconomic status and ethnicity.
Homeschooling has increased 41% in the UK over the past 4 years. Parents choose homeschooling for reasons like adapting the curriculum to each child's needs, allowing for better academic and family relationships, and providing a safer learning environment. Interesting facts about homeschooling include that homeschool students score above average on achievement and college admission tests, and universities increasingly recruit them. Homeschooling has become more popular and accepted since the 1960s-70s, though laws regulating it still vary by location.
The document discusses the role of culture and socialization in education. It outlines several key agents of socialization, including the family, peer groups, schools, and media. It notes trends like increasing numbers of working mothers, single-parent families, and latchkey children that impact family dynamics. Within schools, it examines student roles, hidden curriculums, and passive forms of learning. Gender roles and differences in achievement between boys and girls are also addressed.
Jaume Camps i Bansell: "Single-sex education in the XXI century"Elisabeth Vierheller
This document discusses single-sex education in the 21st century. It begins by noting that after centuries of segregated schooling, coeducation became popular as a way to promote equality, but gender inequalities persist. Now, single-sex education is presented as a modern approach with proven benefits. The document examines two perspectives on the issue: those who see coeducation as important for equality, and those who argue that separating boys and girls can create a better academic environment without gender pressures. It notes the complexity of educational research but reviews meta-analyses finding single-sex schools outperform or equal coed schools in various measures. The document then discusses how single-sex schooling relates to individualized education and respecting each student's
This article examines whether schools in the United States have truly integrated following the landmark Brown vs. Board of Education Supreme Court decision that ruled racial segregation in public schools to be unconstitutional. It discusses that while schools initially integrated after Brown, they have become increasingly segregated again since the 1970s-1980s. The article proposes merging multiple high schools within districts into larger, more integrated campuses as a potential solution to reduce segregation. It argues that discussions around how schools have re-segregated are needed to determine how to fully achieve the goals of Brown and educational equity for all students.
Frederik Smit, Geert Driessen, Roderick Sluiter & Peter Sleegers (2007) IJPE ...Driessen Research
This document summarizes a study that aimed to better understand different types of parents and develop strategies for schools to involve various types of parents. The study reviewed literature, consulted expert panels, surveyed 500 school leaders, conducted case studies, and held a focus group. It identified types of parents such as "career parents" who don't have time to participate and "absentee parents" who don't feel qualified. The study found schools should tailor strategies to different parent types to create effective partnerships.
Frederik Smit & Geert Driessen (2005) ERNAPE Parent school community relation...Driessen Research
Smit, F., & Driessen, G. (2005). Parent-school-community relations in a changing society: bottlenecks, pitfalls and solutions. Paper 5th International Conference of the European Research Network About Parents in Education (ERNAPE), ‘Family-School-Community Partnerships: Interrelation between Family and Education Merging into Social Development’. Oviedo, Spain, September 14-16, 2005.
Geert Driessen (2011) ECER The teacher recommendationDriessen Research
1) This document examines teacher recommendations for secondary school tracks in the Netherlands and whether they fairly assess ethnic minority students.
2) An analysis of over 7,000 8th grade students found some small under-recommendation of native Dutch students from less educated families and over-recommendation of those from highly educated families, but no under- or over-recommendation of ethnic minority students.
3) Possible explanations include teachers having more experience with minorities, changed political climate, agreements between schools, and increased accountability and competition between schools.
Geert Driessen & Folkert Haanstra (1966) Achtergrondkenmerken van leerlingen ...Driessen Research
Driessen, G., & Haanstra, F. (1996). Achtergrondkenmerken van leerlingen in het primair onderwijs. Beschrijvende rapportage op basis van het PRIMA-cohortonderzoek 1994/’95. Ubbergen: Tandem Felix.
<isbn>
This document provides the program details for a congress on school desertion, factors, and solutions. The program includes panels and workshops in both morning and afternoon sessions covering various topics related to school desertion such as pre-school programs, puberty and sexuality, academic resources, bullying, self-esteem, parental participation, stereotypes, and laws protecting children. The program aims to bring together parents, students, school trustees, educators, and community organizations to discuss challenges leading to school desertion and identify strategies for support.
Geert Driessen, Frederik Smit & Peter Sleegers (2005) BERJ. Parental involvem...Driessen Research
This document discusses parental involvement in education and its relationship to student achievement. It summarizes research showing that increased parental involvement is positively associated with improved cognitive and social outcomes for students. However, the level and forms of parental involvement vary depending on socioeconomic status and ethnicity, with disadvantaged groups showing less involvement. Schools aim to increase involvement among these groups to help improve their students' achievement and school experience. The document examines different types of parental involvement and initiatives to strengthen partnerships between schools, parents, and communities.
Eddie Denessen, Geert Driessen & Joep Bakker (2010) AERA Cognitive and non-co...Driessen Research
1. The document discusses research on the cognitive and non-cognitive effects of diversity in Dutch elementary schools. Small positive effects are found of classroom heterogeneity on student performance and intergroup attitudes.
2. Relations between classroom diversity and student outcomes are difficult to interpret due to the absence of teacher variables. The role of teachers is often neglected in large-scale studies on diversity effects.
3. International studies on diversity effects, including those from the Netherlands, generally find small or no effects of classroom diversity on student outcomes. Differences in findings across countries may be due to differences in how socioeconomic and ethnic diversity are defined and related to one another in different educational systems.
This document discusses Becca Lynn's research on homeschooling for an education course. It begins by outlining what Becca knows and wants to learn about homeschooling. The document then covers the history of homeschooling and different curriculum options. Research shows homeschoolers often perform well academically and socially. Parents choose homeschooling for reasons like more flexibility and individualized learning. The document concludes by discussing Becca's opinions, which include support for special needs students and a Montessori-inspired approach to homeschooling.
Effects of Social Class on Academic Achievement Hermela Assefa
The Future of Public Education. This was the name of a course I took my first year at Franklin and Marshall College that changed my life. This course exposed me to the harsh realities of our public education system. As I continually reflect on my experiences within this system from K-12 I always look past the significant impact my socioeconomic status had on my experience. Having immigrant parents that did not go through a formal education system shaped me to become a student who is not afraid to ask for help. I strive to provide assistance to students in my position who come from lower socioeconomic backgrounds. This paper allowed me to explore my curiosities and review the works of many scholars that have dedicated their time to explore the impact of social class on students' academic achievement.
The document discusses various topics related to sociology in education, including:
1) Early education was mostly for higher classes but now is available to all, possibly leading to greater organic solidarity.
2) Rising education costs have led some students to alternatives to college and may contribute to campus shootings.
3) Hitler convinced Germany that one race was the problem; does freedom prevent a similar situation in the US?
4) Increased AIDS funding in Africa may reduce the epidemic through Bush's ABC plan and increase democracy.
5) Less funding in countries like Indonesia negatively impacts education there.
Homeschooling involves parents educating their child at home rather than sending them to public or private school. There are various types of homeschooling like structured, virtual online, unschooling, and eclectic. Homeschooling has benefits like being family-oriented, flexibility in schedule, ability to customize curriculum to a child's interests and needs, and potential for academic success. However, there are also cons like less opportunities for socialization and some extracurricular activities. Parents have full control over what and when to teach subjects like religion and sex education. Homeschooling can also be beneficial for special needs children. Students are evaluated through standardized tests and parent assessments. Upon completion of high school courses, students can obtain a
This document discusses the need for more male teachers in schools. It notes that male students often perform worse than female students, dropping out of high school at higher rates. This performance gap exists in many developed countries. The document examines factors that may contribute to this issue, such as a lack of male role models for boys both at home and in school. Currently, about 80% of teachers are female, especially in early primary grades. The document argues that having more male teachers could help address this problem by providing an important role model for boys and utilizing different teaching styles and communication methods that may resonate better with male students. It maintains that gender influences pedagogical approaches and that both male and female perspectives are needed in education.
Geert Driessen (2019) Encyclopedia Parental involvement, parental participati...Driessen Research
Parental involvement and participation in a child's education is seen as important for improving educational outcomes, especially for disadvantaged students. There are various forms of involvement that can be initiated by parents or schools. This includes involvement at school through volunteering or governance, and at home through helping with homework or cognitive activities. Research shows that increased parental involvement is positively associated with improved student achievement, social and emotional adjustment, motivation, and other outcomes. However, the level and forms of involvement vary depending on factors like socioeconomic status and ethnicity.
Homeschooling has increased 41% in the UK over the past 4 years. Parents choose homeschooling for reasons like adapting the curriculum to each child's needs, allowing for better academic and family relationships, and providing a safer learning environment. Interesting facts about homeschooling include that homeschool students score above average on achievement and college admission tests, and universities increasingly recruit them. Homeschooling has become more popular and accepted since the 1960s-70s, though laws regulating it still vary by location.
The document discusses the role of culture and socialization in education. It outlines several key agents of socialization, including the family, peer groups, schools, and media. It notes trends like increasing numbers of working mothers, single-parent families, and latchkey children that impact family dynamics. Within schools, it examines student roles, hidden curriculums, and passive forms of learning. Gender roles and differences in achievement between boys and girls are also addressed.
Jaume Camps i Bansell: "Single-sex education in the XXI century"Elisabeth Vierheller
This document discusses single-sex education in the 21st century. It begins by noting that after centuries of segregated schooling, coeducation became popular as a way to promote equality, but gender inequalities persist. Now, single-sex education is presented as a modern approach with proven benefits. The document examines two perspectives on the issue: those who see coeducation as important for equality, and those who argue that separating boys and girls can create a better academic environment without gender pressures. It notes the complexity of educational research but reviews meta-analyses finding single-sex schools outperform or equal coed schools in various measures. The document then discusses how single-sex schooling relates to individualized education and respecting each student's
This article examines whether schools in the United States have truly integrated following the landmark Brown vs. Board of Education Supreme Court decision that ruled racial segregation in public schools to be unconstitutional. It discusses that while schools initially integrated after Brown, they have become increasingly segregated again since the 1970s-1980s. The article proposes merging multiple high schools within districts into larger, more integrated campuses as a potential solution to reduce segregation. It argues that discussions around how schools have re-segregated are needed to determine how to fully achieve the goals of Brown and educational equity for all students.
Frederik Smit, Geert Driessen, Roderick Sluiter & Peter Sleegers (2007) IJPE ...Driessen Research
This document summarizes a study that aimed to better understand different types of parents and develop strategies for schools to involve various types of parents. The study reviewed literature, consulted expert panels, surveyed 500 school leaders, conducted case studies, and held a focus group. It identified types of parents such as "career parents" who don't have time to participate and "absentee parents" who don't feel qualified. The study found schools should tailor strategies to different parent types to create effective partnerships.
Frederik Smit & Geert Driessen (2005) ERNAPE Parent school community relation...Driessen Research
Smit, F., & Driessen, G. (2005). Parent-school-community relations in a changing society: bottlenecks, pitfalls and solutions. Paper 5th International Conference of the European Research Network About Parents in Education (ERNAPE), ‘Family-School-Community Partnerships: Interrelation between Family and Education Merging into Social Development’. Oviedo, Spain, September 14-16, 2005.
Geert Driessen (2011) ECER The teacher recommendationDriessen Research
1) This document examines teacher recommendations for secondary school tracks in the Netherlands and whether they fairly assess ethnic minority students.
2) An analysis of over 7,000 8th grade students found some small under-recommendation of native Dutch students from less educated families and over-recommendation of those from highly educated families, but no under- or over-recommendation of ethnic minority students.
3) Possible explanations include teachers having more experience with minorities, changed political climate, agreements between schools, and increased accountability and competition between schools.
Geert Driessen & Folkert Haanstra (1966) Achtergrondkenmerken van leerlingen ...Driessen Research
Driessen, G., & Haanstra, F. (1996). Achtergrondkenmerken van leerlingen in het primair onderwijs. Beschrijvende rapportage op basis van het PRIMA-cohortonderzoek 1994/’95. Ubbergen: Tandem Felix.
<isbn>
Geert Driessen & Virigie Withagen (1999) LCC Language varieties and education...Driessen Research
The document discusses a study exploring the relationship between language varieties spoken at home and educational achievement for indigenous primary school pupils in the Netherlands. The study analyzed data from over 7,700 pupils, looking at which language they spoke with family and friends, their parents' language and education level, province, and performance on standardized Dutch and arithmetic tests. The main finding was that only parents' education level and province explained differences in test performance. Surprisingly, pupils from Limburg and Friesland - where nearly half spoke a non-Dutch language at home - performed best and worst respectively, with no differences based on home language within those groups.
Geert Driessen & Michael Merry (2013) Istanbul Islamic primary schools in the...Driessen Research
Driessen, G., & Merry, M. (2013). Islamic primary schools in the Netherlands. The long and winding road to recognition and success. Invited paper International Symposium of Imam-Hatip High Schools on Their Centennial Day. Istanbul, Turkey, November 23-24, 2013.
Geert Driessen, Orhan Agirdag & Michael Merry (2016) ER The gross and net eff...Driessen Research
This study examines the effects of primary school denomination on pupil performance in the Netherlands using large-scale data from 2011. Prior research on differences in outcomes between religious and public schools has produced mixed results. The study analyzes 19 cognitive and non-cognitive outcome measures for over 27,000 pupils across different school types, controlling for pupil and school characteristics. Results show no substantial differences between most religious and public schools. However, Islamic schools appear to have greater value-added potential for pupil outcomes than other school types. Implications of these findings are discussed.
Geert Driessen, Frederik Smit & Cees Klaassen (2010) JEDR Connecting ethnic m...Driessen Research
In many Western countries the pressure exerted on immigrants to integrate has
become intense in recent years. Efforts to preserve their ethnic identity through
multicultural recognition has now been replaced by the requirements of active
civic participation and assimilation. Of course integration is considered important
not only for the immigrant parents but also for their children. The central question
in this article is whether there is a relationship between the degree of integration
of the immigrant parents and the generation of their children on the one hand and
the level of language and numeracy achievement of the children on the other. To
answer this question we use data collected in 2008 from the Dutch COOL5–18
cohort study. The information comes from more than 9000 immigrant and 16,000
indigenous children and their parents. The results show that as immigrant parents
are better integrated and their children are of later generations, the language and
numeracy skills of the children improve, though there remain large differences in
achievement between different ethnic groups.
Eddie Denessen, Geert Driessen & Joep Bakker (2011) JEDR School and classroom...Driessen Research
In many Western countries the pressure exerted on immigrants to integrate has
become intense in recent years. Efforts to preserve their ethnic identity through
multicultural recognition has now been replaced by the requirements of active
civic participation and assimilation. Of course integration is considered important
not only for the immigrant parents but also for their children. The central question
in this article is whether there is a relationship between the degree of integration
of the immigrant parents and the generation of their children on the one hand and
the level of language and numeracy achievement of the children on the other. To
answer this question we use data collected in 2008 from the Dutch COOL5–18
cohort study. The information comes from more than 9000 immigrant and 16,000
indigenous children and their parents. The results show that as immigrant parents
are better integrated and their children are of later generations, the language and
numeracy skills of the children improve, though there remain large differences in
achievement between different ethnic groups.
Michael Merry & Geert Driessen (2016) REE On the right track.pdfDriessen Research
The Netherlands currently has 43 Islamic primary schools. Each is fully
subsidised by the government. Yet since the first school was established
in 1988 Islamic schools have been confronted with obstacles by the
Ministry of Education, bad press and increasingly strict state supervision.
Under pressure to improve their image, since 2008 Dutch Islamic
primary schools have turned their attention away from expanding their
numbers and instead focussed on improving school quality. In this article
we describe the various developments and draw upon large scale
empirical research to demonstrate the present state of affairs both in
terms of cognitive and non-cognitive pupil achievements. We argue that
the present results offer reasons to be cautiously optimistic.
Frederik Smit & Geert Driessen (2005) AA Ethnic minority parents’ and teacher...Driessen Research
This document summarizes the results of two studies on collaboration between ethnic minority parents and teachers in the Netherlands. The first study examined expectations of ethnic minority parents in primary schools and found they want more involvement in their children's education but lack communication with teachers. The second study looked at secondary school teachers' attitudes towards cultural diversity and found they vary significantly in their understanding of intercultural issues. Both studies concluded the main problem is a lack of communication between parents and schools, especially regarding values and childrearing practices. Improving communication to address these deficits was recommended.
Frederik Smit, & Geert Driessen (2007). Parents and schools as partners in a ...Frederik Smit
In recent years Dutch society has had to deal with an influx of large and highly divergent migrant groups. Dutch education faces the task of accommodating these differences. Parental involve- ment and participation are increasingly seen as important elements in the interplay of upbring- ing and informal and formal education. In this respect it appears that immigrant parents’ involvement and participation lag behind that of Dutch parents. This article deals with recent trends in the relationship between schools and parents, its significance for children’s develop- ment and how it links up with aspects like norms and values, religious education and identity development. The article presents the results of an extensive empirical study conducted in Rot- terdam, a city which for some time now has been confronted with the aforementioned demo- graphic phenomena on a massive scale and tries to allow for it in its educational policy. The study focuses particularly on differences and similarities in ideas about the parents-school relationship among ten ethnic groups.
Frederik Smit & Geert Driessen (2005) AA Ethnic minority parents' and teacher...Driessen Research
In order to expand parental participation in the education of their children, teachers should be
equipped with some basic and possibly new skills for communication and cooperation purposes.
Schools host a very diverse population of pupils, and the purpose of the present study was
therefore to attain a better understanding of what various groups of parents expect of education
and the school in order to develop a framework for school strategies to involve different types of
parents. The research included a review of the literature, consultation with three expert panels, a
web survey of 500 school leaders, an interactive focus group, 20 case studies to identify
promising practices and the identification of strategies to expand parental participation. The
results showed parents in ‘white’ schools to support teachers during activities (parents as
supporters). Non-minority parents and certainly those from higher social milieus were
accustomed to having a say in school matters (parents as politicians). In schools with many
disadvantaged pupils, in contrast, little or no attention was paid to having parents have a say in
school matters. A bottleneck in ‘white’ schools was that parents do not have time to participate
due to their work (career parents). A bottleneck in ‘black’ schools is that parents do not
perceive themselves as qualified to participate (absentee parents). It is further shown that
strategies which parallel the different types of parents can be identified for school teams to
realize effective partnership relations.
Frederik Smit & Geert Driessen (2007) JET Parents and schools as partners in ...Driessen Research
This document summarizes a study on parental involvement in education in a multicultural society like the Netherlands. The study examines differences in perspectives on the parent-school relationship among 10 ethnic groups in Rotterdam, a highly diverse city. The results show that while parental involvement is important for children's development, immigrant parents tend to be less involved in schools compared to Dutch parents. Views on responsibilities for children's upbringing, norms, values and religious education varied among ethnic groups. The researchers conclude it is important for schools to understand these differences and find ways to strengthen partnerships with all parents.
Frederik Smit, Geert Driessen & Peter Sleegers (2001). Relationships between ...Frederik Smit
Frederik Smit, Geert Driessen & Peter Sleegers (2001). Relationships between parents of ethnic minority children, schools and supporting institutions in the local community - some ideas for the future. Paper European Research Network About Parents in Education (ERNAPE), Rotterdam, the Netherlands, November 22-23, 2001. In F. Smit, K. van der Wolf & P. Sleegers (Eds.), A bridge to the future. Collaboration between parents, schools and communities (pp. 255-258). Nijmegen: ITS.
Inspired by the ecological model of Bronfenbrenner (1986) researchers emphasize the cooperation and complementarity of schools and families, and encourage communication and collaboration between these two institutions (Deslandes, 2001). In the Netherlands, schools become convinced that good partnerships between parents and communities are necessary in behalf of the optimization of the students’ developmental opportunities, the enhancement of the students’ educational careers and the improvement of the teachers’ task performance (Smit 1991; Smit, Doesborgh &Van Kessel, 2000). The last few years have shown an increasing tendency for middle class parents to wish to get more involved in their children’s experiences during classes and their children’s learning at home. Parents from lower classes and from ethnic minorities tend to be less involved in their children’s education (Chavkin, 1993; Driessen & Valkenberg, 2000). On the other hand: many parents form higher classes consider schooling to be too important to leave it to professionals only (Klaassen & Smit, 2001).
Frederik Smit, Geert Driessen & Peter Sleegers (2001) ed Smit Relationships b...Driessen Research
Smit, F., Driessen, G. & Sleegers, P. (2001). Relationships between parents of ethnic minority children, schools and supporting institutions in the local community - some ideas for the future. Paper European Research Network About Parents in Education (ERNAPE), Rotterdam, the Netherlands, November 22-23, 2001. In F. Smit, K. van der Wolf & P. Sleegers (eds.), A bridge to the future. Collaboration between parents, schools and communities (pp. 255-258). Nijmegen: ITS.
ISBN 90-5554-177-X
Geert Driessen & Hetty Dekkers (2008) ISSJ Dutch policies on socio-ecomic and...Driessen Research
Dutch policies targeting educational disadvantages
have not only been guided by the changing
political colour of the government, but also by
social, economic, demographic, cultural and
political developments both nationally and
internationally (Karsten and Meijnen 2005). In
the 1960s attention was primarily paid to the
unfavourable position of working-class children.
Under the influence of democratisation
processes, a society with more egalitarian
and meritocratic principles
was aimed at with the reasoning
that positions in society
should be acquired only on
the basis of personal competence.
One’s socio-economic
background should play no
role in this and so education
was given a key function in
this process.
From the 1980s onwards,
large numbers of children
of immigrants from former
colonies, of so-called guest
workers and asylum seekers
and refugees streamed into
the Dutch educational system.
1 It quickly became
apparent that these children
lagged significantly behind
other children in a number
of subjects. Although their results have
improved somewhat over the past decades,
immigrant pupils are still behind when compared
with white middle-class pupils.
The concern on the problems facing workingclass
children has largely disappeared into the
background as a result of the immense amount
of attention being paid to the plight of minority
children, although the position of workingclass
children in The Netherlands is still very
worrying.
Michael Merry & Geert Driessen (2011) ed Bekerman Integration by other means ...Driessen Research
Merry, M., & Driessen, G. (2012). Integration by other means: Hindu schooling in the Netherlands. In Z. Bekerman & T. Geisen (eds.), International handbook of migration, minorities and education. Understanding cultural and social differences in processes of learning (pp. 523-541). Dordrecht: Springer.
ISBN 978-9400714656
DOI 10.1007/978-94-007-1466-3_34
The document summarizes a study on the practices of Muslim pupils attending a public primary school in Metro Manila. The study found that Muslim pupils maintained a strong cultural identity and social solidarity with other Muslim students. They preferred to associate with fellow Muslims over non-Muslim students. However, Muslim pupils also valued education highly and saw it as important for helping their families and future employment opportunities. While maintaining their cultural practices, the Muslim students accommodated the mainstream school culture by conforming to academic expectations.
- The document analyzes how different educational factors like medium of instruction (English vs Bengali) and curriculum type (national vs foreign) impact the cultural values and tendencies of Bangladeshi teenagers.
- It finds that the core cultural values are largely unaffected, with only 1 of 6 values influenced by medium of instruction and 2 values influenced by curriculum type. However, cultural practices are more influenced.
- Specifically, it finds masculinity tendencies are lower for students studying in English medium compared to Bengali medium, and for those studying foreign curriculums compared to national. Uncertainty avoidance is also higher for those studying foreign curriculums.
Geert Driessen (2021) Nazhruna Islamic primary schools in the NetherlandsDriessen Research
At present around 865.000 Muslims live in the Netherlands. In 1988 the first Islamic primary school was founded; now there are 61 with 15,000 students. Islamic education always has been a highly controversial topic in the Netherlands. The debate centers around the question whether the schools contribute to the integration of Muslim youth into Dutch society, or lead to isolation and segregation. This article’s goal is to entangle why and how the schools were established, the obstacles met in this process and the resulting heated societal debate, and the schools’ attainments in terms of cognitive and noncognitive student achievement. To arrive at these insights a review and analysis of the literature was conducted. The results show that Islamic schools academically achieve relatively well, that is, taking into account their largely socioeconomically disadvantaged student population. Also, they perform best on a pen-and-paper integration test. This does not mean, however, that especially populist and right-wing politicians are convinced now that all Muslim youngsters will accept the Dutch norms and values and will integrate into Dutch society.
Driessen, G. (2021). Islamic primary schools in the Netherlands: The founding, the debate, and the outcomes. Nazhruna: Jurnal Pendidikan Islam / Journal of Islamic Education, 4(1), 18-31.
ISSN 2614-8013
DOI 10.31538/nzh.v4i1.1076
Geert Driessen, Frederik Smit & Peter Sleegers (2005). Parental Involvement ...Frederik Smit
Parental involvement is seen as an important strategy for the advancement of the quality of education. The ultimate objective of this is to expand the social and cognitive capacities of pupils. In addition, special attention is paid to the children of low-educated and ethnic minority parents. Various forms of both parental and school-initiated involvement are examined. On the one hand, the connections between a number of characteristics of parents and schools such as the social and ethnic background of the parents and the composition of the school population will be examined. On the other hand, the connections between a number of outcome measures such as the language and mathematics skills of the pupils will be examined. Data will be drawn from the large-scale Dutch PRIMA (primary education) cohort study, which contains information on more than 500 schools and 12,000 pupils in the last year of primary school and their parents. An important finding is that predominantly schools with numerous minority pupils appear to provide a considerable amount of extra effort with respect to parental involvement, but that a direct effect of such involvement cannot be demonstrated.
A Comparative Study Of Cultural Values In Chinese And American Parenting Refl...Martha Brown
This document compares cultural values in Chinese and American parenting as reflected in the novel The Joy Luck Club. It begins by providing context on the study of parenting in China and the US. It then reviews literature on parenting studies in both countries as well as comparative studies between Chinese and American parenting. The document outlines two key questions addressed: 1) What are the differences between Chinese and American parenting? 2) How do cultural values and national culture models influence parenting styles in each country? It aims to analyze parenting ideas, content, and methods between China and the US from the perspective of cultural values.
Similar to Geert Driessen & Frans van der Slik (2001) JSSR Religion, denomination, and education in the Netherlands (20)
Geert Driessen (2024) OOP De generaliseerbaarheid van een VVE-modelprogramma....Driessen Research
SAMENVATTING
Voor- en Vroegschoolse Educatie (VVE) richt zich op het voorkomen van achterstanden die het gevolg zijn van sociaal-etnische gezinsomstandigheden. De claim is dat het daarin effectief kan zijn, mits het van hoge kwaliteit is. Ondanks de input van vele miljarden zijn de achterstanden de afgelopen decennia echter alleen maar gegroeid. De vraag die hier gesteld wordt is daarom of die claim wel terecht is. Daartoe wordt de externe validiteit van het meest geciteerde voorschoolse programma, het Perry Preschool Project, onder de loep genomen. Kunnen de resultaten daarvan echt in die mate worden gegeneraliseerd als wordt geclaimd?
Kernwoorden: Voor- en Vroegschoolse Educatie; VVE; onderwijsachterstanden; Perry Preschool; James Heckman; generalisatie; externe validiteit
SUMMARY
Preschool Education programs aim at preventing educational delays resulting from socioethnic disadvantage in the home environment of young children. Proponents claim that such programs can be effective, provided they are of high quality. Despite the investment of huge budgets, the educational gap between socioeconomically deprived families and their wealthier counterparts still is widening. The question therefore is whether the programs’ claim is justified. This article focuses on the external validity of the most cited preschool program, the High/Scope Perry Preschool Project. Is it really possible to generalize its findings to other programs, settings and conditions, and target groups, as is being claimed?
Keywords: Pre- and Early School Education; educational disadvantage; Perry Preschool; High/Scope; James Heckman; generalization; external validity
Pre-print van: Driessen, G. (2024). De generaliseerbaarheid van een VVE-modelprogramma. Heckmans dubieuze claims. Orthopedagogiek: Onderzoek en Praktijk, 63(1), 18-29. ISSN 2211-6273
https://orthopedagogiek.eu/
Geert Driessen (2024) Demasqué VVE-modelprogramma's.pdfDriessen Research
Het effect van vve blijft in Nederland moeilijk aantoonbaar. Vve-beleid wordt daarom vaak gestoeld op bewijs uit Amerikaans onderzoek. Geert Driessen fileert de belangrijkste – Perry Preschool en Abecedarian. Er blijft weinig van het bewijs over.
Geert Driessen (2024) Encyclopedia Abecedarian an impossible model preschool ...Driessen Research
The primary goal of pre- and early-school programs is to prevent young children from socioeconomically disadvantage backgrounds to start school already with educational delays. The programs offer compensatory stimulation activities which are supposed to be not available in the home situation; the focus is on language development. Proponents claim that such programs can be effective, provided they are of high quality. The belief in their success is very much based on the outcomes of a few so-called model programs from the 1960s and 1970s. One of these programs is the Carolina Abecedarian Project, a small single-site project started in 1972. Four cohorts of in total 111 children and their poor, Black parents participated in this experiment with a random allocated treatment and a control group. The children were followed from 6 weeks after birth to 6 years of age, that is, when they entered school. They were regularly tested and observed, and then after the program had ended again until they were 40 years of age. The focus here is on the internal and external validity of the Abecedarian Project. Are the effects as reported by the program’s staff reliable and valid? Is it possible to generalize the findings of this model program to other times, settings, conditions, and target groups?
Driessen, G. (2024). Abecedarian: An impossible model preschool program. Encyclopedia, 11 January 2024.
ISSN 2309-3366
Retrieved from https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/121338
Geert Driessen (2023) Encyclopedia The Perry HighScope Preschool Program A Cr...Driessen Research
Early Childhood Education programs aim at preventing educational delays associated with socio-ethnic disadvantage in the home environment of young children. Advocates claim that such programs can be effective, provided they are of high quality. Despite the investment of enormous budgets, the educational gap between socio-economically deprived families and their wealthier counterparts is still widening. The question therefore is justifiied whether these claims are justified. This article focuses on the internal and external validity of the most cited preschool program, the High/Scope Perry PreschoolProject, which was carried out between 1962 and 1967 in one school in Ypsilant, MI. Are the program's effects as reported by, e.g. Lawrence Schweinhart and James Heckman, reliable and valid? And is it really possible to generalize the findings of this so-called model program to other programs, target groups, settings and conditions, as is being claimed?
Geert Driessen (2023) The Perry High/Scope Preschool program. A critique
Retrieved from https://encyclopedia.pub/entry/history/show/109024
Kees de Bot, Geert Driessen & Paul Jungbluth (1988) MLEML An exploration of t...Driessen Research
Bot, K. de, Driessen, G., & Jungbluth, P. (1988). An exploration of the effects of the teaching of immigrant language and culture. Paper International Conference on Maintenance and Loss of Ethnic Minority Languages, Noordwijkerhout, the Netherlands, August 28-30, 1988.
Geert Driessen (1992) MLEML Developments in first and second language acquisi...Driessen Research
Driessen, G. (1992). Developments in first and second language acquisition of Turkish and Moroccan children in the Netherlands. Paper Second International Conference on Maintenance and Loss of Ethnic Minority Languages, Noordwijkerhout, the Netherlands, September 1-4, 1992.
Geert Driessen, Lia Mulder & Paul Jungbluth (1994) ILAPSI Ethnicity and socia...Driessen Research
The document discusses the results of a study on the impact of climate change on global wheat production. Researchers found that rising temperatures will significantly reduce wheat yields across different regions of the world by the end of the century. Under a high emissions scenario, the study projects a global average decrease in wheat production of 6% by 2050, and a 17% decrease by 2100, threatening global food security.
Geert Driessen & Pim Valkenberg (2000) AERA Islamic schools in the western wo...Driessen Research
Driessen, G., & Valkenberg, P. (2000). Islamic schools: the case of the Netherlands. Paper AERA Annual Meeting, New Orleans, LA, USA, April 24-28, 2000.
Geert Driessen (2000) AEGEE Islamic schools in the western world Paper.pdfDriessen Research
Driessen, G. (2000). Islamic schools in the Western World: The case of the Netherlands. Invited paper AEGEE Conference on Intercultural Education, Nijmegen, the Netherlands, April 14-16, 2000.
Geert Driessen & Frederik Smit (2005) ERNAPE Integration participation and ed...Driessen Research
1) The document discusses a study on the relationship between minority parents' participation in Dutch society and their children's educational outcomes.
2) The study uses data from over 10,000 children and their parents to examine how factors like parental ethnicity, education, labor participation, and cultural participation correlate with children's language, math, and social skills.
3) The results find a consistent positive effect of parents' cultural participation (e.g. attending concerts and museums) on children's language and math abilities, supporting the idea that cultural capital benefits children's education. However, the hypothesis that greater parental participation broadly leads to better child outcomes is only partially confirmed.
Frederik Smit & Geert Driessen (2005) CARE Parent and community involvement i...Driessen Research
Smit, F., & Driessen, G. (2005). Parent and community involvement in education from an international comparative perspective. Challenges for changing societies. Invited paper international conference Children At-Risk in Education, (CARE), ‘Children at Risk. Advancing their Educational Frontiers’. Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, December 2-4, 2005.
Geert Driessen (2006) ERCOMER Integration participation and education Pres.pptDriessen Research
This document summarizes a study on the effects of minority parents' participation in society on their children's educational outcomes. The study used data from 10,680 children in the Netherlands to analyze relationships between parental ethnicity, education, participation in different domains (e.g. labor, religion), and children's language, math and social skills. The results showed a consistent positive effect of parents' cultural participation (e.g. attending concerts) on children's language and math abilities, supporting the idea of cultural capital. However, the hypothesis that greater parental integration would more broadly promote children's education received only partial confirmation. Higher expectations for immigrant children's chances may need to be more realistic.
Michael Merry & Geert Driessen (2010) WCCES Integration by other means Hindu ...Driessen Research
Merry, M., & Driessen, G. (2010). Integration by other means: Hindu schooling in the Netherlands. Paper XIV World Congress of Comparative Education Societies, ‘Bordering, re-bordering and new possibilities in education and society’, Istanbul, Turkey, June 14-18, 2010.
Geert Driessen & Michael Merry (2013) AERA Tackling socioeconomic and ethnic ...Driessen Research
Driessen, G., & Merry, M. (2013). Tackling socioeconomic and ethnic educational disadvantage to prevent lifelong poverty. Paper Annual Meeting AERA 2013, San Francisco, CA, USA, April 27 – May 1, 2013.
Frederik Smit & Geert Driessen (2013) ERNAPE Dealing with street culture in s...Driessen Research
Smit, F., & Driessen, G. (2013). Dealing with street culture in schools: Are families, schools and communities able to work together to improve the quality of the daily interactions and communication? Paper 9th International Conference of the European Research Network About Parents in Education (ERNAPE), ‘Learn from the past, review the present, prepare for a future with equity’. Lisbon, Portugal, September 4-6, 2013. In Nieuwsbrief Ouders, scholen en buurt, juli 2013. Retrieved from http://itsexpertisecentrum.wordpress.com/2013/07/02/dealing-with-street-culture-in-schools-are-families-schools-and-communities-able-to-work-together-to-improve-the-quality-of-the-daily-interactions-and-communication/
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Driessen, G., & Merry, M. (2015). The gross and net effects of the schools’ denomination on student performance. Paper Annual Meeting AERA 2015, Chicago, Ill., USA, April 16 – 20, 2015.
DOI 10.13140/RG.2.2.30454.40006
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Agirdag, O., Driessen, G., & Merry, M. (2015). Is there a catholic school effect for Muslim pupils? Paper 12th Conference of the European Sociological Association 2015, Prague, Czech Republic, August 25–28, 2015.
DOI 10.13140/RG.2.2.14725.76004/1
Geert Driessen (2016) College RUG Performance differences between religious a...Driessen Research
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Geert Driessen & Frans van der Slik (2001) JSSR Religion, denomination, and education in the Netherlands
1. Religion, Denomination, and Education in The
Netherlands: Cognitive and Noncognitive
Outcomes After an Era of Secularization
GEERT DRIESSEN
FRANS VAN DER SLIK
After 1850, The Netherlands developed into a strongly pillarized or denominational society. Starting in 1965,
however, a process of secularization and depillarization emerged and the influence of the institutionalized de-
nominations declined greatly. Today, there are indications that the process of secularization has reached its peak.
Remarkably enough, such secularization and depillarization has had little influence on the educational system in
The Netherlands. In this article, the relations between the religious affiliations of parents, the denominations of the
schools attended by their children, and both the cognitive and noncognitive educational achievement of their chil-
dren are examined. A representative sample of nearly 8,400 kindergarten students from 432 elementary schools is
studied. The results show that the denomination of the school does not appear to affect educational results. Effects
of the religious affiliation of the parents on the cognitive achievement but not the self-confidence or well-being of
their children were found. When the socioethnic background of the students was taken into consideration, however,
the observed effects disappeared.
INTRODUCTION
The core of many educational systems as they currently exist in Western Europe was formed
during the second half of the 19th and early 20th centuries. During this process, the religious and
secular elites were the most important parties. The battle that raged at the time resulted in three
types of educational systems. Within the first type, the state has complete control over education.
The second type is characterized by a national system of uniform regulations, with the dominant
religious group having a decisive stamp on the matter, although there is space for other groups.
Within the third type, different groups operate on an equal basis next to each other within a
uniform set of rules (Dijkstra and Peschar 1996).
The Netherlands is a clear example of the third type. As a result of the “school dispute” in
The Netherlands, equal treatment of public and private schools was constitutionally established
in 1917. This implies, among other things, the freedom to found a school and the freedom to teach
according to a particular ideology or social principles. These freedoms and the associated right to
equal funding by the government have, over the years, led to a colorful palette of denominations
(van Haaften and Snik 1999).1
With regard to elementary schools, the most sizable denominations
are the public, Protestant Christian, and Roman Catholic. In the school year 1999–2000, the
distribution of elementary schools across these three denominations was 34 percent, 30 percent,
and 30 percent, respectively. In addition, the government recognized 16 other denominations,
such as the Islamic, the Hindu, the Jena Plan, and the Montessori, which together constituted
some 7 percent of the schools.
Characteristic of the Dutch situation is the fact that the battle for equal treatment of public and
private schools did not occur on its own but was, rather, part of a general emancipatory process of
“pillarization” that penetrated all aspects of society (de Rooy 1997 ). The result of this was a society
Dr. Geert Driessen is a researcher at the Institute for Applied Social Sciences (I.T.S.) of the University of Nijmegen, The
Netherlands, P.O. Box 9048, 6500 KJ Nijmegen, The Netherlands. Email: G.Driessen@its.kun.nl
Dr. Frans van der Slik is a researcher at the Department of Applied Linguistics of the University of Nijmegen, The
Netherlands, P.O. Box 9103, 6500 HD Nijmegen, The Netherlands. Email: f.v.d.slik@let kun.nl
Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion 40:4 (2001) 561–572
2. 562 JOURNAL FOR THE SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF RELIGION
vertically segregated on the basis of religion with each “pillar” containing its own political parties,
labor unions, schools, radio and TV networks, newspapers, sport clubs, hospitals, and so forth.
This close interweaving of the religious and the secular implies that, until the 1960s, the choice
of a private versus public school was not made on educational grounds but on religious grounds
(Dronkers 1996). After that time, a process of secularization and dechurching was initiated and the
role of religion and the church within society changed drastically (Felling, Peters, and Schreuder
1991; Hermans and van Vugt 1997). Depending on the way the question is formulated, between
40 and 60 percent of the Dutch people are still religious at this moment (Dekker and Ester 1996).
In 1991, 43 percent of the Dutch people were members of a church; in 1960, this number was
82 percent. A strong generation effect plays a role in these findings, though, with 59 percent of
those between 51 and 79 years of age calling themselves a member of a church in 1991 and only
28 percent of the 21 to 30 year olds doing so at the same time. Church attendance has declined
dramatically: from 67 percent of the church members in 1970 to 43 percent in 1991 (Faber et al.
1970; Lechner 1996). At the same time, a process of “depillarization” has emerged. According
to Bax (1998), three developments are responsible for this: the rise of the modern welfare state
with the existing pillars losing their social control as a result; scale expansion of the schools
with diminished ideological isolation of social groups as a result; and increased secularization
with, for example, voting behavior no longer inextricably bound up with religious affiliation as a
result.
While the waning influence of the church can be seen in most social institutions and organi-
zations, the denominational educational system has remained largely intact. In 1950, for example,
73 percent of all elementary school children attended a private school; in 1993, the number was
68 percent (Dronkers 1996). The occurrence of this paradoxical situation is related, in the opin-
ion of Bax (1988), to the vested interests of the professionals in denominational organizations
and their legal protection (cf. Dekker and Ester 1996). Dronkers (1996) adds a few other possi-
ble explanations. The informal relations between school administration and teachers in private
schools may contribute to the high achievement of students in such schools and thereby attract
nonreligious parents. Additionally, private schools may be more attractive than public schools
because, in contrast to the obligation of the latter to be neutral, private schools pay consider-
able attention to basic values and norms. According to Dronkers, more traditional parents avoid
public schools because they are generally too progressive. Finally, one can speak of a conscious
educational choice on the part of the parents and teachers at a private school, which encourages
the development of an educational community with shared values and may thereby foster higher
achievement. Private schools can thus provide some counterweight to the negative influence of
increased individualization in modern society.
That the denominational education system has remained intact does not mean that factors
other than religion have not gradually come to play a role in the choice of school, especially the
quality of the education (Ritzen, van Dommelen, and de Vijlder 1997). One can add to this that,
since the 1980s, a number of “new” denominations have emerged, such as the Islamic and the
Hindu (Driessen and Valkenberg 2000). According to a recent study by van Kessel (2000), in the
city of Amsterdam approximately 50 percent of the elementary school children are of a foreign
origin and there are only six Islamic schools at this moment; in principle there is a need for 20
such schools.
Given the central role of denomination within the Dutch educational system, a number of
different studies have been conducted around this theme over the years. Some of the studies
concern the founding of new schools. To found a new school in The Netherlands, a prognosis
must be made with regard to the expected number of students. The conclusion is usually that a
discrepancy exists between the denominations of the existing schools and the preferences of the
parents. The number of parents who cannot realize the desired school choice can vary between
25 and 40 percent (van der Wouw 1994). Some recent studies have been concerned with the
foundation of “new” denomination schools, such as Islamic or Hindu schools (van Kessel 2000).
3. RELIGION AND EDUCATION IN THE NETHERLANDS 563
Studiesinwhichtherelationsbetweenthereligiousaffiliationoftheparents,thedenomination
of the school, and the educational careers of the children are examined are generally referred to as
effect studies: a more or less causal relation is drawn between religious affiliation or denomination
and educational chances (Bosker and Dijkstra 1996; de Jong and Roeleveld 1989; Jungbluth and
Driessen 1987). For an extensive review of the research concerned with the denomination of
the schools in particular, the reader is referred to Dijkstra (1997). From this overview, it can be
seen that much of the research is concentrated on cognitive outcomes (i.e., language and math
achievement) at the end of elementary school and beginning of junior high school. Noncognitive
effectsandotherphasesoftheschoolcareerareonlysporadicallyexamined.AccordingtoDijkstra,
the findings of these studies show an inconsistent picture: denomination-specific differences are
sometimes detected and sometimes not detected. Consistency and systematicity in the results is
generally difficult to find. It is not possible to speak of general effects encompassing a number of
domains or involving a variety of criterion variables. All of this does not mean that there is not
a tendency for different denomination schools to show small differences in educational results.
Once again, the effects of denomination appear to be detrimental in the case of public schools and
favorable in the case of private schools. Among the private schools, the Roman Catholic schools
can be found at the top of the list, followed by the general private, and thereafter the Protestant
Christian schools. These outcomes are in line with studies in the United States (Coleman 1987),
in which it was found that students at Catholic schools performed better than students at public
(Protestant) schools.
Research concerned with the religious affiliation of the parents and the educational achieve-
ment of their children is (Dijkstra and Peschar 1996; Sherkat and Darnell 1999) only available to
a very limited extent in not only The Netherlands but also abroad. From their overview of this type
of research, it appears that insofar as the effects of religious affiliation are considered, the effects
almost completely disappear when the socioeconomic background of the students is taken into
consideration: differences in educational results are thus explained away by milieu differences
between religious groups.
RESEARCH QUESTIONS
The literature shows a paucity of large-scale representative research on the relations between
the religious affiliation of parents and the denominations of schools, on the one hand, and religious
affiliation, school denomination, and both cognitive and noncognitive educational results, on the
other hand. These connections have become very relevant over the past few years because both
the government and society have been placing an increasing emphasis on the quality of education
(Ritzen, van Dommelen, and de Vijlder 1997). The quality of education can be deduced primarily
from the output of the schools, that is, the results of the schools in terms of student achievement.
This has led to the publication of annual overviews of the quality and output of schools by
the educational inspectorate in The Netherlands and to the publication of the school results in
newspapers and on the Internet. All of this is based on the argument that parents should be given
the opportunity to make their own responsible choice of school. Despite the ongoing process of
secularization and depillarization, the Dutch educational system based on religious categories
has remained intact. The question is whether this is related to the quality of the denomination
schools. If this were the case, then there should be output differences among schools of different
denominations. According to Laemers (1999), the quality of education is now grosso modo the
most important factor motivating school choice, with the choice of a particular denomination
becoming more implicit as a result. This does not mean, according to Laemers, that a group of
parents with a specific interest in the denomination of the school does not exist, as the recent
founding of Islamic, Hindu, and Evangelical schools clearly attests.
In light of these developments, it is relevant to determine the possible relations between
religious affiliation, denomination, and educational results. Do we find differences in educational
4. 564 JOURNAL FOR THE SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF RELIGION
outcomes—cognitive as well as noncognitive—in favor of private schools, which may help explain
why the educational system based on denominational differences has remained intact despite the
highly secularized climate in The Netherlands? With the data from the national cohort study
of Elementary Education (the PRIMA study) in The Netherlands, these relations can now be
studied. The PRIMA study is a recent, national, large-scale longitudinal study with data collected
at elementary schools every two years from head-teachers, teachers, students, and parents. Two
important features of PRIMA address equality and quality issues in education. The PRIMA data
include a stock of information on the full range of denominations and religious affiliations together
with not only measures of cognitive results but also noncognitive results. The PRIMA data make
it possible to control for socioeconomic background characteristics, which is necessary to get a
fair picture of the net results of education (Scheerens and Bosker 1997), and to study the early
school years, which constitute a phase of the school career that has yet to be considered. Stated
concretely, we would like to answer the following question with the aid of the PRIMA data: What
relations exist between the religious affiliation of the parents, the denomination of the school, the
language and math achievement, and the self-confidence and well-being of the students? What
role does the socioethnic background play in these relations?
DATA AND VARIABLES
Sample
Within the PRIMA cohort, a sample of 432 schools largely representative of all elementary
schools in The Netherlands can be distinguished (Driessen, van Langen, Portengen, and Vierke
1998). The parents of the kindergarten children (second grade, on average six years of age)
were asked about their religious affiliation via a written questionnaire. The response rate was
79 percent with large differences depending on socioethnic background. We therefore went on to
determine whether we could speak of denominational selectivity or not. The differences between
the denominations appeared to be very minimal; only the Islamic and Hindu schools, which are
attended by predominantly ethnic minority students, stood out with a 44 percent response rate. In
the end, a sample of 8,394 students remained.
Variables
Religious Affiliation
The following question was asked with regard to the religious affiliation of the parents:
“Which church, religious community, or ideological group do you and your partner ascribe to?”
The response categories distinguished were: (1) none, (2) Roman Catholic, (3) Dutch Reformed,
(4) Calvinist, (5) other Christian, (6) Islamic, (7) Hindu, or (8) other.2
To obtain a variable at the
level of the family, the data from the mother were used; if there was no mother, the data from the
father were used.
Denomination
Regarding the denominations of the schools, the following categories could be distinguished:
(1) public, (2) Roman Catholic, (3) Protestant Christian, (4) Reformed, (5) Reformational,
(6) Islamic, (7) Hindu, or (8) general private.3
On content and numerical grounds, the Reformed
and Reformational schools were combined, as were the Islamic and Hindu schools.
Socioethnic Background
An indicator of the socioethnic background of the family is the so-called weighting factor
used by the Dutch Ministry of Education to assess the degree of disadvantage for students. This
5. RELIGION AND EDUCATION IN THE NETHERLANDS 565
indicator is based on ethnic origin along with the educational and professional level of the parents
(Driessen 2000). We distinguished three categories: (1) children who do not find themselves at a
disadvantage; (2) native Dutch children at a disadvantage; and (3) ethnic minority children at a
disadvantage. The distribution of the students in our sample across these categories was found to
be: 66.6 percent, 23.9 percent, and 9.2 percent, respectively.
Cognitive Outcomes
Achievement was measured with the aid of two tests developed by the National Institute
for Educational Measurement (CITO) to provide an indication of the level of prereading and
prearithmetic skills.4
For the entire sample, the average scores on the tests were 974 and 904,
respectively, with standard deviations of 34 and 63 (reliability: KR-20 0.96 and 0.90, respec-
tively).
Noncognitive Outcomes
Self-confidence and well-being were measured using a series of statements presented to the
teachers with the request that the teachers indicate the extent to which the statements apply to each
student.5
The ratings could vary from (1) definitely untrue to (5) definitely true. On the basis of
the reactions, the factors self-confidence and well-being were constructed (reliability: Cronbach’s
alpha of 0.75 and 0.77, respectively). The average ratings for the entire sample were 3.5 and 4.2,
respectively, with standard deviations of 0.7 and 0.5.
DESCRIPTIVE ANALYSES
Denomination and Religious Affiliation
In Table 1 under N, the distribution of the number of students per religious affiliation of the
parents and denomination of the schools are presented.
From this table it can be concluded that 31 percent of the students in the PRIMA sam-
ple have parents with no religious affiliation (2,549 of in total 8,260 students), 38 percent
TABLE 1
SOCIOETHNIC BACKGROUND ACCORDING TO RELIGIOUS AFFILIATION
AND SCHOOL DENOMINATION (PERCENTAGES)
Socioethnic Background Socioethnic Background
Religious No Dutch Ethnic No Dutch Ethnic
Affiliation Disadv. Disadv. Disadv. N Denomination Disadv. Disadv. Disadv. N
None 71.5 25.7 2.8 2,549 Pu 67.8 22.4 9.7 2,332
RC 70.2 27.4 2.4 3,096 RC 66.1 26.3 7.6 3,317
DR 72.4 26.3 1.3 963 PC 65.9 24.6 9.5 1,967
Ca 79.1 19.5 1.4 533 Red, Rel 79.1 19.7 1.3 228
Ch 70.6 16.8 12.6 409 Is, Hi 10.7 0.0 89.3 73
Is, Hi 6.6 1.4 92.1 550 GP 74.6 14.5 10.9 343
Other 61.6 21.9 16.6 160
η 0.59 8,260 0.18 8,260
NOTE: Pu = public; RC = Roman Catholic; DR = Dutch Reformed; Ca = Calvinist; Red = Reformed;
Rel = Reformational; Is = Islamic; Hi = Hindu; GP = general private, Ch = other Christian.
6. 566 JOURNAL FOR THE SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF RELIGION
are Roman Catholic, 24 percent are Protestant (Dutch Reformed, Calvinist, other Christian),
7 percent are Muslim or Hindu, and 2 percent have another affiliation. It should be noted
that the parents of these students are relatively young; the average age of the mothers is 35
years, and that of the fathers 37 years. The table also shows that 28 percent of the students
are at public schools (2,332 of in total 8,260 students), 40 percent are at Roman Catholic
schools, and 27 percent are at Protestant schools (Protestant Christian, Reformed, Reforma-
tional), while only 1 percent are at Islamic or Hindu schools, and 4 percent are at general private
schools.
Socioethnic Background, Religious Affiliation, and Denomination
Which parents choose which schools? This is the next question we will attempt to answer.
Table 1 also gives the distributions of the socioethnic family backgrounds according to religious
affiliation and denomination of the school. When we examine the relation between religious
affiliation and socioethnic background, it appears that 71.5 percent of the students with parents
without a religious affiliation belong to the group with no disadvantage; 25.7 percent to the
group of native Dutch disadvantaged students; and 2.8 percent to the group of ethnic minority
disadvantaged students. The distributions for the students of Roman Catholic or Dutch Reformed
parents do not deviate much from this. The Calvinist category shows a relatively greater number of
students with no disadvantage and also very few native Dutch and ethnic minority disadvantaged
children. Among the categories of other Christians and other, the percentage of ethnic minority
disadvantaged children stands out. As expected, almost all of the Muslim and Hindu children are
disadvantaged ethnic minorities.
When we consider the denomination of the school in relation to the socioethnic background
of the students, we see that within the three largest denominations (Roman Catholic, public, and
Protestant Christian), about two-thirds of the students consistently belong to the category of stu-
dents with no disadvantage; approximately 25 percent belong to the category of native Dutch
disadvantaged students; and approximately 9 percent belong to the category of ethnic minority
disadvantaged students. The Roman Catholic schools tend to have somewhat fewer ethnic mi-
nority students. At the Reformed and Reformational schools, there are relatively many students
with no disadvantage and virtually no ethnic minority disadvantaged students. At the Islamic and
Hindu schools, there are primarily ethnic disadvantaged minority students. Finally, at the general
private schools, there is a relatively large percentage of students with no disadvantage and ethnic
minority students at a disadvantage.
Religious Affiliation, School Denomination, and Educational Results
What is the relation between religious affiliation and school denomination, on the one hand,
and a number of cognitive and noncognitive educational results, on the other hand? With regard to
the latter, four categories of results were distinguished: language achievement, math achievement,
self-confidence, and well-being. In Table 2, an overview of the average scores according to
religious affiliation and school denomination is presented.
With respect to language achievement, it can be seen that nearly 6 percent of the variation
in the scores is “explained” by the religious affiliation of the parents (viz. η 0.242
× 100). The
language achievement of the children of parents with a Roman Catholic religious affiliation is the
highest with a score of 978; the language achievement of the Muslim and Hindu children is the
lowest with a score of 943 (the difference between these scores is 35 points or 1 standard deviation).
The latter finding is not particularly surprising when one realizes that the parents in the Muslim
and Hindu groups are also the least educated parents. With respect to math achievement, there is a
comparable pattern of findings: the children of Roman Catholic parents achieve best; the Muslim
7. RELIGION AND EDUCATION IN THE NETHERLANDS 567
TABLE 2
LANGUAGE ACHIEVEMENT, MATH ACHIEVEMENT, SELF-CONFIDENCE, AND
WELL-BEING ACCORDING TO RELIGIOUS AFFILIATION OF THE PARENTS
AND DENOMINATION OF THE SCHOOL (AVERAGES)
Religious Self- Well- Self- Well-
Affiliation Language Math Confidence Being Denomination Language Math Confidence Being
None 975 904 3.5 4.1 Pu 973 901 3.5 4.1
RC 978 914 3.5 4.1 RC 977 910 3.5 4.0
DR 976 904 3.5 4.1 PC 972 897 3.6 4.1
Ca 975 904 3.6 4.1 Red, Rel 972 902 3.5 3.9
Ch 974 899 3.6 4.1 Is, Hi 949 863 3.9 4.0
Is, Hi 943 856 3.6 4.1 GP 975 910 3.4 4.1
Other 971 901 3.6 4.1
η 0.24 0.22 0.04 0.03 0.10 0.11 0.07 0.07
NOTE: Pu = public; RC = Roman Catholic; DR = Dutch Reformed; Ca = Calvinist; Red = Reformed;
Rel = Reformational; Is = Islamic; Hi = Hindu; GP = general private, Ch = other Christian.
and Hindu children achieve poorest (with a difference of 58 points or 0.9 standard deviation).
With respect to self-confidence and well-being, no significant differences were observed for the
different categories of religious affiliation.
The differences observed for denominationof school are smaller than the differences observed
for religious affiliation. Insofar as they are comparable, the pattern of the scores for school
denomination parallels the pattern of the scores for religious affiliation. It is striking that the
teachers at the Islamic and Hindu schools judge their students as having a relatively high degree
of self-confidence (a difference of 0.4 points as compared to the other categories or half a standard
deviation).
The final conclusion after inspection of the results in Table 2 is that moderate differences
in language and math achievement appear to correlate with religious affiliation and small dif-
ferences with denomination. When the category “Islamic/Hindu” is omitted from further analy-
ses, however, the difference according to religious affiliation and denomination disappears com-
pletely. The differences in the remaining categories explain no more than 0.5 percent of the
variance in the test results. With regard to self-confidence and well-being, there are again no
differences.
MULTILEVEL ANALYSES
As already mentioned, differences in the socioethnic backgrounds of the children were found
to relate to religious affiliation and school denomination. Although the differences in language
and math achievement depending on religious affiliation and school denomination were only
moderate, we still wanted to determine what remains of the differences after taking socioethnic
background into consideration. Because we found no differences in the noncognitive outcomes,
we did not include self-confidence and well-being in the analyses.
The characteristics of religious affiliation and denomination are located at two different
levels, namely, at the student and at the school level. It has recently been suggested that this level
difference should be explicitly taken into consideration and a suitable form of analysis applied,
namely, multilevel analysis (Snijders and Bosker 1999). Multilevel analyses have the advantage
of showing which part of the explanation is situated at which level. In the present study, we used
the program MLn (Rasbash and Woodhouse 1996).
8. 568 JOURNAL FOR THE SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF RELIGION
Given that religious affiliation and denomination are nominal variables, we used dummy
variables for each of the categories of these predictors. To prevent the occurrence of linear
dependence within the model, one of the dummy variables was omitted from the analyses. The
regression coefficients are then the effects of a category in contrast to the omitted category. We
decided to omit “no religious affiliation” for religious affiliation and “public school” for denom-
ination. Effects thus represent differences in the category averages in contrast to the category of
“no religious affiliation” and “public school,” respectively.
In Tables 3 and 4 the following models are presented:
0 the null model
R total influence of religious affiliation
D total influence of denomination
B total influence of socioethnic background
R.B independent influence of religious affiliation (with background constant)
D.B independent influence of denomination (with background constant)
The results with regard to language will be described extensively. The null model shows the
total variance in the language achievement of the students to be divided into two levels: the largest
part (86.8 percent) is located at the student level, while a small part (13.2 percent) is located at
the school level.
TABLE 3
RESULTS OF MULTILEVEL ANALYSES OF LANGUAGE ACHIEVEMENT
ACCORDING TO RELIGIOUS AFFILIATION OF PARENTS (R) AND
SCHOOL DENOMINATION (D) WITHOUT AND WITH SOCIOETHNIC
BACKGROUND (B) CONTROLLED FOR
0 R D B R.B D.B
Variance components
Student level (%) 86.8 3.1 4.3 +0.9
School level (%) 13.2 22.7 7.6 29.7 +0.9 +3.6
χ2
/d f 54.5∗
4.5 453.8∗
13.6∗
2.7
Regression coefficients
Socioethnic background −13.0∗
−10.0∗
−12.9∗
Religious affiliation (compared to no religion):
RC 0.2 0.3
DR 0.6 0.4
Ca 0.0 −0.7
Ch −0.9 0.1
Is, Hi −28.8∗
−16.0∗
Other −4.0 −1.7
Denomination (compared to public school):
RC 4.4 4.2
PC 0.0 −0.1
Red, Rel 0.8 −2.1
Is, Hi −24.3∗
−6.9
GP 2.9 1.5
NOTE: Pu = public; RC = Roman Catholic; DR = Dutch Reformed; Ca = Calvinist; Red = Reformed;
Ref = Reformational; Is = Islamic; Hi = Hindu; GP = general private, Ch = other Christian.
9. RELIGION AND EDUCATION IN THE NETHERLANDS 569
TABLE 4
RESULTS OF MULTILEVEL ANALYSES OF MATH ACHIEVEMENT ACCORDING
TO RELIGIOUS AFFILIATION OF PARENTS (R) AND SCHOOL DENOMINATION
(D) WITHOUT AND WITH SOCIOETHNIC BACKGROUND (B)
CONTROLLED FOR
0 R D B R.B D.B
Variance components
Student level (%) 80.5 2.3 4.7 +0.4
School level (%) 19.5 13.0 5.7 17.5 +1.3 +3.4
χ2
/d f 38.7∗
3.6 448.4∗
6.6 2.4
Regression coefficients
Socioethnic background −23.6∗
−20.1∗
−23.5∗
Religious affiliation (compared to no religion):
RC 3.1 3.2
DR 1.5 1.3
Ca 0.8 −0.4
Ch −2.6 −0.7
Is, Hi −43.2∗
−18.2∗
Other −3.6 1.0
Denomination (compared to public school):
RC 10.0 9.7
PC 0.0 −0.2
Red, Rel 2.7 −2.3
Is, Hi −37.0 −5.5
GP 10.7 8.1
NOTE: Pu = public; RC = Roman Catholic; DR = Dutch Reformed; Ca = Calvinist; Red = Reformed;
Ref = Reformational; Is = Islamic; Hi = Hindu; GP = general private, Ch = other Christian.
The percentages of the variance explained by the models following the null model or models
R, D, and B are determined with respect to the total variance at that level. The student-level
variables of religious affiliation and socioethnic background exert an influence at both the student
and school levels. Religious affiliation explains 3.1 percent of the student-level variance and 22.7
percent of the school-level variance. Because denomination is a school variable, it can only explain
school variance, which was found to be 7.6 percent. Socioethnic background explained more of
the variance in language than did religious affiliation: 4.3 percent at the student level and 29.7
percent at the school level.
The percentages of the variance explained in the models R.B and D.B—when socioethnic
background is thus held constant—represent the amount of additional variance explained by
religious affiliation and denomination, respectively, after the influence of background has been
excluded. At both levels, religious affiliation is found to add only 0.9 percent to the amount of
explained variance and denomination only 3.6 percent.
It is sometimes concluded that school-level predictors are extremely important for the stu-
dents’ school achievement. The fact is, however, that given the existence of relatively little variance
to explain at the level of the school, their contribution to the total amount of explained variance
can actually only be very small. When the explained variances are translated into proportions of
the total variance, we get the following results. For the influence of religious affiliation at the
level of the student, this is 3.1 percent of 86.8 percent or 2.7 percent; at the level of the school,
it is 22.7 percent of 13.2 percent or 3.0 percent. Only 5.7 percent of the total variance is thus
10. 570 JOURNAL FOR THE SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF RELIGION
explained. For the influence of socioethnic background at the level of the student, the amount of
variance explained is found to be 4.3 percent of 86.8 percent or 3.8 percent; at the level of the
school, it is 29.7 percent of 13.2 percent or 3.9 percent. Only 7.7 percent of the total variance is
thus explained.
The χ2
/d f values are used to test whether a model significantly deviates from a more
restricted model. The models R, D, and B are again tested against the null model; the models R.B
and D.B are tested against model B. Values representing a significant difference are indicated with
an∗
(p < 0.005). Significant regression coefficients are also indicated in such a manner. Religious
affiliation can thus be seen to explain a significant portion of the variance in the language scores;
however, this is not the case for denomination. Religious affiliation also contributes significantly
to the explanation of the variance in the language scores even when socioethnic background is held
constant. Of the regression coefficients for religious affiliation and denomination, only the effects
of the category Islamic/Hindu in contrast to no religious affiliation are found to be significant.
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
When the research findings are summarized, we come to the following conclusions. There are
differences in the socioethnic backgrounds of the parents with different religious affiliations and
in the student populations from different denomination schools. The differences stand out the most
with respect to the proportion of ethnic minority children at an educational disadvantage. There
is nevertheless much similarity in the distributions of socioethnic background across the largest
categories of religious affiliation and school denomination. With respect to the language and math
achievement of the students, moderate differences in the correlations with the religious affiliation
of the parents were observed and small differences in the correlations with school denomination.
When the socioethnic background is taken into account, however, the effects of affiliation and
denomination on achievement disappear almost completely. With respect to the self-confidence
and well-being of the students, no differences were observed with regard to religious affiliation
or denomination.
Thus, we found no evidence for the idea that either religious affiliation or denomination
contribute to the explanation of differences in cognitive or noncognitive results. The main question
is then: Why are there so few relationships? Differences in educational achievement are clearly
much more determined by socioethnic family background than religion and denomination per se,
which is in line with findings from a number of other Dutch studies. This is particularly the case
for the Islamic and Hindu categories. Most Muslims and Hindus have had very little education;
their educational disadvantage can therefore probably best be understood in terms of social class.
In the literature, it is repeatedly assumed that an important motive behind the choice of school
is quality and that the continued existence of educational pillarization may relate to qualitative
differences between the denominations (Dronkers, Hofman, and Dijkstra 1997). As our findings
do not point to such differences, neither as regards achievement, nor as regards well-being and
self-confidence, there does not seem to be any need for parents to choose a denominational school.
Why then do nonaffiliated parents still send their children to religious schools? Is it because they
think there are output differences, perhaps based on the socioethnic composition of the school
population? Or is it because it is the only school in the vicinity? Or is it because religion does
not matter in The Netherlands any more, neither at home, nor at school? We believe that the
latter explanation is a very plausible one. In general, it is probably safe to conclude that, with the
exception of the Islamic, Hindu, and orthodox Protestant schools, religion plays hardly any role at
mostreligiousschools.ReligiousschoolsinTheNetherlandshavebecomesecularizedthemselves.
As a result, religious denominational schools are equally attractive to both nonaffiliated and
affiliated parents. This might explain why we could not trace any denominational effects.
In closing, some methodological issues should be considered. First, the study addressed a
previously unstudied and early period of elementary school. The question is whether we should
11. RELIGION AND EDUCATION IN THE NETHERLANDS 571
be expecting religious influences on educational outcomes at that age. Most Dutch elementary
schools offer prereading and premath programs in their kindergarten classes (Driessen 1997).
At the time of the study, the children had been at school for almost two years. If denomina-
tion were to make a difference, we would expect achievement differences by this time. The
same applies to self-confidence and well-being: if there were educational climate differences
related to denominational categories we would expect them to occur after two years of schooling.
Second, it should be noted that both religious affiliation and denomination are formulated from
an institutional perspective. This can be considered a drawback as recent religious sociologi-
cal research has shown attachment to institutions to be declining while religiosity is becoming
strongly individualized (Becker and de Wit 2000). For many people, the dividing line between
groups and opinions is no longer compulsory and definite but flexible and open. This has as a
consequence that the categorization employed here perhaps is no longer suited to the current sit-
uation. Rather than religious affiliation, parental religious involvement could be associated with
educational outcomes (Regnerus 2000). An implication of this is that in future research vari-
ables such as churchgoing, praying, and participating in church community activities should be
included.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The data used in the present analyses stem from the Dutch cohort study Primary Education (PRIMA). Collection of
thedataonthiscohortwasfinanciallysupportedbytheFoundationforBehavioralSciencesfromtheDutchOrganizationfor
Scientific Research (NWO). The authors would like to thank Jan Doesborgh for his help with the multilevel analyses, and
the editor and reviewers of The Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion for their suggestions to improve the manuscript.
Portions of this research were presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association in April
2001 in Seattle, Washington.
NOTES
1. The division of public and private education in The Netherlands is based on the form of administration and objectives
of the school and not on financing; the latter is equal for all schools. Public schools (i.e., nondenominational schools)
are administered under the auspices of the community government, whereas private schools (which are almost all
denominational schools) are administered by private legal institutions (usually a foundation) based on a religion or
philosophy of life.
2. The Dutch Reformed (Nederlands Hervormden) generally are the more liberal Protestants, while the Calvinists
(Gereformeerden) generally are the stricter, traditional Protestants. However, it should be kept in mind that the features
of the different branches of Protestantism are not mutually exclusive.
3. The Protestant Christian (Protestants-Christelijk) school denomination is a general category of Protestant schools,
while the Reformed (Gereformeerd) and Reformational (Reformatorisch) denominations are the orthodox branches of
Protestant schools. The general private (Algemeen-Bijzonder) category includes schools that do not assume a particular
denominational ideology but have a pedagogical orientation.
4. The two tests were “Concepts” and “Ordering,” with 60 and 42 items, respectively. The Concepts test is made up of
concepts in concrete situations from the everyday life, and concepts that are connected with agreements about reading
direction and the distribution of words and sentences on a page (e.g., many, first). The Ordering test covers three
aspects, namely, classification, sequencing, and comparisons and counting.
5. Examples of self-confidence items are: “the student has self-confidence, is sure about himself/herself” and “the student
is easily unsettled.” Examples of well-being items are: “the student feels uncomfortable at school” and “the student
has a good relationship with the teacher.”
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