G8gKADWDcjv934mbFProject_Compilation_20150415.doc

CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background to the Study
The partial deregulation of the telecommunication industry began with the licensing of network
operators in 1996. However, due to political setbacks caused by the military government at the
time, the market’s potential was not exploited and it continued to suffer from underinvestment.
During the same year, Nitel was brought under the supervision of the NCC, and a subsidiary,
MTel, was created to manage the company’s mobile services and network.

A new telecom policy was introduced in 2000 commenced with the full liberalization of the
telecom subsector industry of the Nigerian economy. In February 2001, the NCC awarded digital
mobile licenses in the GSM900 and GSM1800 bands for an initial period of 15 years to four
companies: MTN, Communications Investment Limited (CIL), Econet Wireless (formerly
V‐Mobile, Celtel and now Airtel) and Mobile Telecommunications Limited (MTel Ltd) but CIL
lost out because of inability to pay license fees.

After this process, operators quickly realised that the existing infrastructure in the country could
not support their operations. In comparison with other developed countries, Nigeria lacked the
infrastructure strength required for the deployment of telecommunications services. Operators
therefore embarked on the accelerated roll out of core telecommunications network which
comprised of the infrastructure needed to support its operations in Nigeria.

However the desire for better quality of service, wider coverage and quest for broad band for data
transmission brought about the use of Base Transceiver Station (BTS). In mobile communication
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the Base Transceiver Station (BTS) site and the tower maintenance play an important role. This
has brought a substantial growth in the use of communication services over the last few years and
this growth is expected to continue for the near future with the introduction of the 3rd Generation
(3G) mobile technologies. Base Transceiver Station (BTS) is a transceiver and acts as interface
between the Mobile stations (MS) to the network (Ammari et al., 2008).There are several power
consuming components inside the BTS. Some components are used per sector such as the digital
signal processing (DSP) which is responsible for system processing and coding, the power
amplifier, the transceiver which is responsible for generating the signal and also receiving signals
to the mobile station and the rectifier (Rubinet al., 2008).
The power consumption of these components is multiplied by the number of sectors when
determining the power consumption of BTSs (Magrot et al, 2011). All BTS sites have a dual
purpose. The main purpose is to provide capacity in strategic areas because of increased subscriber
growth, and also to improve both outdoor and indoor coverage in the applicable areas. By
improving capacity and coverage the quality of service to customers are also improved which is
very important. All of these developments are not without their identified effects and health
impacts on the environment.

According to a study report from Isfahan, Iran after a cross sectional study (September, 2014, the
results showed that most of the symptoms such as nausea, headache, dizziness, irritability,
discomfort, nervousness, depression, sleep disturbance, memory loss and lowering of libido were
statistically significant in the inhabitants living near the BTS antenna

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Because the Nigerian telecommunication mobile space is evolving and massive investments are
being put in place, the environmental health impact perceptions of these infrastructures took a big
concern first in project implementations. This later resorted into the legislative backing by virtue of
the establishment of the Nigerian communications act NCA (2003).
Pursuant to the provisions of Section 130 of the NCA (which specifically provides that the NCC
shall specify and publish to the general public, the technical code and specifications in respect of
communications equipment and facilities that may be used in Nigeria) and other sections of the
NCA, the NCC has articulated Guidelines for the Technical Installation of Masts and Towers (the
NCC’s Guidelines).

Also the National Environmental Standards and Regulations Enforcement Agency (NESREA)
came out with the industry specific Environmental regulatory standards in 2011: Which is the
National Environmental (standards for telecommunications and broadcast facilities) Regulations
2011. The main objective of these regulations is to protect the environment and human health,
ensure safety and general welfare, eliminate or minimize public and private losses due to activities
of the telecommunications and broadcast industry.
The purpose of this Environmental health Impact perception study is to provide comprehensive
information on the nature and extent of potential environmental health impacts attributed to the
operation of telecommunication Base Stations and the overall public perception of these health
impacts within the telecommunication ecosystem of southwest Nigeria.

1.2 Statement of the Problem
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Environment is one aspect of human life that cannot be taken with levity as it determines the
wellbeing of the people that make up the environment. Whatever happens in the environment
would always have its toll on human life as regards their health. Communication is also very
essential to human relationship and the means by which this happens needs to be taken into
cognizance. Base Transceiver Station or a cell Site has helped with the effective communication in
a wireless medium. This development basically is made possible with radio emissions from
antennas that have brought some health challenges to the environment. Cell site emissions or
electromagnetic fields over time have been seen to be responsible for some health challenges to
people who reside at a certain distance away from the base station just like the case of Mrs Eileen
O’Connor in 2001 who was diagnosed with breast cancer at age 38 after living 100m from a phone mast for
over 7 years (Eileen O’Connor, 2007). The mast was also associated with health problems such as sleep
problems, headaches, dizziness and low immune system problems in many other people living in most of
the other houses in the village. (EMFDG report, 2006).The electromagnetic radiations from TV antennas,
radio stations or mobile phone base stations (BTS) has many effects on human health and the most
common of such health hazard of radiation is sunburn, which causes over one million new skin cancers
annually. (Wikipedia, 2015).

Internationally acknowledged experts in the field of Radio Frequency research have shown that RF (of
certain range) used in digital cellular antennas and phones can have critical effects on cell cultures, animals
and people in laboratories and have also found epidemiological evidence (studies in communities, not in the
laboratory) of serious health effects at ‘nonthermal levels by the department of environment, UK (BTS
Brief, 2008).

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Since a base station must be sited in close proximity to inhabited areas, the main concern here is the Radio
Frequency (RF) emissions from these Base Stations. This is because R F is absorbed into human bodies,
which may produce a heating effect depending on the intensity of exposure. There is no controversy about
this thermal effect; however, the nonthermal effects have continued to be the subject of controversies
between researchers, the mobile phone operators, the communities and a host of other stake holders. The
mobile phone operators and government authorities have consistently insisted that cell phones are perfectly
safe and the radiations from it are no more dangerous than any other radio signal (Stewart, 2000; WHO,
1993, WHO, 2001; Mobile Manufactures Forum and GSM Association, 2006). However, reported scientific
evidences have continued to challenge this position (BELLO 2010). On the contrary however, other studies
have also shown little or no health impacts of Electromagnetic Fields or radio emissions on humans
according the studies on Health Effects of Mobile Phone, Basestations. (Fox, 2006). She came with a
report summary that there is little evidence for any adverse health effects that can be attributed to mobile
phone basestations despite the fact that there are still widespread public concerns because some have
argued that laboratorybased studies have used artificial sources of EMF energy making it difficult to
generalize.

In Nigeria, Association of licenced telecommunication operators of Nigeria (ALTON) came out with their
submission to the draft national environmental regulations 2010. Just like what Elaine fox opined, ALTON
would encourage all stakeholders to continue to stress the true position, to the effect that although
Mobile Phones and Base Stations emit radio signals that travel through air (or space) as
electromagnetic energy. Household appliances such as radio sets, televisions, remote door locks, light
bulbs, computer systems and microwave ovens also emit electromagnetic energy that similarly
travel through the air. The emissions from these household appliances as well as those from cellular
phones and Base Stations are classified as nonionising emission (radiation), which are safe for
humans.
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These are in contrast to ionising radiation (such as Xrays and Gamma Rays) which can break the
chemical bonds in human biological structures and are therefore harmful to humans. Indeed, the
average human is exposed to lower levels of nonionising emission from cellular infrastructure than
from many domestic appliances, such as microwave ovens and televisions. The World Health
Organisation has also declared that “the levels emissions from Base Stations and wireless networks are
so low that the temperature increases are insignificant and do not affect human health. Going by the
findings of Mrs Eileen O’Connor in the EMFDG report and the opinions expressed by the Elaine Fox and
the ALTON in Nigeria, there is still need to evaluate further on these claims because humans tend to have
varying degrees of perceptions to the radiations from the BTS

For example, land owners ignorantly give their land out for sale for the installation for the financial
benefit they get despising the health effects it could have on the inhabitants of the locality, this
pose serious challenge to the environment. Also, residents tend to ignore the effects of these
installations and don’t mind their houses built close to such mast and as such would always fall
victim of the harmful effects.

On the government front, policies formulated to regulate the activities of service providers as
regards the installation of BTS are expected to be strictly complied with to avoid all these health
hazard challenges to the environment and the people therein. It is in the light of this problem that
this study research will be carried out to critically examine the public perception on the
environmental health impacts of base transceiver station (BTS) construction/operation in Lagos,
southwest, Nigeria.

1.3 Research Questions
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1. What constitutes the location and siting of a BTS?
2. What are the environmental characteristics and conditions of a BTS?
3. What are the prevalent health challenges / Diseases associated with a BTS operation?
4. How could the environment be protected based on these perceived prevalent diseases
associated with BTS operations?

1.4 Aims and Objectives of the Study
The aim of this project is:
● To assess the public perception regarding environmental health conditions associated with
Base Transceiver Station (BTS) Construction and Operation in Lagos, southwest Nigeria.
The objectives of the project study are:
1. To examine the locations and the factors responsible for siting of a Base Transceiver Station
(BTS).
2. To examine the environmental characteristics of the construction and operation of a BTS.
3. To analyse the prevalent environmental health challenges and diseases associated with BTS
operation.
4. To underscore the social and demographic characteristics of BTS area residents.
5. To determine the relationship between a BTS location and prevalent diseases.
6. To proffer measures to mitigate against these perceived prevalent health challenges.

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1.5 Research Hypothesis
The following hypothesis is postulated.
Hypothesis 1
H0: There is no significance difference in the prevalent health disease associated with BTS.
              H1: There is significance difference in the prevalent health disease associated with
             BTS.
  Hypothesis 2
             H0: There is no significant relationship between the distances of BTS area residents
             and perceived diseases.
             H1: There is significant relationship between the distances of BTS area residents

1.6 Significance of the Study
This study basically relates to the potential environmental and health impacts associated with the
sitting, development and operation of cell or wireless base transceiver station (BTS) projects in the
telecommunication industries in Nigeria. It is expected to further clarify the notion of the health
diseases associated with all BTS projects, the perception of the public as to which or what kind of
diseases are prevalent around the site location of a BTS.
Furthermore, it will also act as a guide as to the BTS area residents on the symptomatic
classifications of some diseases that may affect them as a result of their proximity to the cell site.
It would assist project managers, telecommunication rollout officers and other important
stakeholders especially the general public who live within a distance to the BTS to enhance their
knowledge about the essence of the health impacts of base transceiver station projects in Nigeria. It
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will spur recommendations that will inform better decisionmaking as it relates to the public, their
health and cell site project developments in the future.

This study will also help in avoiding an irreversible damage to human lives, health and safety. The
findings of this research would be valuable to students, project managers, government regulatory
bodies, academic institutions as an advance paper where technical references can be drafted from.

1.7 Scope and Limitations of the Study
This study would limit its scope to the environmental health impact perception of Base station
project development, operation and the study area will be about the technologies involved and
general operations of the same within Lagos metropolis in southwest geopolitical zone of Nigeria.
The reason is basically because of the high scale of cell site deployments in the zone. The study
will also go a long way in actualizing the objectives of the study in the area of factors,
characteristics, prevalent health diseases and mitigations of BTS deployments. However, the
sample of this study would be limited to some selected locations. The respondents are people who
have their residence close to the masts; these people are believed to have an informed knowledge
of the phenomenon under study and well experienced to give details or information needed
regarding their perceived health conditions experienced as a result of their proximity to cell
locations. The researcher had to combine academic work with his regular profession.
1.8 Definition of Terms
Antenna Any exterior apparatus attached to a tower or other structure designed for telephonic,
radio, television, personal communications service (PCS), pager network, or any other
communications through the sending and/or receiving of electromagnetic waves of any bandwidth.
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Environmental health This is the branch of public health that is concerned with all aspects of
the natural and built environment that may affect human health
Cell Site or Base Station – is a cellular telephone site where antennae and electronic
communications equipment are placed, usually on a radio or other high place, to create a cell (or
adjacent cells) in a cellular network.
Capacity – Ability of System to handle a number of calls simultaneously.
Competent authority – An organ of state, which is responsible, under any law, for granting or
refusing an authorisation.
Coverage – The surface area a BTS provides with a signal.

Elevation The measurement of height above sea level.

Equipment shelter An enclosed structure, cabinet, shed, vault, or box near the base of the
telecommunication facility within which equipment for those facilities such as battery and
electrical equipment are housed.
Nigerian Communications Commission is the independent regulatory body for
the Nigerian telecommunications industry. The NCC was created under Decree number 75 by
the Federal Military Government of Nigeria on 24 November 1992. The NCC was charged with
the responsibility of regulating the supply of telecommunications services and facilities, promoting
competition, and setting performance standards for telephone services in Nigeria.

NESREA A regulatory body of the FG with the responsibility for the protection and
development of the environment, biodiversity conservation and sustainable development of
Nigeria's natural resources in general and environmental technology including coordination, and
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liaison with, relevant stakeholders within and outside Nigeria on matters of enforcement of
environmental standards, regulations, rules, laws, policies and guidelines.
Site The land area, which is, or will be, temporarily or permanently altered during the
construction and/or use of any telecommunications tower or facility. These alterations include all
construction activities, fencing, landscaping, screening, structures, parking facilities, etc. Access
roads and utility lines shall not be considered part of the site, except where specified in these
regulations.
Tower A structure that is designed and constructed primarily for supporting one or more
antennas, including selfsupporting lattice or monopole towers and including guyed towers.
The term includes radio and television transmission towers, microwave.
Service provider: is a company that provides communications services to others in exchange for
payment.
CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW AND CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
2.1 Wireless Communication.
Wireless communications is, by any measure, the fastest growing segment of the communications
industry. As such, it has captured the attention of the media and the imagination of the public.
Cellular systems have experienced exponential growth over the last decade and there are currently
around two billion users worldwide. Indeed, cellular phones have become a critical business tool
and part of everyday life in most developed countries, and are rapidly supplanting antiquated
wireline systems in many developing countries (Andrea Goldsmith 2005). Telecommunication is
defined by the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) as the transmission, emission or
reception of any signs, signals or messages by electromagnetic systems. The demonstration of
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(electrical) telegraphy by Joseph Henry and by Samuel F.B. Morse in 1832 followed shortly after
the discovery of electromagnetism by Hans Christian Oersted and AndreMarie Ampere early in
the 1820's. In the 1840's, telegraph networks were built on the U.S. East Coast and in California.
Rapid extension of their use followed; the first transatlantic cable was laid in 1858. In 1864, James
Clerk Maxwell postulated wireless propagation, which was verified and demonstrated by Heinrich
Hertz in 1880 and 1887, respectively. Marconi and Popov started experiments with the
radiotelegraph shortly thereafter, and Marconi patented a complete wireless system in 1897. For
many years, wireless and radio were used to describe the same thing, the difference being that
radio was the American version of the British wireless. The receiver was called a wireless because
there were no wires linking to the transmitting station. It was called radio because the transmitting
station radiated electromagnetic waves. The British Broadcasting Company was one of the first to
use the term wireless, around 1923 in their program guide "The Radio Times".

Communication systems using electrical and electronic technology have a significant impact on
modern society. As the courier speeding from Marathon to Athens in 490 B.C. illustrates, in early
history information could be exchanged only by physical transport of messages. Only a few
examples exist of nonelectrical communication techniques for transfer of information via other
infrastructures than those for physical transport: smoke signals, signal flags in maritime operations
and the semaphore are among them. (Jean‐Paul M.G. Linnartz, 2004)
2.1.1 Cellular Telephone systems
Cellular telephone systems are extremely popular and lucrative worldwide: these are the systems
that ignited the wireless revolution. Cellular systems provide twoway voice and data
communication with regional, national, or international coverage. Cellular systems were initially
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designed for mobile terminals inside vehicles with antennas mounted on the vehicle roof. Today
these systems have evolved to support lightweight handheld mobile terminals operating inside and
outside buildings at both pedestrian and vehicle speeds.

The basic premise behind cellular system design is frequency reuse, which exploits the fact that
signal power falls off with distance to reuse the same frequency spectrum at spatiallyseparated
locations. Speciﬁcally, the coverage area of a cellular system is divided into nonoverlapping cells
where some set of channels is assigned to each cell. This same channel set is used in another cell
some distance away. Initial cellular system designs were mainly driven by the high cost of base
stations, approximately one million dollars apiece. For this reason early cellular systems used a
relatively small number of cells to cover an entire city or region. The cell base stations were placed
on tall buildings or mountains and transmitted at very high power with cell coverage areas of
several square miles. These large cells are called macrocells. Signal power was radiated uniformly
in all directions, so a mobile moving in a circle around the base station would have approximately
constant received power if the signal was not blocked by an attenuating object. This circular
contour of constant power yields a hexagonal cell shape for the system, since a hexagon is the
closest shape to a circle that can cover a given area with multiple nonoverlapping cells. All base
stations in a given geographical area are connected via a highspeed communications link to a
mobile Telephone switching ofﬁce (MTSO). The MTSO acts as a central controller for the
network, allocating channels within each cell, coordinating handoffs between cells when a mobile
traverses a cell boundary, and routing calls to and from mobile users. The MTSO can route voice
calls through the public switched telephone network (PSTN) or provide Internet access.

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The ﬁrst generation (1G) cellular systems in the U.S., called the Advance Mobile Phone Service
(AMPS), used FDMA with 30 KHz FMmodulated voice channels. The FCC initially allocated 40
MHz of spectrum to this system, which was increased to 50 MHz shortly after service introduction
to support more users. This total bandwidth was divided into two 25 MHz bands, one for
mobiletobase station channels and the other for base Stationtomobile channels. The FCC
divided these channels into two sets that were assigned to two different service providers in each
city to encourage competition. A similar system, the European Total Access Communication
System (ETACS), emerged in Europe. AMPS were deployed worldwide in the 1980’s and remain
the only cellular service in some of these areas, including some rural parts of the U.S. Many of the
ﬁrst generation cellular systems in Europe were incompatible, and the Europeans quickly
converged on a uniform standard for second generation (2G) digital systems called GSM. The
GSM standard uses a combination of TDMA and slow frequency hopping with frequencyshift
keying for the voice modulation. In contrast, the standards activities in the U.S. surrounding the
second generation of digital cellular provoked a raging debate on spectrum sharing techniques,
resulting in several incompatible standards. In particular, there are two standards in the 900 MHz
cellular frequency band: IS54, which uses a combination of TDMA and FDMA and phaseshift
keyed modulation, and IS95, which uses directsequence CDMA with binary modulation and
coding. The spectrum for digital cellular in the 2 GHz PCS frequency band was auctioned off, so
service providers could use an existing standard or develop proprietary systems for their purchased
spectrum. The end result has been three different digital cellular standards for this frequency band:
IS136 (which is basically the same as IS54 at a higher frequency), IS95, and the European GSM
standard. The digital cellular standard in Japan is similar to IS54 and IS136 but in a different
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frequency band and the GSM system in Europe is at a different frequency than the GSM systems
in the U.S. This proliferation of incompatible standards in the U.S. and internationally makes it
impossible to roam between systems nationwide or globally without a multimode phone and/or
multiple phones (and phone numbers). The third generation (3G) cellular systems are based on a
wideband CDMA standard developed within the auspices of the International Telecommunications
Union (ITU) [15]. The standard, initially called International Mobile Telecommunications 2000
(IMT2000), provides different data rates depending on mobility and location, from 384 Kbps for
pedestrian use to 144 Kbps for vehicular use to 2 Mbps for indoor ofﬁce use. The 3G standard is
incompatible with 2G systems, so service providers must invest in a new infrastructure before they
can provide 3G service. (Andrea Goldsmith, 2005).

2.1.2 What is a Base Transceiver Station?
According to Wikipedia, A base transceiver station (BTS) is a piece of equipment that facilitates
wireless communication between user equipment (UE) and a network. UEs are devices like mobile
phones (handsets), WLL phones, and computers with wireless Internet connectivity. The network
can be that of any of the wireless communication technologies like GSM, CDMA, wireless local
loop, WiFi, WiMAX or other wide area network (WAN) technology. BTS is also referred to as
the radio base station (RBS), nodeB (in 3G Networks) or, simply, the base station (BS). For
discussion of the LTE standard the abbreviation eNB for evolved node B is widely used.
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Figure 2.0 A typical BTS tower which holds the antenna and BTS hardware device. The tower is quite widely misinterpreted as
the BTS itself. The shelter which houses the actual BTS can also be seen. (Wikipedia, 2015).
Though the term BTS can be applicable to any of the wireless communication standards, it is
generally associated with mobile communication technologies like GSM and CDMA. In this
regard, a BTS forms part of the base station subsystem (BSS) developments for system
management. It may also have equipment for encrypting and decrypting communications,
spectrum filtering tools (band pass filters), and etc. antennas may also be considered a typical BTS
tower which holds the antenna. The tower is quite widely misinterpreted as the BTS itself. The
shelter which houses the actual BTS can also be seen as components of BTS in general sense as
they facilitate the functioning of BTS. Typically a BTS will have several transceivers (TRXs)
which allow it to serve several different frequencies and different sectors of the cell (in the case of
sectorised base stations). A BTS is controlled by a parent base station controller via the base
station control function (BCF). The BCF is implemented as a discrete unit or even incorporated in
a TRX in compact base stations. The BCF provides an operations and maintenance (O&M)
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connection to the network management system (NMS), and manages operational states of each
TRX, as well as software handling and alarm collection. The basic structure and functions of the
BTS remains the same regardless of the wireless technologies
2.1.3 General architecture
A BTS it has the following parts: (Wikipedia, 2015)
Transceiver (TRX): It basically does transmission and reception of signals. It also does sending
and receptions of signals to and from higher network entities like the base station controller in
mobile telephony). Quite widely referred to as the driver receiver (DRX), DRX is either in form of
single (sTRU), double (dTRU) or a composite double radio unit (DRU).
Power amplifier (PA): Amplifies the signal from DRX for transmission through antenna; may be
integrated with DRX.
Combiner: Combines feeds from several DRXs so that they could be sent out through a single
antenna. Allows for a reduction in the number of antenna used.
Duplexer: For separating sending and receiving signals to/from antenna. Does sending and
receiving signals through the same antenna ports (cables to antenna).
Antenna: This is the structure that the BTS lies underneath; it can be installed as it is or disguised
in some way (Concealed cell sites).
Alarm extension system: Collects working status alarms of various units in the BTS and extends
them to operations and maintenance (O&M) monitoring stations.
Control function: Controls and manages the various units of BTS, including any software.
Onthespot configurations, status changes, software upgrades, etc. are done through the control
function.
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Baseband receiver unit (BBxx): Frequency hopping, signal DSP.
2.1.3 Conditions for BTS Locations and Selection
To ensure longterm reliability of the BTS, sites must be selected according to the network
planning and the technical requirements of the equipment. In addition, factors such as water
sources, landform, and transportation.
The requirements for site selection are as follows:
1. The site cannot be constructed in environments with high temperatures, dust, corrosive gases,
explosive substances, and unstable voltages.
2. The site cannot be constructed in areas that are subject to earthquakes or loud noise.
3. The site should be kept away from electric substations, and industrial and heating boilers.
4. The site cannot be constructed close to radio transmitting stations, radars, or other
interference sources. The interference field strength cannot exceed the level that the
equipment can sustain.
5. The equipment room should be kept at least 5 km away from heavy pollution sources such as
smelting plants and coal mines.
6. The air vent of the telecom equipment should be kept away from exhausts of urban wastes, big
cesspools, and sewage treatment tanks. Keep the telecom equipment in the positive pressure
state to prevent the entry of corrosive gases, thus protecting components and circuit boards
from corrosion.
7. The equipment room installed with the indoor BTS cannot be constructed in a livestock farm or
a fertilizer warehouse. If the site must be constructed near a livestock farm, the equipment
room should be constructed in the windward direction. (Huawei, 2010).

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2.1.4 Relationship between a Phone and Cellular Networks.
A mobile phone is a portable telephone which receives or makes calls through a cell site (base
station), Radio waves are used to transfer signals to and from the cell phone. Modern mobile phone
networks use cells because radio frequencies are a limited, shared resource. Cellsites and handsets
change frequency under computer control and use low power transmitters so that the usually
limited number of radio frequencies can be simultaneously used by many callers with less
interference.

A cellular network is used by the mobile phone operator to achieve both coverage and capacity for
their subscribers. Large geographic areas are split into smaller cells to avoid lineofsight signal
loss and to support a large number of active phones in that area. All of the cell sites are connected
to telephone exchanges (or switches), which in turn connect to the public telephone network. In
cities, each cell site may have a range of up to approximately 1∕2 mile (0.80 km), while in rural
areas; the range could be as much as 5 miles (8.0 km). It is possible that in clear open areas, a user
may receive signals from a cell site 25 miles (40 km) away. Since almost all mobile phones use
cellular technology, including GSM, CDMA, and AMPS (analog), the term "cell phone" is in some
regions, notably the US, used interchangeably with "mobile phone”.
Transmitted power levels from base stations vary considerably depending on the
required area or ‘cell’ they are providing coverage for. Typically, transmitted power from an
outdoor base station may range from a few watts to about 100 watts, while the output power of
indoor base stations is even lower. For comparison purposes, 100 watts is equivalent to a standard
light globe used in homes. (Source: Mobile Phone Network: Wikipedia)
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Figure 2.1 a Typical GSM Architecture (Source: Wikipedia)

2.2 Electromagnetic Fields and Emissions
2.2.1 What is a Radio Wave?
Radio wave is a type of electromagnetic field and existed in nature before man came into
existence. There are electromagnetic fields of various frequencies from outer space reaching the
earth in addition to ultraviolet rays or visible light. Radio wave is not felt, but is something quite
natural like the air or water. “Our relationship with radio waves for use in communication has over
100 years of history”.
Mankind began using radio waves about 100 years ago with the invention of wireless
communication by Marconi and Tesla. It has now become part of our way of life, being used
for TV, radio, mobile phone, weather satellite, GPS (Geographical Positioning System), ITS
(Intelligent Traffic System), disaster management, remote sensing, security forces etc. It is
important to understand the safety aspects of the use of EMF and quite obvious to have some
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anxieties against radio waves, as we cannot see it or feel it directly. With the new wireless
technologies being introduced at a rapid pace coming out one after another our use of radio wave is
poised to continue to increase. (Mobile communication radio waves &safety India, 2012.).

2.2.2 Electromagnetic Fields (EMF)
Electromagnetic radiation refers to the energy emissions generated from the interaction of an
oscillating electric field and a magnetic field. Electromagnetic radiation consists of waves of
electric and magnetic energy moving together (i.e., radiating) through space at the speed of
light.

Figure 2.2 Propagation of Electromagnetic waves (Mobile communication radio waves &safety India, 2012.).
Electromagnetic radiation may be regarded as waves in the air that transmit energy but can also be
controlled through amplitude, pulsing, etc., to transmit speech, TV images and so forth. Hertz
(cycles per second) are used to express the range or spectrum of
frequency of the waves. Kilohertz, megahertz and gigahertz respectively) are measurements at the
higher frequencies. The greater the frequency, the shorter the wavelength and the
greater the energy transmitted. The unit "volts per meter" (V/m) is used to measure
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the strength of the electric field (electric "field strength") and the unit "amperes per meter"
(A/m) is used to express the strength of the magnetic field (magnetic "field strength"). Another
commonly used unit for characterizing an RF electromagnetic field is "power density."
Power density is defined as power per unit area. For example, power density can be expressed in
terms of milliwatts per square centimetre (mW/cm2
) or microwatts per square
centimetre (µW/cm2
). One mW equals 0.001 watt of power, and one µW equals 0.000001 watt.
With respect to frequencies in the microwave range and higher, power density is
usually used to express intensity.
Taken together, all forms of electromagnetic energy are referred to as the “electromagnetic
spectrum". The electromagnetic spectrum has various divisions based on frequency and
wavelength, the main one being between ionising and nonionising frequencies. A significant
division in the electromagnetic spectrum is the frequency above 1016
hertz, where waves become
ionising in nature. This means the waves are capable of knocking electrons out of atoms to form
ions. Xrays, ultraviolet rays and gamma rays are examples of ionising radiation. At these
extremely high frequencies, electromagnetic particles have sufficient energy to break chemical
bonds (ionization). This is how Xrays damage the genetic material of cells, potentially leading to
cancer or birth defects. Ionising radiation is known to be carcinogenic.

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Figure 2.3  Different Range of EMF Spectrum. (Urban Green, Baseline report, 2011).
The nonionising range of electromagnetic frequencies, those below 1016
hertz is where radio
frequencies for wireless communication and microwave frequencies fell into. The RF energy
associated with mobile telecommunication is "nonionizing", and its biological effects
are fundamentally different from the "ionizing" radiation produced above 1016
hertz. At
lower frequencies, such as those used by mobile phones and their base stations, the energy of the
particles is much too low to break chemical bonds.

2.3 Base Station Radiations and Health
2.3.1 RF radiations
The use of a mobile phone involves transmission between the phone and a nearby
base station, both of which emit RF radiation. Mobile phone handsets and base
stations present quite different exposure situations. RF exposure to a user of a mobile phone is far
higher than to a person living near a BTS. However, apart from infrequent signals used to maintain
23

links with nearby BTSs, the handset transmits RF energy only while a call is being made, whereas
BTSs are continuously transmitting signals.

Figure 2.4 RF Radiation from a 1000W Effective Radiated Power (ERP) LowGain Antenna on a 15 meter
tower (Urban Green, Baseline report, 2011).

2.3.1.1 Handsets:
Mobile phone handsets are lowpowered RF transmitters, emitting maximum powers in the range
of 0.2 to 0.6 watts. Other types of hand held transmitter, such as "walkie talkies", might emit 10
watts or more. The RF field strength, and hence the RF exposure to a user decrease rapidly with
distance from the handset. Therefore, the RF exposure to a user of a mobile phone located 10s of
centimetres from the head (using a "hands free" appliance) is far lower than to a user who places
the headset against the head. RF exposures to nearby people are very low.
24

Figure 2.5 Picture of a Mobile Phone (Zeendo, 2015).
2.3.1.2 Base stations:
Base stations transmit power levels from a few watts to 100 watts or more, depending on the
size of the region or "cell" that they are designed to service. Base station antennas
are typically about 2030 cm in width and a metre in length, mounted on buildings or
towers at a height of 15 to 50 metres above ground. These antennas emit RF beams that are
typically very narrow in the vertical direction but quite broad in the horizontal direction. Because
of the narrow vertical spread of the beam, the RF field intensity at the ground directly below the
antenna is low. The RF field intensity increases slightly as one move away from the base
station and then decreases at greater distances from the antenna.
25

Figure 2.6 Levels of Exposure for applies to frequencies between 800 and 2200 MHz

2.3.2 Relationship between BTS Radiations and Human Body
A strong EMF may be due to a weak radiation source nearby or a powerful source far away. A
human body is exposed to more EMF radiation in case of a call from mobile phone in comparison
to the one from a mobile tower. The mobile phone is a weak source of RF signal, but it is very
close to human body, whereas the more powerful mobile tower is at far end. Every antenna on cell
phone tower radiates electromagnetic power. Cell phone tower is being used by a number of
operators, more than the number of antennas; more is the power intensity in the nearby area. The
power level near towers is higher & as we move away, it reduces with distance. It is reduced to ¼
when the distance from antenna doubles, and 1/9 when distance is tripled and so on. (Mobile
communication radio waves &safety India, 2012.).
26

2.3.3 Health Hazards of Base Stations Operations
According to Mobile communications waves and safety published by the Department of
telecommunications Ministry of communications and IT, India; The Radio Frequency Radiation
(RFR) exposure from both mobile phones and mobile towers may have possible
thermal/nonthermal effects caused by holding Mobile phones close to the body. More the
use of mobile phone, higher will be the temperature increase of ear lobes. Research focusing on
mobile telephony over the last 2 decades has shown no conclusive / convincing evidence
that the radio signals from mobile phones cause adverse health effects. The cause and the
effect have not yet been established but according to Elaine fox of the Electromagnetic and health
laboratory, University of Essex, many scientific studies have showed insufficient conclusions of
the above amidst great public concerns. Some other arguments have ensued that artificial RF
sources were used making it difficult to draw these conclusions. (Mobile communication radio waves &safety
India, 2012.).

2.3.4 Distance and Health effects of Base Station.
Based on the scientific studies carried out by Department of Medical Physics and Medical
Engineering, School of Medicine, Isfahan University of Medical Sciences , Isfahan , Iran between
ShahbaziGahrouei D, Karbalae M, Moradi HA, BaradaranGhahfarokhi M., A crosssectional
study on 250 randomly selected inhabitants (133 women and 117 men) was performed in October
2012 till November 2012. The inhabitants were requested to complete a standardized questionnaire
that focused on the relevant psychological and psychobiological reactions parameters. A computer
27

program (SPSS version16.0, Chicago, IL) was used for statistical analysis using the Chisquare test
with Yates correction. All the data were tested using a criterion level of p = 0.05.
The results showed that most of the symptoms such as nausea, headache, dizziness, irritability,
discomfort, nervousness, depression, sleep disturbance, memory loss and lowering of libido were
statistically significant in the inhabitants living near the BTS antenna (<300 m distances)
compared to those living far from the BTS antenna (>300 m). The study suggested that cellular
phone BTS antenna should not be sited closer than 300 m to populations to minimize exposure of
neighbours.

2.3.5 What are those health conditions associated with the exposure to RF Radiations?
From the 2 important reviews on cell tower studies which include:
(Henry Lai and B. Blake Levitt2010) and Michael Kundi and HansPeter Hutter's article in the
Journal of Pathophysiology, “Mobile phone base stations—Effects on wellbeing and health”
The evidence falls into cancer epidemiological studies, survey studies on symptoms of residents
near base stations, in vitro studies, and animal/plant studies.
Cancer has been reported in close proximity of cell towers:
(Naila, Germany: 3x new malignancies within 400 m after 5 years exposure (Eger, 2004) (Netanya,
Israel: 4x cancer within 350 m (Wolf and Wolf, 2004)
Other studies have found increased cancer from radio and TV broadcast towers. According to the
Levitt/Lai review, cancers around broadcast towers include childhood leukaemia, adult leukaemia,
and lymphoma clusters, elevated brain tumor incidence, and malignant melanoma.• Radio tower in
Rome (Michelozzi, 2002), and recent courtordered Vatican radio tower study • Sutro Tower, San
28

Francisco (Cherry, 2000) • Sutton Coldfield TV Tower, Great Britain (Dolk, 1997) • Australia TV
Tower (Bruce Hocking, 1996).

2.4 The Conceptual Framework
A conceptual framework is an analytical tool with several variations and contexts. It is used to
make conceptual distinctions and organize ideas. Strong conceptual frameworks capture something
real and do this in a way that is easy to remember and apply. (Wikipedia, 2015).
In the context of this environmental health impact perception study, the theoretical framework that
will be used in the study is the InputProcessOutput Model. In the IPO model, a process is viewed
as a series of boxes (processing elements) connected by inputs and outputs. Information or material
objects flow through a series of tasks or activities based on a set of rules or decision points. (Harris
& Taylor, 1997) Flow charts and process diagrams are often used to represent the process. (Harris
& Taylor, 1997) What goes in is the input; what causes the change is the process; what comes out
is the output. (Armstrong, 2001):
2.4.1 Cell Site identification / Operation and Health Impact Conceptual Framework
Input Process Output

Feedback
29

Figure 2.7 Cell Site Operation and Health Impact Conceptual Framework
The above conceptual framework of the environmental health impacts shows specifically from the
IPO model the cell site identifications and operations, the usage at a distance X from the cell
location to the living population and the attendant health conditions or perception from the
residents as a result of cell phone usage. This framework however forms the basis of cross
sectional study of the project.

30

CHAPTER THREE
METHODOLOGY
3.0 Introduction
Research methodology is a type of method used to gather information and analysing data
necessary in carrying out a research study. This method analyses the various methods used in the
collection of information. With the information gathered, the researcher will be able to obtain a
comprehensive data on the area of enquiry. However, this chapter will be discussed under the
following subheadings: research design, data sources and types sample frame, sizes, sampling
procedures and research instrument, validity of the instrument, reliability of the instrument,
procedure for data collection and procedure for data analysis.

3.1 Research Design
Research design is the program that guides the researcher in the process of collecting, analysing
and interpreting data and information. Since the research to be carried out is health related
(epidemiological), crosssectional survey method would be used in carrying it out because it is
geared towards the use of routine data for this research.
Considering 2 factors X and Y derived from the hypotheses which are:
1. Prevalent health challenges (X) and Cell Site (Y) exposures.
31

2. The distance (X) of residents from the BTS Sites (Y) and the perceived diseases.

The above is very necessary in the course of this study so as to assist in coming to an
understanding that continuous exposures to radiations from cell sites has an established health
effects, reason the survey method was therefore, considered suitable to carry out this study.

3.2      Data Sources and Types
The data source for this research is going to be primary (routine data) with questionnaire
developed to determine the best of the information required from available sociodemographic
characteristics of the respondents such as gender group, age , profession, types of residential
houses amongst other considerations.
Other factors which are routinely sourced includes but not limited to the distances of the
respondents accommodation to the nearest BTS site and the different health challenges noticed
with the distance of exposure to the Cell sites.

3.3      Sample Frame and Sample Size
The sample frame for this study represents the list within a defined population of residents where
the samples are drawn from. This population refers to all the events, things or individuals that are
represented in a research project (Christensen 1997). The population sample of this study are the
residents who are within the Abule Egba /Iyana Ipaja axis on the Lagos Abeokuta expressway
within the Alimosho LGA of Lagos, SouthWest Nigeria and the size of the residents is
approximately 1.29m inhabitants. The primary respondents of this study are categorized into Men,
Women, Young and Old and would form the bulk of the entire responses of the survey. By virtue
32

of their environment and indirect interactions with Cell site locations within their vicinity, they are
considered the best people in terms of the right information and public perception regarding the
environmental health and disease impacts of cell site locations in their communities.
The sample size could determine the level of variability in the population itself and precision in
population parameters. In order to avoid systematic errors, this could cause the result to be less
accurate in collecting larger sample size (Zikmund, 2003). Thus, that is possible for researcher to
gather data from the whole industries to ensure a good and accurate result could be generated in
greatly simplified manner. Hence, samples of fifty (50) respondents (35men and 15 Women) from
10 Cell sites across random locations within the area of survey would be used. This support the
rules of thumb, Roscoe (1975) as cited in (Cavana, Delahaye and Sekaran, 2001) suggest that
sample size which is more than 30 and less than 500 are appropriate for the research.

            3.4 Sampling Techniques
Sampling techniques is the process of selecting representation element (sample) from a given
population Malhotra (2007). The process is such that enables representation element which is
number and character can sufficiently reflect the relevant features of the population from which
they are shown. For the purpose of this study, the simple random sampling would be employed.
Simple random sampling was adopted in drawing out the sample because it is an unbiased
surveying technique where a subset of individuals are chosen from a larger set (a population).
Based on the demography that has been drawn up such as age group, sex, proximity of residents to
the Cell site and the prevalent health diseases noticed as a result of closeness to the base station.
Each individual is chosen randomly and entirely by chance, such that each individual has the same
probability of being chosen at any stage during the sampling process.
33

The 50 respondent crosssectional survey was carried out since it was very tedious, more
expensive and time consuming to cover the entire vicinity of all cell sites locations present in the
whole of Lagos, the southwest of Nigeria.

34

3.5 Research Instrument
Research Instrument is one of the steps in a study which guides the whole exercise. It’s aimed at
identifying the variables and their relationship to one another. Therefore, for this study, the
research instrument that would be adopted is structured questionnaire, which would be used to
generate information from the respondents on the phenomenon under study. This research
instrument would be designed to capture the demographic data of the respondents and their
opinions with respect to the research questions. The questionnaires in this research would be
closeended format using Likert scale. This Likert scale format is a choice from different options
of the statement. It is a pleasant simple way in order to get the specific opinion as well as easy to
construct the multipleitem measures (John, 2010). In addition, it is also quick, easy and efficient
to obtain the information from the respondents.

3.6 Validity of Instrument
The research instrument (questionnaire) would be subjected to both validity and reliability
assessment. The draft questionnaire would be given to the supervisor to critique the clarity and
adequacy of the research instrument. In this way, consistency and content validity would be
therefore established. According to Mugenda and Mugenda (2003), judgment made by a team of
professionals or experts in a particular field can assist in determining the suitability of a research
instrument. In this connection, the researcher would establish face and content validity by seeking
expert judgments from the university supervisors while developing and revising the research
instruments. This would be done by holding discussions, making relevant comments and
suggestions that would be synchronized.

35

3.7 Reliability of Instrument
A pilot study was conducted before the main study to determine the reliability score. The
reliability index score was reached. Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) version 16 was
used to evaluate the reliability analysis and the result shows that reliability scale test for the items
of the questionnaire score is high.
Based on the result, all the items variables are considering good reliability because they fall under
the Cronbach‘s Alpha range of 0.9. Thus, the research instrument used for the study is reliable as it
is more than the generally accepted reliability score of 0.7
3.8 Procedures for Data Collection
The researcher administered questionnaire to residents who are within the environment where
telecommunication Cell Sites are constructed and operated around Lagos, SouthWest Nigeria. The
respondents that participated in the study filled the questionnaire and retrieved on the spot.

3.9 Procedure for Data Analysis
Frequency table, simple percentage was used to describe demographic data while mean score was
also used to rank research questions. Inferential statistics of TTest and ANOVA were used to test
the stated hypothesis at 0.05 level of significance with the aid of Statistical Package for Social
Sciences (SPSS) version 16.0.

36

CHAPTER FOUR
DATA ANALYSIS, PRESENTATION AND INTERPRETATION
4.1 Introduction
This chapter presents the data and results of the study. It also analyses and carries out appropriate
statistical tests. Therefore, the descriptive statistic data of the respondent’s profile sample was
presented and discussed with the aid of table and percentage while the objective of the study was
equally presented with the aid of mean score. The inferential statistics of multiple regressions
(ANOVA) and ttest were used to test the stated hypothesis. Result of findings was also presented
with support of other empirical findings.
4.2 Questionnaire Administration Reports
This section gives the information of the questionnaire that was administered. The results are
presented in Table 2
Table 1: Descriptive result of response to questionnaire administered
Questionnaire No of respondents % of respondents
Returned
Not returned
Total
50

50
100.0

100.0

From the field report, it was discovered after screening and editing the 50 questionnaire
administered to the respondents. The fifty (50) administered questionnaire were returned. Based on
the table above 100.0% of respondents filled the questionnaire and returned them. The high
response rate could be attributed to the method adopted for the administration of the questionnaire.

37

4.3 Profile of Respondents
The study investigated the profile of the respondents of the study. For this investigation, five
characteristics namely: sex, age, highest academic qualification, professional background and work
experience were investigated. The percentage of the respondents that belong to each category of
the characteristics was analyzed. The results are presented in Table 3.

Table 2: Distribution of respondents by Gender
   Frequency Valid Percent
Male 35 70.0
   Female 15 30.0
   Total 50 100.0
Source: Field Survey (2015)
The above table shows that 35(70.0%), are male respondents and 15(30.0%) are female
respondents in which the male gender constitutes the highest percent. This simply implies that
majority of the research questionnaire were filled by males.
Table 3: Distribution of respondents by Age Group
Below 30 years 17 34.0
   30 39 years 21 42.0
   40 49 years 12 24.0
   Total 50 100.0
The table above shows that 17(34.0%) of the respondents were below 30years, 21(42.0%) of the
respondent fall within the age bracket of 3039years, and 12(24.0%) of the respondent fall within
the age bracket of 4049years. This implies that majority of the questionnaires were filled by the
age bracket of 3039years.

38

Table 4: Highest Educational Qualification
School Certificate 8 16.0
   OND/HND/Degree 29 58.0
   Post Graduate 6 12.0
   Others 7 14.0
   Total 50 100.0
The table above shows that 8(16.0%) of the respondents have school certificate educational
qualification, 29(58.0%) of the respondents have OND/HND/Degree educational qualification,
6(12.0%) of the respondents have Post Graduate educational qualification and 7(14.0%) have other
educational qualification. Therefore, it implies that majority of the respondents have
OND/HND/Degree Educational qualification.
Table 5: Respondent's Profession
Civil/Public Servant 13 26.0
   Student 12 24.0
   Engineering Professional 7 14.0
   Business Man/Woman 15 30.0
   Pensioner/Retiree 3 6.0
   Total 50 100.0

The table above shows that 13(26.0%) of the respondents were Civil/Public Servant, 12(24.0%) of
the respondents were student, 7(14.0%) were engineering professional, 15(30.0%) were business
men/women, and 3(6.0%) were Pensioner/Retiree. Therefore, it implies that majority of the
respondents were business men/women.

39

Table 6: Distribution of respondents by type of Accommodation
Bungalow 27 54.0
   1Storey 21 42.0
   2Storey 2 4.0
   Total 50 100.0
The table above shows that 27(54.0%) of the respondents live in a bungalow, 21(42.0%) of the
respondents in 1storey building, and 2(4.0%) in 2storey building. Therefore, it implies that
majority of the respondents live in a bungalow.
Table 7: Distribution of respondents by Approximate Distance to the Cell Site
0 < = 50m 2 4.0
   > 50m <= 200m 30 60.0
   > 200m 18 36.0
   Total 50 100.0
The table above shows that 2(4.0%) of the respondents described the approximate distance to the
cell site as 0 < = 50m, 30(60.0%) of the respondents described the approximate distance to the cell
site as > 50m <= 200m, and 18(36.0%) of the respondents described the approximate distance to
the cell site > 200m. Therefore, it implies that majority of the respondents described the
approximate distance to the cell site as > 50m <= 200m.

40

Table 8: Mean scores of Factors Responsible for Locations and Siting of Base Station
(BTS)
N Mean
Score
Rank
Site or Land Owners should seek advice from qualified professional
before selling their properties to cell site developers
The site cannot be constructed close to radio transmitting stations,
radars, or other interference sources
Not less than 200m to a residential Area, marketplace or school
Less than 10m of a residential Area, marketplace or school
Necessary for Cell Site developers to consult in details with the hosting
communities before putting up cell sites
Between 50 and 100m of a residential Area, marketplace or school
Within a residential area, marketplace or school
The site cannot be constructed in environments with high temperatures,
dust, corrosive gases, explosive substances, and unstable voltages
Cell site cannot be constructed in areas that are subject to earthquakes
or loud noise
Environmental Authorities such as (National Environmental Standards
and Regulations Enforcement Agency) NESREA must be fully
involved in every new site development
50

50

50
50
50

50
50
50

50

50
2.64

2.42

2.34
2.26
2.08

2.06
2.02
1.84

1.72

1.44
1

2

3
4
5

6
7
8

9

10
N = Number of Respondents
The table above indicates that there are factors responsible for locations and siting of Base Station
(BTS). Site or Land Owners should seek advice from qualified professional before selling their
properties to cell site developers ranked 1st
with mean of 2.64, The site cannot be constructed close
to radio transmitting stations, radars, or other interference sources ranked 2nd
with mean of 2.42 as
the highest ranked among all, while Cell site cannot be constructed in areas that are subject to
earthquakes or loud noise ranked 9th
with mean of 1.72 and Environmental Authorities such as
(National Environmental Standards and Regulations Enforcement Agency) NESREA must be fully
involved in every new site development ranked 10th
with mean of 1.44. In essence, there are
expected steps to be taken and certain principles to be followed in installing such medium as BTS,
it should not be that there are no procedures been followed and installation just taking place as
deem fit by service providers, standards needs be always met at anytime installation is intended.
41

Table 9: Mean scores of The Environmental Characteristics and Conditions of a BTS
Site

N Mean
Score
Rank
The site cannot be constructed close to radio transmitting stations,
radars, or other interference sources
The equipment room should be kept at least 5 km away from heavy
pollution sources such as smelting plants and coal mines
The site cannot be constructed in environments with high temperatures,
dust, corrosive gases, explosive substances, and unstable voltages
Cell site cannot be constructed in areas that are subject to earthquakes
or loud noise
The site should be kept away from electric substations, and industrial
and heating boilers
50

50

50

50

50
2.42

2.06

1.84

1.72

1.72
1

2

3

4

4
The table above indicates the Environmental Characteristics and Conditions of a BTS Site. The site
cannot be constructed close to radio transmitting stations, radars, or other interference sources
ranked 1st
with mean of 2.42 as the highest while Cell site cannot be constructed in areas that are
subject to earthquakes or loud noise and The site should be kept away from electric substations,
and industrial and heating boilers ranked 4th
with mean of 1.72 respectively. This demonstrates the
fact that BTS site are not without their unique environmental characteristics and conditions. There
are certain issues that needs be considered as regards the environment and its condition before the
installation of BTS such as the temperature of the proposed area, heavy pollution sources in the
area and other environmental factors. All of these must not be despised and neglected but given
due consideration so as to ensure the safety of the BTS site and that of the environment also.

42

Table 10: Mean scores of perception of Population at 0<10m to Cell Site on the
prevalent health challenges / Diseases associated with a BTS operation
N Mean
Score
Rank
Memory loss
Headaches
Fatigue
Hearing disturbances
Depressive tendencies
Irritability
Sleep disturbances
Visual disturbances
Difficulties in concentration
Feeling of discomfort
Nausea
Loss of appetite
50
50
50
50
50
50
50
50
50
50
50
50
3.22
3.10
3.06
2.82
2.74
2.38
2.36
1.82
1.68
1.44
1.26
1.00
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
The table above indicates the prevalent health challenges / Diseases associated with a BTS
operation according to the perception of Population at 0<10m to Cell Site. Memory loss ranked 1st

with mean of 3.22, Headaches ranked 2nd
with mean of 3.10, Fatigue ranked 3rd
with mean of 3.06
among the highly ranked challenges while among the least ranked are Feeling of discomfort
ranked 10th
with mean of 1.44, Nausea ranked 11th
with mean of 1.26, and Loss of appetite ranked
12th
with mean of 1.00. This shows the supposed perception of the Population at 0<10m to Cell
Site presumably based on the ways they feel or what they have always experienced or the literature
knowledge they have, but indeed for the population at 0<10m to Cell Site to have sited prevalent
health challenges / Diseases associated with a BTS operation such as those listed on the table.

Table 11: Mean scores of perception of Population at 50 200m to Cell Site on the prevalent
health challenges / Diseases associated with a BTS operation Continuation

N Mean
Score
Rank
43

Headaches
Fatigue
Memory loss
Sleep disturbances
Visual disturbances
Irritability
Loss of appetite
Nausea
50
50
50
50
50
50
50
50
50
50
50
50
2.98
2.62
2.44
2.40
2.30
2.18
2.04
1.28
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
9
9
9
operation according to the perception of Population at 50 200m to Cell Site. Headaches ranked 1st

with mean of 2.98, Fatigue ranked 2nd
with mean of 2.62, Memory loss ranked 3rd
with mean of
2.44 among the highly ranked challenges while among the least ranked are Difficulties in
concentration, Nausea and Loss of appetite ranked 9th
with mean of 1.00. This shows the supposed
perception of the Population at 50 200m to Cell Site presumably based on the ways they feel or
what they have always experienced or the literature knowledge they have, but indeed for the
population at 50 200m to Cell Site to have sited prevalent health challenges / Diseases associated
with a BTS operation such as those listed on the table.

Table 12: Mean scores of perception of Population at over 200m to Cell Site on the
prevalent health challenges / Diseases associated with a BTS operation Continuation

N Mean
Score
Rank
44

Memory loss
Headaches
Visual disturbances
Fatigue
Nausea
Loss of appetite
Sleep disturbances
Irritability
50
50
50
50
50
50
50
50
50
50
50
50
2.80
1.98
1.72
1.68
1.48
1.46
1.46
1.20
1.10
1.00
1.00
1.00
1
2
3
4
5
6
6
7
8
9
9
9
operation according to the perception of Population at over 200m to Cell Site. Memory loss
ranked 1st
with mean of 2.80, Headaches ranked 2nd
with mean of 1.98, visual disturbances ranked
3rd
with mean of 1.72 among the highly ranked challenges while among the least ranked are
Depressive tendencies, Irritability, and Sleep disturbances ranked 9th
with mean of 1.00. This
shows the supposed perception of the Population at over 200m to Cell Site presumably based on
the ways they feel or what they have always experienced or the literature knowledge they have, but
indeed for the population at over 200m to Cell Site to have sited prevalent health challenges /
Diseases associated with a BTS operation such as those listed on the table. Result from the table
shows that there are varied experiences of perception of population expressed by the different
group of population at 0<10m, 50 200m, over 200m to Cell Site) on the issues of prevalent health
challenges / Diseases associated with a BTS operation Continuation; but distance to the BTS site
notwithstanding, it could be said that it has its definite prevalent health challenges / Diseases
associated with BTS operation.

45

Table 13: Mean scores of Environmental Protection Measures against any perceived
prevalent health challenges
N Mean
Score
Rank
Base Station Selection and siting must not be within a short distance to
a living population
Constant Site Monitoring by the regulatory bodies must be done to
maintain compliance
Medical Checkups if disease symptoms are too recurrent
Residents should be very cautious of their direct exposures to a live
base station from time to time
The RF Radiation from the Cell Site must be as minimal as possible
Storey building residents must be sited at over 100m from the nearest
base station
NESREA Compliance Certificate must be pasted on the Base station
entrance
50

50

50
50

50
50

50
5.00

5.00

5.00
4.24

3.34
2.96

2.78
1

2

3
4

5
6

7
The table above indicates the Environmental Protection Measures against any perceived prevalent
health challenges. Base Station Selection and siting must not be within a short distance to a living
population, Constant Site Monitoring by the regulatory bodies must be done to maintain
compliance, and Medical Checkups if disease symptoms are too recurrent ranked 1st
with mean of
5.00 respectively been the highest in the ranking order and NESREA Compliance Certificate must
be pasted on the Base station entrance ranked 7th
with mean of 2.78. This shows that there are
environmental protection measures that could be taken against any perceived prevalent health
challenges associated with BTS operation Continuation. This would help prevent some of the
perceived prevalent health challenges that come with Locations and Siting of Base Station (BTS).

4.4 Test of Hypotheses
For the purpose of this research, there were two hypothesis as earlier stated in chapter one (1) of
this work. These hypotheses are seen as tentative answers to the research questions in that same
46

chapter, these hypotheses have to be tested to either know if they should be accepted or rejected as
the case may be. These two hypotheses are listed below for proper work to be done on them using
the SPSS tool and regression analysis for this to be effectively done.
Several hypotheses were formulated and tested through multiple regressions (ANOVA), one
assumed to be the dependent variable and the other independent variables as stated in the model
specified in the study.
4.4.1    Hypothesis One
H0: There is no significance difference in the prevalent health disease associated with BTS.
H1: There is significance difference in the prevalent health disease associated with BTS.
Table 14: OneSample ttest comparison of difference in the prevalent health challenges
associated with BTS
   Test Value = 0
   t df Sig.
(2tailed)
Mean
Difference
95% Confidence
Interval of the
Difference
               Lower Upper
Difference in the
prevalent health
disease associated with
BTS
69.495 19 .000 4.240 4.12 4.36
Tcab (69.495, 0.05)    df= degree of freedom   Sig= significant level  Result is significant
Results in Table 15 shows that there is a significant difference in the prevalent health disease
associated with BTS. From the ttest comparison analysis of research hypothesis, it was discovered
that the T value (Tcab) =69.49 was greater than Pvalue (P<.000) and therefore significant under
0.05 levels with 19 degrees of freedom. Based on this, null hypothesis was rejected and alternative
47

hypothesis which says “there is a significant difference in the prevalent health disease
associated with BTS” is thus supported.

4.4.2     Hypothesis Two
H0: There is no significant relationship between the distances of BTS area residents
H1: There is significant relationship between the distances of BTS area residents and
perceived diseases.
Table 15:            Model Summary
Model R R Square Adjusted R
Square
Std. Error of the
Estimate
1 .484(a) .235 .226 1.058
a  Predictors: (Constant), public perception
b  Dependent Variable: environmental health impact of BTS

The table above shows a model summary. It reveals the extent to which the variance in the
independent variable (public perception) is explained by the dependent variable (environmental
health impact of BTS) is 23.5% i.e(R square = 0.235). This means that the model public perception
explains 31.8% of the variance on environmental health impact of BTS. The adjusted R square
shows 0.226, while the standard error estimate indicates 1.058 which signifies that the error term
was relatively above average.
48

Table :16 ANOVA(b)
Model    Sum of
Squares
df Mean Square F Sig.
1 Regression 31.541 1 31.541 28.201 .000(a)
Residual 102.895 92 1.118
Total 134.436 93
a  Predictors: (Constant), public perception
b  Dependent Variable: environmental health impact of BTS
The table above shows the assessment of the statistical significance of the result. The ANOVA
table tests the null hypothesis to determine if it is statistically significant. From the results, the
model in this table is statistically significant (sig = .000) and hence the null hypothesis is rejected
because it is less than 0.05 significance level while the alternative hypothesis is thus supported.
Interpretation of result
Findings from this research showed that there is a significant relationship between the distances of
the residents from the BTS and perceived diseases.
Decision Making
Therefore, we reject null hypothesis (H0) which states that there is no significant relationship
between the distances of the residents from the BTS and perceived diseases and thereby accept the
alternate hypothesis (H1) which implies that the there is a significant relationship between the
distances of the residents from the BTS and perceived diseases.

49

4.5 Discussion of Findings
The first finding shows that there is a there is a significant difference in the prevalent health
disease associated with BTS. The prevalent health diseases associated with BTS as perceived by
different people and as asserted by them. This has validated the earlier analysis from the findings
of Mrs Eileen O’Connor in the EMFDG report and the opinions expressed by the Elaine Fox and
the ALTON in Nigeria, whom have suggested further evaluations on these claims because humans
tend to have varying degrees of perceptions to the radiations from the BTS. Also, other arguments
have ensued that artificial RF sources were used making it difficult to draw these conclusions.
(Mobile communication radio waves &safety India, 2012.).
For instance, people living at very close range to BTS site locations have a different perception and
experience of prevalent health diseases associated with BTS, while those living a little far away
from the location also have their own experience as expressed by them and those living very far
away from have a different experience of the prevalent health challenges associated with BTS. In
all it is affirmed that there is a significant difference in the prevalent health diseases associated
with residents proximity to the BTS.
50

The second finding shows that there is there is a significant relationship between the distances of
the residents from the BTS and perceived diseases It is in the perception of the public that BTS has
environmental health impact. This is a general believe by people, people don’t believe that BTS
installation in any location could be there without it having its effect on the environment ranging
from people’s health to their surroundings in fact people have always believed that BTS have more
impact on the health of those living close to the site. Example of what is perceived by people to be
environmental health disease impact of BTS is constant headache, memory loss, fatigue and more.
Thus there is there is a significant relationship between the distances of the residents from the BTS
and perceived diseases. This also has been validated by the study carried out by Department of
Medical Physics and Medical Engineering, School of Medicine, Isfahan University of Medical
Sciences , Isfahan , Iran between ShahbaziGahrouei D, Karbalae M, Moradi
HA, BaradaranGhahfarokhi M, the results showed that most of the symptoms such as nausea,
headache, dizziness, irritability, discomfort, nervousness, depression, sleep disturbance, memory
loss and lowering of libido were statistically significant in the inhabitants living near the BTS
antenna (<300 m distances) compared to those living far from the BTS antenna (>300 m). The
study suggested that cellular phone BTS antenna should not be sited closer than 300 m to
populations to minimize exposure of neighbours.

51

CHAPTER FIVE
SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.0 Introduction
In this final chapter of the research study, the results presented in chapter four were further
discussed. We recall studies and cross sectional surveys carried on residents near base stations did
result into some symptomatic conditions, the conclusions arrived at in the research based on the
study‘s findings along with the recommendations as well as some pointers for future researchers
was also discussed.
5.1 Summary
The study emphasized further on environmental health impact perception of telecommunication
base station operations in Lagos, Nigeria. From the crosssectional study carried out and the
information gathered from the respondents through the simple random sampling, our statistical
analysis has shown that:
52

1. There is a significant difference in the prevalent health disease associated with BTS.
2. There is a significant relationship between the distances of the residents from the BTS and
perceived diseases.
5.2   Conclusion

In our society today, the advancement of technology innovations cannot be overtly substituted
going by the simple reason that they have become part and parcel of our daily lives.
One of such advancement is wireless communications which has helped point to point or
multipoint telephony brought about by the existences of radio waves. In the light of this discovery,
the wireless BTS operations have over time led to the perceived discoveries of some symptomatic
health conditions which are closely linked to the proximity of cell site locations to living
population. The cross sectional survey carried out suggested both the significant difference in these
perceived diseases and also a closely knit relationship between the BTS and distance of residents
to it.
Going forward, it is pertinent to note and ensure the following:
1. Regulations: The statutory bodies in charge of environmental monitoring and standards
need to do more on policy enforcement and regulations as it concerns cell site deployment and
RF radiations.
2. Health/Usage:   Residents around the BTS area are advised to pay close attention to
symptomatic conditions experienced while using mobile phones. It is also advised they use
handfree or headsets for a longer than usual talk time session.
3. Property owners:  This set of stakeholders is expected to follow the proper guidelines
regarding the choice of landed areas to be allocated for the purpose of BTS construction.
53

5.3 Recommendations

1. Base Station Selection and siting must not be within a short distance to a living population.
2. Constant Site Monitoring by the regulatory bodies must be done to maintain compliance.
3. Residents should be very cautious of their direct exposures to a live/operational Base
station from time to time.
4. NESREA Compliance Certificate must be pasted on the Base station entrance.
5. The RF Radiation from the Cell Site must be as minimal as possible.
6. Storey building residents must be sited at over 100m from the nearest base station.
7. Medical Checkups if disease symptoms are too recurrent.

5.4 Contribution to Knowledge

This study in addition to all the studies that was carried out in the past will further help
stakeholders in the wireless communication and construction industry in making qualitative
decisions regarding their future site deployments.
It will in a long way reveal the essence of maintaining the right compliance regarding the siting
and operating a BTS site and also to Mobile phone users, need to understand the possible side
effects that may be encountered by virtue of their closeness to cell sites and use of cellular phones.
It also acts as a guide to BTS area residents to understand the safe distance of phone usage to the
base station. Finally, epidemiologists can draw inference from all the symptomatic conditions
experienced by residents from time to time as a result of the living in close proximity to cell
locations.

5.5 Area for Further Research
54

Further research is hereby suggested on the comprehensive testing and measurements on all other
nonionizing radio frequency range of less than 1016
because apart of cellular phone which falls

within this range, other innovations such as the microwave oven, Power lines etc. which are found
within the area where people live needs to be studied further to determine if in the long term, there
may be prevalent disease associating with these innovations.

55

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