This document provides a literature review on social exclusion and regeneration in 5 parts. It begins by defining key concepts like social exclusion, poverty, and social housing policy in Ireland. It then examines the history of Irish social housing policy from the 1920s to the 2000s and how policies shifted from public housing toward private markets. This led to the residualization of social housing areas and increased social segregation. The document concludes by discussing urban regeneration as a strategy to combat social exclusion through physical, economic, and social renewal of disadvantaged communities. The overall summary is that social housing policy evolution in Ireland contributed to social exclusion, and regeneration aims to address this through holistic community development.
This document summarizes theories of marginalization and applies them to analyze homelessness in America. It defines the underclass as those furthest from social integration due to unemployment and poverty. The American Dream ideology equates social worth with employment and wealth, marginalizing the homeless. Theories discussed view marginalization as unwanted exclusion from social participation. The homeless experience both chronic (long-term due to disabilities) and short-term homelessness, but both subgroups are seen as the underclass. Marginalization results from an individual's incomplete participation in social norms and practices due to poverty and unemployment.
This document summarizes and compares two theories on the causes of poverty: Oscar Lewis's "culture of poverty" theory from 1966 and Karen Seccombe's 2000 structural theory. Lewis argued that a subculture forms among the poor, characterized by things like dependency, lack of paternal authority, and hostility towards authorities, that perpetuates poverty. However, Seccombe contends that structural factors in the US economy and government are more to blame, such as declining manufacturing jobs and welfare cuts. While Lewis only studied a small sample, Seccombe analyzed large-scale national data. Ultimately, the document concludes that poverty has multiple interconnected causes, both cultural aspects within poor communities and deficiencies in societal institutions.
This document discusses stratification and social mobility. It defines different systems of stratification including ascribed and achieved status, slavery, castes, and social classes. It also discusses perspectives on stratification from Marx, Weber, functionalism, and conflict theory. The document examines social class measurement and trends in income, wealth, and poverty in the US. It describes types of social mobility including horizontal, vertical, intergenerational, and intragenerational mobility.
Social Inequality in Industrial SocietiesM.A Haque
This document provides an outline for a presentation on the expansion of social inequality in industrial societies. It discusses key concepts like the meaning of inequality, Karl Marx's view that industrial societies can be divided into bourgeoisie owners and proletariat workers, and the forms inequality takes in areas like income, wealth, occupation, and education. Life styles vary between social classes in industrial societies. Social inequality exists within a system and influences patterns at both the national and global levels.
A short description of the problem and the results of the school survey are presented there by lower-secondary students. This is a part of the project "Communication Connects Cultures through Comenius" 2011-2012.
Rethinking Participation In A European Contextnnriaz
This document discusses frameworks for understanding marginalized groups and their participation in society. It focuses on intersectionality and how people have multiple, intersecting identities that shape their experiences of marginalization. Gypsy communities are used as a case study. Some key challenges to their participation include poverty, poor health, lack of education, employment barriers, and cultural barriers. However, the online sphere, like Facebook, may help lower barriers to political and civic participation for marginalized youth by making engagement easier and more interactive at low cost. Understanding intersectionality and exploring virtual spaces are presented as ways to potentially increase meaningful participation of marginalized groups like young Gypsies.
Looking through the lens of the past and presentShaza2611
The document discusses citizenship and inequality in Australia across three weeks. It addresses the concepts of citizenship and how frameworks of power have created inequality since the French Revolution. It discusses how Aboriginal people have faced years of inequality through assimilation policies and the stolen generations. It also analyzes theories of citizenship and how governments have constructed distinctions that create challenges for individuals. The document advocates for recognizing that a "fair go" and "no one left behind" concept are needed to address inequality. Gender and sexuality are also discussed as dimensions of inequality in citizenship that require addressing social norms and promoting gender equality.
This document discusses the concept of citizenship from several perspectives. It begins by defining citizenship as membership in a political community that confers both rights and responsibilities. It then discusses the growing significance and theoretical ambiguity surrounding citizenship. Citizenship is examined through the lenses of liberal democracy, Marxism, and in terms of its civil, political, and social dimensions. The document also explores the nature of citizenship and the civic culture needed to support citizenship in a liberal democracy. Overall, it provides a wide-ranging overview of the complex and contested concept of citizenship from various theoretical standpoints.
This document summarizes theories of marginalization and applies them to analyze homelessness in America. It defines the underclass as those furthest from social integration due to unemployment and poverty. The American Dream ideology equates social worth with employment and wealth, marginalizing the homeless. Theories discussed view marginalization as unwanted exclusion from social participation. The homeless experience both chronic (long-term due to disabilities) and short-term homelessness, but both subgroups are seen as the underclass. Marginalization results from an individual's incomplete participation in social norms and practices due to poverty and unemployment.
This document summarizes and compares two theories on the causes of poverty: Oscar Lewis's "culture of poverty" theory from 1966 and Karen Seccombe's 2000 structural theory. Lewis argued that a subculture forms among the poor, characterized by things like dependency, lack of paternal authority, and hostility towards authorities, that perpetuates poverty. However, Seccombe contends that structural factors in the US economy and government are more to blame, such as declining manufacturing jobs and welfare cuts. While Lewis only studied a small sample, Seccombe analyzed large-scale national data. Ultimately, the document concludes that poverty has multiple interconnected causes, both cultural aspects within poor communities and deficiencies in societal institutions.
This document discusses stratification and social mobility. It defines different systems of stratification including ascribed and achieved status, slavery, castes, and social classes. It also discusses perspectives on stratification from Marx, Weber, functionalism, and conflict theory. The document examines social class measurement and trends in income, wealth, and poverty in the US. It describes types of social mobility including horizontal, vertical, intergenerational, and intragenerational mobility.
Social Inequality in Industrial SocietiesM.A Haque
This document provides an outline for a presentation on the expansion of social inequality in industrial societies. It discusses key concepts like the meaning of inequality, Karl Marx's view that industrial societies can be divided into bourgeoisie owners and proletariat workers, and the forms inequality takes in areas like income, wealth, occupation, and education. Life styles vary between social classes in industrial societies. Social inequality exists within a system and influences patterns at both the national and global levels.
A short description of the problem and the results of the school survey are presented there by lower-secondary students. This is a part of the project "Communication Connects Cultures through Comenius" 2011-2012.
Rethinking Participation In A European Contextnnriaz
This document discusses frameworks for understanding marginalized groups and their participation in society. It focuses on intersectionality and how people have multiple, intersecting identities that shape their experiences of marginalization. Gypsy communities are used as a case study. Some key challenges to their participation include poverty, poor health, lack of education, employment barriers, and cultural barriers. However, the online sphere, like Facebook, may help lower barriers to political and civic participation for marginalized youth by making engagement easier and more interactive at low cost. Understanding intersectionality and exploring virtual spaces are presented as ways to potentially increase meaningful participation of marginalized groups like young Gypsies.
Looking through the lens of the past and presentShaza2611
The document discusses citizenship and inequality in Australia across three weeks. It addresses the concepts of citizenship and how frameworks of power have created inequality since the French Revolution. It discusses how Aboriginal people have faced years of inequality through assimilation policies and the stolen generations. It also analyzes theories of citizenship and how governments have constructed distinctions that create challenges for individuals. The document advocates for recognizing that a "fair go" and "no one left behind" concept are needed to address inequality. Gender and sexuality are also discussed as dimensions of inequality in citizenship that require addressing social norms and promoting gender equality.
This document discusses the concept of citizenship from several perspectives. It begins by defining citizenship as membership in a political community that confers both rights and responsibilities. It then discusses the growing significance and theoretical ambiguity surrounding citizenship. Citizenship is examined through the lenses of liberal democracy, Marxism, and in terms of its civil, political, and social dimensions. The document also explores the nature of citizenship and the civic culture needed to support citizenship in a liberal democracy. Overall, it provides a wide-ranging overview of the complex and contested concept of citizenship from various theoretical standpoints.
Sociology for the Caribbean SOCI 1002 syllabus (UWI Mona)Mikol Mortley
This document provides an overview of the course Sociology for the Caribbean Society 1002 taught by Mikol Mortley at the University of the West Indies. It covers key sociological concepts such as culture, social structure, social institutions, status, roles, and sociological perspectives including functionalism, Marxist conflict theory, and Weberian social action. Specific topics about Caribbean society discussed include acculturation, creole culture, social stratification models of Caribbean society, family and gender roles, and theories on the Afro-Caribbean family. The course appears designed to introduce students to foundational sociological thinking and apply those concepts to understanding Caribbean culture and society.
This presentation is by a student in the University of Illinois Great Cities Institute Certificate of Nonprofit Management Program class on nonprofits and civic engagement. Tom Tresser is the instructor.
This document discusses the relevance of social class and socioeconomic status to the field of public administration. It notes that social equity and issues of social class have been marginalized in public administration programs and journals. The economic downturn and rising inequality have implications for public services. Strategies are proposed for incorporating issues of social class into MPA/MPP programs through expanded admissions criteria, research on social class, and inclusion in core courses.
This document summarizes John Powell's presentation on the intersection of race and class, and the need for a regional, equitable approach to address disparities. Some key points:
- Race and class are interconnected but using class alone cannot address racial inequities. Both must be considered to understand inequality.
- Racial segregation leads to "opportunity segregation" where communities of color lack access to good schools, jobs, housing, and other opportunities.
- Sprawl and fragmented development patterns drain resources from urban communities and block access to opportunities, especially for people of color and the poor.
- A transformative approach is needed that brings investment to distressed areas, provides housing connected to opportunities, and
Continous analytical reflection: Citizenship, Wealth and Poverty.AliciaButtigieg
Citizenship is conferred either by birthplace (jus soli) or ancestry (jus sanguinus), but inequalities exist in practice. Formal citizenship rights are granted by the state, while informal expectations develop socially, and one's socioeconomic status can informally define their citizenship status as either an "active citizen" or "inactive citizen". As capitalism prioritizes freedom over equality, citizens are increasingly seen as consumers, with the poor considered "flawed consumers" who are responsible for their condition, leading to greater social isolation and an inability to fully exercise citizenship rights.
The concept of citizenship tends to be seen as inclusive. Today, more and more emphasis is placed on education for citizenship and is a major part of the curriculum. However, different theories of citizenship conceive it in different ways. Different tiers of citizenship are created according to the extent to which a person is said to belong. In some states, citizenship is conferred according to birth (jus soli) whereas in others it is a question of inheritance (jus sanguinus). However, even if someone is nominally a full citizen, they can be excluded in different ways, for example, due to their sex, ethnicity, or class status. This week we will examine the concept of citizenship and look at who is included, and who is excluded by it. We will pay particular attention to the ways in which class and socioeconomic deprivation have an effect on the ability to be a full citizen by examining the role of education, the Welfare State, and political participation.
The document discusses Adam Smith's contributions to political economy, including his ideas about the division of labor, self-interest, competition, and the invisible hand coordinating the market. It also covers different dimensions and scales of governance, from the community level to the international level, and provides examples of place-based, identity-based, and interest-based communities. Local governance and structures like municipal councils are examined.
Sociology has progressed through several stages driven by massive social transformations over the past two centuries. The Industrial Revolution and population shifts to cities disrupted traditional social organizations. Scientific and technological advances changed systems of production, weakening families and communities. Millions moved from rural areas to cities for work, overwhelming housing and causing social problems. New political ideas emerged emphasizing individual rights and liberties over obligations to rulers. Sociology developed to study and understand society and human behavior within these changing social contexts.
This document discusses the racialization of poverty in the United States. It argues that poverty must be understood as an outcome of structural racial inequities, rather than solely as an individual issue. Racialized policies have created a correlation between race and poverty by denying marginalized groups access to opportunities and wealth. The document advocates reframing poverty discourse to acknowledge its systemic causes and emphasize how poverty isolation harms entire communities. It calls for policies addressing both immediate needs and multigenerational poverty through a lens of shared opportunity.
The document discusses several topics related to government, the economy, and the environment including:
1) Economic systems like capitalism and socialism and how they differ in their approaches to private ownership and profit motives.
2) Models of power and authority in political systems including Weber's three types of authority.
3) Political behavior in the US including factors that influence participation and voter trends over time.
4) Models of power structures in the US including elite and pluralist models.
5) Changes in the US economy including the growing diversity of the workforce and rise of contingent work arrangements.
Structural racialization provides a lens for understanding how opportunity is racialized. It addresses how the joint operation of institutions can produce racialized outcomes, even without racist actors. Using this analysis allows us to recognize that people are situated differently inside existing structures and how institutional arrangements interact to disadvantage some groups. This analysis can then be applied to promote transformative change by involving communities in reshaping policies and arrangements.
Social disorganization refers to a lack of consensus or equilibrium within a society. It occurs when the relationship between different parts of culture is disturbed. There are several approaches to studying social disorganization, including viewing it as a result of social problems, biological and psychological factors, geographical influences, cultural processes, or cultural lag as traditions fail to adapt to new material conditions. Good neighborhoods enhance youth socialization through strong social ties and local networks while bad neighborhoods undermine it due to weak community bonds and parental control.
Socio economic rights of citizenship and regional inequalityInfoMenu Engineering
Prof. Atta El-Battahani:
This paper discusses Liberal-Marshall debate on citizenship in the context of Sudan emerging
liberal economy since early 1990s. Official government endorsement of liberal economic
measures will be discussed in relation to attempts to economically empower citizens and
provide basic services to all citizens paying particular attention to less-developed regions.
This emphasis of less developed regions is meant to redress regional inequality inherited
from the past.
Emile Durkheim distinguished between mechanical solidarity in rural societies with little division of labor, where solidarity is based on likeness, and organic solidarity in urban areas with a complex division of labor, where solidarity comes from interdependence. Durkheim believed a society's level of social solidarity depended on its division of labor, with mechanical solidarity in predomintantly rural societies and organic solidarity in highly diverse and specialized urban areas. His ideas formed a theoretical foundation for studying differences between rural communities and urban social structure.
This document discusses the upcoming referendum in Ireland on marriage equality. It provides background on social activism in Ireland following the global financial crisis of 2008. Many protests have occurred in response to austerity measures and cuts to public spending. The referendum proposes amending the constitution to allow marriage between two people regardless of sex. The document aims to examine scholar activism and social movements related to the referendum, investigate both sides of the debate, and analyze how the vote may impact Irish society and human rights.
The document discusses sociological perspectives on mass media. It covers functionalist, conflict, and feminist views. Functionalist views see media as reinforcing social norms and conferring status. Conflict views see media reflecting social divisions and gatekeeping by elites. Feminist views see stereotypical gender portrayals in media. It also discusses the media industry, audiences, and social policy debates around media violence.
summary on social exclusion- enriching the understanding of deprivationAastha Garg
The document discusses the history and definitions of the concept of social exclusion. It traces the origins of the term to 1974 in France where it was used to describe those excluded from society such as the poor, disabled, elderly, abused children. Over time, the concept evolved and was adopted by the European Union and UK to broaden the understanding of deprivation beyond just poverty. Social exclusion is defined as a multidimensional concept where people are excluded from livelihoods, employment, education and more. The document also examines how social exclusion and poverty were measured and policies adopted in France and Britain in the 1980s and 1990s to promote inclusion.
Identity Formation and Socialization of Urban Adolescent MalesDaniel P. Vitaletti
This document discusses identity formation and socialization of urban adolescent males. It examines how community disadvantage and social disorganization mediate these processes. Concentrated poverty in urban areas shapes community structure and interactions, altering conventional norms. Within this context, fear becomes normalized and an aggressive identity often emerges as an adaptation for survival. The paper analyzes this issue through macro theories like social stratification and micro theories of identity, morality, and socialization. It discusses how lack of social capital and resources hinders moral development and forces structural commitments oriented around survival rather than personal choices.
The document discusses several individualistic theories of poverty: biogenetic theory, which claims intelligence explains poverty; culture of poverty theory, which argues the poor have dysfunctional values; and human capital theory, which asserts lack of education causes poverty. Each is critiqued for ignoring structural factors like inequality, discrimination, and lack of opportunity that impact poverty beyond individual choices or attributes. While education and skills are important, success depends more on access to social and cultural capital like networks, privilege, and converting human capital into well-paying jobs.
This document outlines the tasks and criteria for a unit on poverty and social inequality. It includes two tasks: 1) complete a table on social stratification and 2) write a 1250-word essay critically examining explanations of social inequality and poverty and analyzing related research evidence. Several websites are provided for research. The learning outcomes are to outline the historical context of poverty and theoretical perspectives on approaches to tackling poverty. The deadline for the unit assessment is January 13, 2014.
The document discusses a think tank called the Centre for London, which aims to help London address its big policy challenges by acting as a critical friend to policymakers and developing long-term policy solutions. The Centre for London conducts research and events, and looks for support from private, public, and voluntary sector funders to collaboratively work on policy issues facing the city. It was incubated by Demos, another think tank focused on political and social issues.
This document provides an executive summary of a report on financing the Irish social rented housing sector by learning lessons from England and Canada. The report examines alternative approaches to financing social housing that have been adopted in other countries, with a focus on private finance models. It involved literature reviews, policy reviews of Ireland, England and Canada, and over 30 interviews. The report makes recommendations in areas like regulation, governance, subsidies, rent determination and innovative approaches. It concludes that Ireland is transitioning from a grant-based model to one relying on private finance, and this report aims to inform that transition by learning from other jurisdictions' experiences.
Sociology for the Caribbean SOCI 1002 syllabus (UWI Mona)Mikol Mortley
This document provides an overview of the course Sociology for the Caribbean Society 1002 taught by Mikol Mortley at the University of the West Indies. It covers key sociological concepts such as culture, social structure, social institutions, status, roles, and sociological perspectives including functionalism, Marxist conflict theory, and Weberian social action. Specific topics about Caribbean society discussed include acculturation, creole culture, social stratification models of Caribbean society, family and gender roles, and theories on the Afro-Caribbean family. The course appears designed to introduce students to foundational sociological thinking and apply those concepts to understanding Caribbean culture and society.
This presentation is by a student in the University of Illinois Great Cities Institute Certificate of Nonprofit Management Program class on nonprofits and civic engagement. Tom Tresser is the instructor.
This document discusses the relevance of social class and socioeconomic status to the field of public administration. It notes that social equity and issues of social class have been marginalized in public administration programs and journals. The economic downturn and rising inequality have implications for public services. Strategies are proposed for incorporating issues of social class into MPA/MPP programs through expanded admissions criteria, research on social class, and inclusion in core courses.
This document summarizes John Powell's presentation on the intersection of race and class, and the need for a regional, equitable approach to address disparities. Some key points:
- Race and class are interconnected but using class alone cannot address racial inequities. Both must be considered to understand inequality.
- Racial segregation leads to "opportunity segregation" where communities of color lack access to good schools, jobs, housing, and other opportunities.
- Sprawl and fragmented development patterns drain resources from urban communities and block access to opportunities, especially for people of color and the poor.
- A transformative approach is needed that brings investment to distressed areas, provides housing connected to opportunities, and
Continous analytical reflection: Citizenship, Wealth and Poverty.AliciaButtigieg
Citizenship is conferred either by birthplace (jus soli) or ancestry (jus sanguinus), but inequalities exist in practice. Formal citizenship rights are granted by the state, while informal expectations develop socially, and one's socioeconomic status can informally define their citizenship status as either an "active citizen" or "inactive citizen". As capitalism prioritizes freedom over equality, citizens are increasingly seen as consumers, with the poor considered "flawed consumers" who are responsible for their condition, leading to greater social isolation and an inability to fully exercise citizenship rights.
The concept of citizenship tends to be seen as inclusive. Today, more and more emphasis is placed on education for citizenship and is a major part of the curriculum. However, different theories of citizenship conceive it in different ways. Different tiers of citizenship are created according to the extent to which a person is said to belong. In some states, citizenship is conferred according to birth (jus soli) whereas in others it is a question of inheritance (jus sanguinus). However, even if someone is nominally a full citizen, they can be excluded in different ways, for example, due to their sex, ethnicity, or class status. This week we will examine the concept of citizenship and look at who is included, and who is excluded by it. We will pay particular attention to the ways in which class and socioeconomic deprivation have an effect on the ability to be a full citizen by examining the role of education, the Welfare State, and political participation.
The document discusses Adam Smith's contributions to political economy, including his ideas about the division of labor, self-interest, competition, and the invisible hand coordinating the market. It also covers different dimensions and scales of governance, from the community level to the international level, and provides examples of place-based, identity-based, and interest-based communities. Local governance and structures like municipal councils are examined.
Sociology has progressed through several stages driven by massive social transformations over the past two centuries. The Industrial Revolution and population shifts to cities disrupted traditional social organizations. Scientific and technological advances changed systems of production, weakening families and communities. Millions moved from rural areas to cities for work, overwhelming housing and causing social problems. New political ideas emerged emphasizing individual rights and liberties over obligations to rulers. Sociology developed to study and understand society and human behavior within these changing social contexts.
This document discusses the racialization of poverty in the United States. It argues that poverty must be understood as an outcome of structural racial inequities, rather than solely as an individual issue. Racialized policies have created a correlation between race and poverty by denying marginalized groups access to opportunities and wealth. The document advocates reframing poverty discourse to acknowledge its systemic causes and emphasize how poverty isolation harms entire communities. It calls for policies addressing both immediate needs and multigenerational poverty through a lens of shared opportunity.
The document discusses several topics related to government, the economy, and the environment including:
1) Economic systems like capitalism and socialism and how they differ in their approaches to private ownership and profit motives.
2) Models of power and authority in political systems including Weber's three types of authority.
3) Political behavior in the US including factors that influence participation and voter trends over time.
4) Models of power structures in the US including elite and pluralist models.
5) Changes in the US economy including the growing diversity of the workforce and rise of contingent work arrangements.
Structural racialization provides a lens for understanding how opportunity is racialized. It addresses how the joint operation of institutions can produce racialized outcomes, even without racist actors. Using this analysis allows us to recognize that people are situated differently inside existing structures and how institutional arrangements interact to disadvantage some groups. This analysis can then be applied to promote transformative change by involving communities in reshaping policies and arrangements.
Social disorganization refers to a lack of consensus or equilibrium within a society. It occurs when the relationship between different parts of culture is disturbed. There are several approaches to studying social disorganization, including viewing it as a result of social problems, biological and psychological factors, geographical influences, cultural processes, or cultural lag as traditions fail to adapt to new material conditions. Good neighborhoods enhance youth socialization through strong social ties and local networks while bad neighborhoods undermine it due to weak community bonds and parental control.
Socio economic rights of citizenship and regional inequalityInfoMenu Engineering
Prof. Atta El-Battahani:
This paper discusses Liberal-Marshall debate on citizenship in the context of Sudan emerging
liberal economy since early 1990s. Official government endorsement of liberal economic
measures will be discussed in relation to attempts to economically empower citizens and
provide basic services to all citizens paying particular attention to less-developed regions.
This emphasis of less developed regions is meant to redress regional inequality inherited
from the past.
Emile Durkheim distinguished between mechanical solidarity in rural societies with little division of labor, where solidarity is based on likeness, and organic solidarity in urban areas with a complex division of labor, where solidarity comes from interdependence. Durkheim believed a society's level of social solidarity depended on its division of labor, with mechanical solidarity in predomintantly rural societies and organic solidarity in highly diverse and specialized urban areas. His ideas formed a theoretical foundation for studying differences between rural communities and urban social structure.
This document discusses the upcoming referendum in Ireland on marriage equality. It provides background on social activism in Ireland following the global financial crisis of 2008. Many protests have occurred in response to austerity measures and cuts to public spending. The referendum proposes amending the constitution to allow marriage between two people regardless of sex. The document aims to examine scholar activism and social movements related to the referendum, investigate both sides of the debate, and analyze how the vote may impact Irish society and human rights.
The document discusses sociological perspectives on mass media. It covers functionalist, conflict, and feminist views. Functionalist views see media as reinforcing social norms and conferring status. Conflict views see media reflecting social divisions and gatekeeping by elites. Feminist views see stereotypical gender portrayals in media. It also discusses the media industry, audiences, and social policy debates around media violence.
summary on social exclusion- enriching the understanding of deprivationAastha Garg
The document discusses the history and definitions of the concept of social exclusion. It traces the origins of the term to 1974 in France where it was used to describe those excluded from society such as the poor, disabled, elderly, abused children. Over time, the concept evolved and was adopted by the European Union and UK to broaden the understanding of deprivation beyond just poverty. Social exclusion is defined as a multidimensional concept where people are excluded from livelihoods, employment, education and more. The document also examines how social exclusion and poverty were measured and policies adopted in France and Britain in the 1980s and 1990s to promote inclusion.
Identity Formation and Socialization of Urban Adolescent MalesDaniel P. Vitaletti
This document discusses identity formation and socialization of urban adolescent males. It examines how community disadvantage and social disorganization mediate these processes. Concentrated poverty in urban areas shapes community structure and interactions, altering conventional norms. Within this context, fear becomes normalized and an aggressive identity often emerges as an adaptation for survival. The paper analyzes this issue through macro theories like social stratification and micro theories of identity, morality, and socialization. It discusses how lack of social capital and resources hinders moral development and forces structural commitments oriented around survival rather than personal choices.
The document discusses several individualistic theories of poverty: biogenetic theory, which claims intelligence explains poverty; culture of poverty theory, which argues the poor have dysfunctional values; and human capital theory, which asserts lack of education causes poverty. Each is critiqued for ignoring structural factors like inequality, discrimination, and lack of opportunity that impact poverty beyond individual choices or attributes. While education and skills are important, success depends more on access to social and cultural capital like networks, privilege, and converting human capital into well-paying jobs.
This document outlines the tasks and criteria for a unit on poverty and social inequality. It includes two tasks: 1) complete a table on social stratification and 2) write a 1250-word essay critically examining explanations of social inequality and poverty and analyzing related research evidence. Several websites are provided for research. The learning outcomes are to outline the historical context of poverty and theoretical perspectives on approaches to tackling poverty. The deadline for the unit assessment is January 13, 2014.
The document discusses a think tank called the Centre for London, which aims to help London address its big policy challenges by acting as a critical friend to policymakers and developing long-term policy solutions. The Centre for London conducts research and events, and looks for support from private, public, and voluntary sector funders to collaboratively work on policy issues facing the city. It was incubated by Demos, another think tank focused on political and social issues.
This document provides an executive summary of a report on financing the Irish social rented housing sector by learning lessons from England and Canada. The report examines alternative approaches to financing social housing that have been adopted in other countries, with a focus on private finance models. It involved literature reviews, policy reviews of Ireland, England and Canada, and over 30 interviews. The report makes recommendations in areas like regulation, governance, subsidies, rent determination and innovative approaches. It concludes that Ireland is transitioning from a grant-based model to one relying on private finance, and this report aims to inform that transition by learning from other jurisdictions' experiences.
Sense of Belonging in an inner London, social-housing-dominated Neighbourhood...Achim von Malotki
A presentation of my MSc Dissertation at King's College to local stakeholders and local authority representatives, with special consideration given to local tenure and housing market analysis.
This document discusses the Community Right to Build (CRtB), which allows communities to obtain planning permission for small-scale housing developments. It provides grants and expert support for CRtB orders and community-led planning applications. To date, over 100 community projects have received funding, including 8 CRtB orders. Three of these CRtB orders in Ferring, UK have passed referendums to allow housing developments. The document questions how to encourage more communities to pursue the CRtB process going forward.
Reviews of: The Political Economy of Government Auditing: Financial Governance and the Rule of Law in Latin America and Beyond
The Challenge of Reforming Budgetary Institutions in Developing Countries
A Review of PFM Reform Literature
Taking Stock: What do PEFA Assessments Tell Us About PFM Systems Across Countries
Compounded Disadvantage in Social Housing: The Impact of Anti-social Behaviou...FEANTSA
Presentation given by Simon Hoffman, Swansea University, Peter Mackie and John Pritchard, Shelter Cymru, UK at a FEANTSA Research Conference on "Homelessness and Poverty", Paris, France, 2009
Crescy Cannan - Social Action with Children and Families A Community Developm...Imbang Jaya Trenggana
This book argues for a community development approach to child and family welfare that promotes environments where children can flourish. It explores how social workers can balance expertise with openness and accountability by working in partnership with parents, other professionals, and community groups. The book aims to help practitioners find a new positive sense of direction by drawing on traditions of social action and empowering families and communities. It provides examples of innovative practices from the UK, France, and Germany that foster participation and empowerment.
Social exclusion refers to the lack of participation in social, economic, political and cultural life experienced by groups and individuals. It can be caused by discrimination, lack of basic needs, lack of citizenship rights, and unequal power relations. Reversing social exclusion requires promoting justice, recognition of human worth, self-determination, and solidarity. It also involves balancing individual and collective rights. Social exclusion often leads to poorer health, education, and income inequality that become self-reinforcing over time. Strong policies are needed to eliminate inequalities in areas like education and employment.
Week 3Social vulnerability to disaster myth of community, gen.docxjessiehampson
Week 3
Social vulnerability to disaster: myth of community, gender, and ethnicity
Last week what did we discuss?
The theories about disasters
The dominant paradigm and criticisms of it
The alternative model: political ecology
PAR model
This week we will discuss
Disaster justice
Social vulnerability to disasters:
Myth of community
Causes of differences in social vulnerability:
Gender
Race/ethnicity
Others
Culture and vulnerability
Disaster justice
Linkages to Environmental Justice
Hillman (2006, 695) explains that “environment justice as a political movement and research programme originated amidst concerns over the unjust distribution of environmental hazards primarily in, or close to, disadvantaged or marginalised communities.”
Most scholars trace the origin of the environmental justice movement to a protest in 1982 against the dumping of PCB-laden dirt into a waste landfill in Warren County, North Carolina. The county was 65 percent Black.
This protest marked one of the first times when civil rights and environmental groups collaborated. Studies in the 1980s and early 1990s which demonstrated linkages between not only environmental risk, namely the location of toxic waste sites, waste dumps, and power plants, and poverty but also between environmental risk and race in the US further empowered these activists,
Also, only starting in the 1990s, has the environmental justice framework been applied outside of the United States.
It is still not widely used in Asia as a framework academically but there are increasing movements for environmental justice (e.g. in China, Vietnam, and Thailand)
Regardless, of the location, as Schroeder et al. (2008) assert, at the core of environmental justice struggles are universal and part of broader patterns of injustice of a global significance.
Schlosberg’s 3 types of injustices
What are they?
distributive (how environmental goods and harms are unevenly distributed)
procedural (whether different groups have equal access to decision-making)
lack of recognition (whether groups have been discriminated against due to their identity).
2 key questions
1) what patterns of social inequality exist in relation to the environmental good or bad?
This question is a distributional one in which a contextual process claim of injustice is being made.
Such a claim analyses a specific situation, such as the distribution of floodwater in Bangkok in 2011, and historically traces patterns of urban development and decision-making and how these patterns produced injustices.
Questions that also need to be asked are how inequalities are being produced, who is responsible for them, how decisions have been made have, and how are government policies and practices created and enacted
2) The second series of questions are procedural ones, examining how a society operates: how power is distributed, and how uneven environmental outcomes arise as a consequence?
A basic insight of the movement is that “distribution o ...
Drifting Along or Dropping into Homelessness A Class Analysis of .docxkanepbyrne80830
This document summarizes a study that analyzed responses to homelessness through a class lens. It developed a typology of two broad groups of homeless people - "drifters" who come from lower class backgrounds and experience homelessness as a continuation of hardship, and "droppers" who have fallen on hard times from middle class lives and aspire to return to mainstream society. The study found that responses to homelessness generally aim to help droppers return to domiciled life but are less effective for drifters who find mainstream life foreign. It argues class-based assumptions shape perceptions of social distance and abjection towards the homeless.
MTC110 NAME ________________________________ Theory Skills.docxgilpinleeanna
This document discusses community-oriented social work (COSW) and its relationship to poverty alleviation. It argues that COSW has four key characteristics: (1) an association with empowering individuals and communities, (2) a local focus on geographical areas, (3) a concern with preventing social problems, and (4) a requirement for partnership with other organizations and community members. The document explores how COSW aims to directly address poverty through these empowerment and prevention-focused approaches working closely with local communities. While interest in COSW has waned, the document suggests it may be well-suited to tackling poverty and its effects.
Development & Inequality
Lesson Week 1-2
Contents
Readings:ii
Introduction1
Learning Outcomes:1
1. Why Study Inequality?1
2. Studying Inequality2
3. Why Study Ethnicity, Gender and Class?3
4. How Are Power And Inequality Related?5
Warm-up Exercise5
Regina's experience of social divisions and inequality5
Your Experiences Of Social Divisions And Inequality7
Week 1: Readings and Activities8
1. What is development?8
2. Measuring Development10
3. Optional Activities21
Week 2: Readings and Activities23
1. What is inequality?23
2. Analysing Inequality25
3. Inequality in New Zealand31
4. Optional Activities34
Summary36
Glossary38
References39
Background reading40
i
Readings:
WEEK 1
Greiner, A.L. (2014) ‘Geographies of development’. In Visualizing Human Geography. Wiley, pp.263-295
Todaro, M. & Smith, S. (2012). What do we mean by development? In EconomicDevelopment (pp. 14–23). Pearson Education Ltd.
WEEK 2
Thekaekara, M. M. (1999). ‘Calvin Klein and the Tea Pickers’. New Internationalist, March: 12-15.
Rashbrooke, M. (2013). ‘Why inequality matters’. In Rashbrooke, M. (ed.) In Inequality:
A New Zealand Crisis. Bridget Willams Books, pp.1-17
ii
Introduction
Learning Outcomes:
At the end of this topic on understanding development and inequality you will:
· Have broadened your understanding of various dimensions of development and inequality.
· Be able to name several different ways of measuring development and inequality.
· Understand the impact of inequality on development outcomes.
1. Why Study Inequality?
Feedback from past students doing this course indicates that they learned a great deal about the impact of ‘development’ on people’s lives and that they gained deeper insights into some current global issues. Not surprisingly, however, they also found that studying inequality can also be somewhat depressing. Why, then, do we persist in teaching this topic? Taylor (1992:20) has conveniently provided me with two very good reasons:
1 He argues that ‘...global inequalities are going to become the most important political issue in the world in the wake of the demise of the Cold War’.
2 Taylor goes on to say that ‘...understanding global inequalities is a key stage in the process of overcoming them’.
Taylor’s first point has proved prescient. From the revelations of the Global Financial Crisis and the Occupy movement to the release of documentaries such as Inequality forAll(Kornbluth,2013), and the publication of top-selling books on inequality includingWilkinson and Pickett’s (2010) The Spirit Leveland Piketty’s (2014) Capital in theTwenty-first Century, discussionsof inequality have become highly prominent in globalpolitics. New Zealand has not been exempt from this, with the publication of the book Inequality: A New Zealand Crisis(Rashbrooke,2013) and a steady stream of comm ...
The document discusses the concept of social exclusion, which was coined in the 1970s to describe populations that fell through social safety nets. There are multiple definitions of social exclusion involving problems like unemployment, low income, poor housing, and family breakdown. Social exclusion has greater negative impacts on individuals and communities than just the sum of its parts. The document also examines three perspectives on social exclusion: the moral underclass discourse which sees exclusion as a result of individual faults; the social integrationist discourse which focuses on getting people into paid work; and the redistributionist discourse which views exclusion as caused by structural inequality that needs to be addressed through government intervention.
International Journal of Humanities and Social Science Invention (IJHSSI)inventionjournals
International Journal of Humanities and Social Science Invention (IJHSSI) is an international journal intended for professionals and researchers in all fields of Humanities and Social Science. IJHSSI publishes research articles and reviews within the whole field Humanities and Social Science, new teaching methods, assessment, validation and the impact of new technologies and it will continue to provide information on the latest trends and developments in this ever-expanding subject. The publications of papers are selected through double peer reviewed to ensure originality, relevance, and readability. The articles published in our journal can be accessed online
Social mobility refers to the movement of individuals and groups between different socioeconomic positions within a stratified society. Studying social mobility provides insights into people's opportunities and life chances based on their class backgrounds. While modern industrial societies are said to be open systems with social mobility possible, several studies have found evidence that social mobility, especially upward mobility, may be declining in countries like the UK. Significant inequalities remain in terms of the life chances and socioeconomic outcomes associated with one's class background and family income.
Part I Studying nonprofit organizationsThe study of nonprofit.docxdanhaley45372
Part I: Studying nonprofit organizations
The study of nonprofit, third sector, or voluntary organizations is a fairly recent development in the history of the social sciences. What has become one of the most dynamic and interdisciplinary fields of the social sciences today began to gather momentum more than three decades ago. At the same time, the field is rooted in long-standing intellectual and disciplinary approaches that seek to come to terms with the complexity and vast variety of nonprofit organizations and related forms and phenomena. After considering this chapter, the reader should:
■ have an understanding of the wide range of institutions, organizations, and types of activities that come under the label of the nonprofit sector;
■ be able to identify key intellectual traditions of nonprofit sector research;
■ have a sense of the major factors that influenced the field and that contributed to its development; and
■ be able to navigate through the book’s various parts and chapters in terms of specific content and their thematic connections. Some of the key concepts introduced in this chapter are:
THE EMERGENCE OF THE NONPROFIT SECTOR IN THE US While the concept of civil society as such is not common currency in the US, there is nonetheless a deep-seated cultural understanding that civil society finds its clearest expression in this country. Indeed a strong political as well as cultural current running through American history and contemporary society sees the US as an ongoing “experiment” in civility, community, democracy, and self-governance. Not only the country as a whole, but cities, such as New York, Chicago, Miami, and Los Angeles in particular, regard themselves as the “social laboratories” of modern urban life: they are among the most diverse in the world in ethnic, religious, and social terms, with large portions of immigrant populations, small local government, and high levels of community organizing and individualism. A strong expression of this cultural self-understanding is that the US, in all its imperfections and injustices, is nonetheless regarded as the embodiment of human political progress. This ideological current assumes at times mythical dimensions, perhaps because it is so closely linked to, and rests on, major symbols of US political history. In countless political speeches as well as in popular culture frequent references are made to highly symbolic events and documents that provide deep roots of legitimacy to both nonprofit organizations and the notion of self-organization. Among the most prominent of such cultural-political icons:
Charity, i.e. individual benevolence and caring, is a value and practice found in all major world cultures and religions. It is one of the “fi ve pillars” of Islam, and central to Christian and Jewish religious teaching and practice as well. In many countries, including the US, the notion of charity includes relief of poverty, helping the sick, disabled, and elderly, supporting.
Week 14 Ideologies of welfare Printable page generated Thurs.docxgertrudebellgrove
Week 14: Ideologies of welfare Printable page generated Thursday, 9 Jan 2020, 12:57
Week 14: Ideologies of welfare
Andy O'Cain
Introduction
Image of a city gent at a job centre
Welcome to Week 14. This week you will explore political ideologies by looking at a case study of the welfare state in the UK.
This case study will allow you to examine many of the ideological contests that underpin evolving institutions of welfare.
The work this week will focus particularly on the debate regarding the government’s role and responsibility for welfare provision,
with particular regard to measures aimed at alleviating or eradicating poverty. Another important focus of this week’s work will
be on the ways in which the nature of the debate on welfare helps to forge and reinforce ideological positions.
This week you will:
1. explore a timeline of the evolution of the welfare state in the UK
2. consider some of the ways that political actors and social scientists engage with the issue of poverty (this will involve
two audio clips and a web-based activity)
3. listen to an audio documentary ‘Why is welfare ideologically contested?’
4. read Chapter 12, ‘Ideologies of welfare’, and do some follow-up activities
5. analyse the shifting ideological approaches to welfare by studying some extracts from political speeches and
watching a video on the future of the welfare state)
6. contrast the feminist position on welfare with a challenge from the conservative right that suggests that welfare
causes a breakdown in the family
7. conclude the week with some independent study time.
1 Timeline of welfare
The timeline below provides an overview of some key historical developments in welfare.
Activity 1
About 1 hour
In this activity you can explore the timeline by selecting the various readings and images that set out the evolution of the
welfare state in the UK.
https://learn2.open.ac.uk/mod/oucontent/view.php?id=1468076
The timeline can be accessed here.
Reference
BBC (n.d.) 1982: UK unemployment tops three million [Online]. Available at
http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/january/26/newsid_2506000/2506335.stm (Accessed 22 June 2015).
2 Poverty, welfare and ideology
In the following three subsections, you will explore the nature of poverty and the relationship between poverty, welfare and
ideology. First you will listen to an audio discussion on the language of poverty, then you will take part in an online activity to
explore defining and measuring poverty. This section concludes with an audio discussion on the relationship between the public
and private provision of welfare.
2.1 The language of poverty
In this audio clip, Owen Jones, columnist for The Guardian (at the time of recording) and author of the book Chavs: The
Demonization of the Working Class, sets out his perspective regarding how the language that is deployed in the welfare debate
has a profound and negative effect upon public opinion. He is joined by Gerry Mooney and Ge ...
Social Stratification
Social Stratification
Social Stratification
Social Stratification
Social Stratification
SOCIAL STRATIFICATION Essay
Social Stratification
This module is all about inspiration! It will inspire & convince you that enterprise is a good idea as a means of transforming a person’s circumstances and ultimately their community. You will learn about the context of diversity and interfaces and why enterprise can be a high impact tool to alleviate cultural/interface challenges. Entrepreneurship is the ultimate community change driver – it teaches creativity, risk taking, the ability to think critically, take initiative, problem solve and work collaboratively- surely these skills are at the foundation of enhancing challenged societies?
This document discusses the concepts of social inclusion and social exclusion. It defines social exclusion as a state in which individuals are unable to fully participate in economic, social, political and cultural life due to lack of access to resources, rights, goods and services. Social inclusion is defined as the process of improving participation for disadvantaged groups through enhancing opportunities, access to resources, voice and rights protection. While measuring social exclusion is challenging due to its multidimensional nature, the document presents data on key aspects of exclusion to illustrate both country progress and remaining data gaps in monitoring social inclusion.
Social Welfare Past and Present Essay
Essay on Social Welfare
What Is Social Welfare?
Essay on social policy
Social Welfare Values
Institutional Approach To Social Welfare
The Concept Of Social Welfare
Importance Of Social Welfare State
Pros And Cons Of Social Welfare
Persuasive Essay On Social Welfare Policy
Social Policy and Welfare System Essays
Social Welfare Research Paper
Social Welfare System
Social Welfare Research Paper
Social Welfare
Essay On Social Welfare In Canada
The Ideological Debate Over Social Welfare
Social Welfare And The Welfare System
Poverty is a matter of great concern across the societies in the world, and there have been several efforts to eradicate this menace at individual, community, national and international levels especially in the developing nations, where absolute poverty is at high stakes. Various sociological ideologies have been developed to explain the issue of poverty in society, with the objective of improving our understanding on it.
This post will take a deeper look at this unfortunate occurrence.
- See original at: http://www.customwritingservice.org/blog/poverty-in-society/
The document discusses social work and marginalized populations. It defines social work as a practice-based profession that promotes social change, empowerment, and human rights. The history of social work involves assisting marginalized groups. Marginalization can occur through social, economic, and political exclusion and is multidimensional. It discusses the main types of marginalization and provides examples of marginalized groups such as people with disabilities, ethnic minorities, women, the elderly, children, and the long-term ill.
Pimps, brokers, brothel keepers.
The covert prostitute:
Those
who practice prostitution secretly without living in
brothels.
Call
girls, street walkers, bar dancers.
The occasional prostitute:
Women
who occasionally sell their body for money or kind
when in need.
Domestic
servants, factory workers, hostesses.
EFFECTS OF PROSTITUTION
On the prostitute:
Physical
and mental health problems.
Social
ostrac
Escalating American Consumerism 2015 UPDATEDerek M. Lough
This document provides a literature review on the effects of escalating consumerism in America. It discusses how consumerism has affected the family unit, healthcare, and politics. Consumerism rose dramatically in the 1950s as a means to fuel economic growth. Advertising shifted to linking consumer goods with identity and personal fulfillment. This contributed to defining social status by what people purchased. Over time, even those in poverty were drawn into rampant consumption through ubiquitous advertising. The prioritization of acquiring goods has weakened family bonds and traditional values, influenced healthcare to focus on profit over wellness, and impacted politics through corporate lobbying and growing inequality.
7SOCIAL CLASS ANDINEQUALITY IN THEUNITED STATES Discover.docxalinainglis
7
SOCIAL CLASS AND
INEQUALITY IN THE
UNITED STATES
Discover Sociology 2E Custom Interactive E-book Edition William J. Chambliss, Daina Eglitis
Media Library
CHAPTER 7 Media Library
AUDIO
Inequality and the Economic Crisis
Hollywood’s American Dream
VIDEO
John Oliver on Income Inequality & Wealth
Perceptions of Wealth Inequality
Income Mobility
Economic Inequality
CQ RESEARCHER
Income Inequality
PACIFIC STANDARD MAGAZINE
Structural inequality and parental income
JOURNAL
Racial Stratification and Inequality
Higher Education and Income
Race and Desserts
Typology of American Poverty
p.155
IN THIS CHAPTER
Stratification in Traditional and Modern Societies
Sociological Building Blocks of Stratification and Social Class
Class and Inequality in the United States: Dimensions and Trends
The Problem of Neighborhood Poverty
Why Do Stratification and Poverty Exist and Persist in Class Societies?
Why Study Inequality?
WHAT DO YOU THINK?
1. How equal or unequal is the distribution of income in the United States? What factors help explain income inequality?
2. What explains the existence and persistence of widespread poverty in the United States, one of the richest countries on earth?
3. Should the minimum wage be raised? What would be the costs of such an increase? What would be the benefits?
p.156
POVERTY AND PROSPERITY IN THE UNITED STATES
Melanie Stetson Freeman / Contributor/Getty Images
An article in a recent issue of Bloomberg Markets that reported on a growing demand among investors for trailer park properties in the United States profiled one such investor:
When Dan Weissman worked at Goldman Sachs Group Inc. and, later, at a hedge fund, he didn’t have to worry about methamphetamine addicts chasing his employees with metal pipes. Or SWAT teams barging into his workplace looking for arsonists.
Both things have happened since he left Wall Street and bought five mobile home parks: four in Texas and one in Indiana. Yet he says he’s never been so relaxed in his life....
[He] attributes his newfound calm to the supply-demand equation in the trailer park industry. With more of the U.S. middle class sliding into poverty and many towns banning new trailer parks, enterprising owners are getting rich renting the concrete pads and surrounding dirt on which residents park their homes.
“The greatest part of the business is that we go to sleep at night not ever worrying about demand for our product.... It’s the best decision I’ve ever made.” (Effinger & Burton, 2014)
The decline of the U.S. middle class has wrought substantial consequences for millions of families. It has also, as the Bloomberg article suggests, opened new opportunities for others, including members of the upper class. The economic position of the middle class, particularly its less educated fraction, has been slowly declining since the 1970s, a process accelerated by the economic recession of 2007–2010, the effects of which are still felt in many families and co.
International Journal of Humanities and Social Science Invention (IJHSSI)inventionjournals
International Journal of Humanities and Social Science Invention (IJHSSI) is an international journal intended for professionals and researchers in all fields of Humanities and Social Science. IJHSSI publishes research articles and reviews within the whole field Humanities and Social Science, new teaching methods, assessment, validation and the impact of new technologies and it will continue to provide information on the latest trends and developments in this ever-expanding subject. The publications of papers are selected through double peer reviewed to ensure originality, relevance, and readability. The articles published in our journal can be accessed online.
International Journal of Humanities and Social Science Invention (IJHSSI)
fyp full draft
1. Literature Review
Part 1: What is Social exclusion?
Part 2: What is Social Housing Policy in Ireland
Part 3: What is regeneration?
Part 4: Social exclusion in Limerick
Part 5: Regeneration in Limerick
The introduction of regeneration policies / programmes in Limerick City in the areas of
public housing has provided the opportunity for social inclusion in regeneration areas and
has addressed the failures of government policies over many years, in this policy area.
This literature review will be divided into 3 chapters. The first chapter will examine the
nature of social exclusion and poverty in the international context. The second chapter will
examine Irish Social housing policy since the 1960s. Finally the 3rd
chapter will examine the
relevant literature on regeneration in Ireland and abroad.
Aims of this chapter
The first section of the chapter will describe the definition and examine the relationship
between poverty and social exclusion. The third part will examine the various methods of
measuring social exclusion from an international and Irish Perpestive.
Part 1: What is Poverty?
Poverty has always been defined according to the standards in which a people in a certain
place are familiar with. Callan and Nolan note that there is uncertainty associated with the
term and concept of social exclusion in the context of policy making (Callan, Nolan, 1994, pp
9-11). This is due to the term of poverty a wide ranging concept that has common usage both
within academic application and outside the academic world. Because of its wide range of
usage, Callan and Nolan note that there should be variations between talking about poverty
2. within developed counties in the First World and talking about poverty in the developing
Third World (Callan, Nolan, 1994, pp 9-11).
Townsend defines members of society to be in poverty as “Individuals, families and groups
are said to be in poverty when they lack the resources to obtain the types of diet, participate
in the activities and have the living conditions that are customary or at least widely
encouraged in the societies to which they belong.” (Townsend, 1979, p31).
It can be noted therefore, that poverty exists when individuals and families only have access
to subsistent level income. There are various types of poverty. These are distinguishe the
differences between both absolute and relative poverty.
Absolute poverty : Sen argues that if a person is unable to access the basic resources to fulfil
their basic needs than they are considered to be in absolute poverty (Townsend, 1993,
pp124). A person’s basic needs can be divided into two categories, a person’s basic physical
needs in order to survive, (access to food, shelter, clothing and employment, minimum wage)
and also a person’s social needs (contact with other human beings, such as parents, friends
etc). (ibid pp124-132).
Relative poverty is a more refined approach to determining different poverty levels within
societies. Relative poverty can be applied to different circumstances. This relative approach is
used in the context of those living below the average income level are unlikely to participate
fully in the community and society (Nolan, Callan, 1994, p 16).
What is Social exclusion
The term social exclusion has come into extensive use within political circles with regard to
the idea that persons can be excluded from the benefits of society (Penguin Dictionary of
Sociology, 2006, pp 355-356). Walter and Park note that there is a poverty can led to social
exclusion by way of people living in poverty can be cut off from access to income, social
services and lose social contact with the rest of society (Lister, 2004, p81). It is defined as:
“Social exclusion does not only mean insufficient income, and it even goes beyond
participation in working life…it is the rupture of the social link, it suggests something more
3. than social inequality and therefore carries with it the risk of a two-tier society. (Tricart,
cited in Alcock, 2006, p121).
Dimensions of social exclusion
Silver examines three significant paradigms where the interpretations of social exclusion are
based. These paradigms are labelled ‘solidarity’, specialisation’ and monopoly.
Solidarity
The paradigm of solidarity attempts to understand the role of how the state attempts to bind
society together. Solidarity sees social exclusion as a breakdown between the relationship
between certain individuals and the rest of society. This breakdown can be caused by society
abandoning or segregating the individual (Lisiter, 2004, Silver, 2008).
Specialisation.
Specialisation focuses on the individual. Social exclusion is usually the result of the
economic division of labour between the upper classes and the working classes, social
differences between the classes. The results include discrimination against the individual or
group prevent people from exercising participating in a society (Lisiter, 2004, Silver, 2008).
Monopoly
Social exclusion is relates to the hierarchical power within the social order of society.
Powerful groups of individuals restrict the access of outsiders to certain privileges and
services. Inequality is created because of this. (de Hann, 2001).
Irish Context of social exclusion.
In the Irish context, the Combat poverty agency considers Social exclusion is considered to
be one of the negative effects of poverty. As economic growth in societies fails to reduce
inequalities and in fact can increase inequalities in societies (Combat Poverty Agency, 1997).
As this inequality in society deepens, people who live in poverty are more likely to be
prevented from acting as independent individuals in society.
Callan and Nolan note that measuring poverty in Ireland is based, similarly to other countries
in the European Union, on income information. Income information can include examining
4. the numbers of households that fall below average income thresholds in Ireland (Callan,
Nolan, 1994, p27).
By examining poverty and social exclusion through income trends has its limitations. They
take into consideration that income is not the sole determent of social exclusion. They, like
Berghman, argue that there are other factors that determine social exclusion such as family
support, and other aspects lifestyle, such as community involvement and social participation
in leisure activities (Callan, Nolan, 1994, p 50).
5. Part 2 Housing Policies in Ireland and social exclusion
The previous chapter has described the theoretical aspect of social exclusion and various
methods of measuring poverty and social exclusion.
This chapter will be divided into three parts. Part 1 will describe the various problems in Irish
urban areas, with particular reference to social housing estates. Part 2 will examine the
housing ideologies that influence state housing policy.
Part 3 will examine the recent transformation of Irish housing policy has undergone hin
response increased role of the markets in the housing sector (MacLaren et al 2007 p2).
Introduction
Despite a large increase in the number of houses and apartments built by local authorities and
private developers of the past decade, Ireland still faces a major ‘housing crises’ where the
lower social classes housing areas are separated from the rest of society through inequality
and segregation. This is due to the argument that housing ideologies have had a major impact
on the policy evolution of housing in Ireland and has contributed to the social segregation of
many individuals living within social housing estates (Drudy, 2006 p242).
Social exclusion in Ireland.
Social exclusion in Ireland can be examined by highlighting the major differences and social
and spatial differences between rich and poor neighbourhoods in urban areas (Hourigan,
2011, p xiii).
During the second half of the twentieth century, Ireland began to transition from an
agricultural based economy toward an industrialised Fordist society, and by the end of the
century a post-Fordist society. One of the effects of this shift is migration from rural to urban
areas resulting in a ‘profound change in society’ (Whelan, Layte, 2004, pp38-40). This has
resulted in an increase in the population in urban areas, and subsequently a decrease in the
population in rural areas. As result of this, local governments face challenges brought about
by social segregation from economic and social perspectives within urban areas (Colantonio,
Dixon, 2011, p4).
Within urban areas, a lack of social fluidity is most visible where there is intergenerational
poverty that is concentrated in deprived neighbourhoods. It should be noted that where there
6. is evidence of low educational attainment, high unemployment, low rates of car ownership,
high rates of lone-parent households and high rates of crime and labour force participation is
geared toward unskilled or semi-skilled labour (McCafferty a, 2009, p34).
Housing Policy in Ireland.
Healy and Reynolds draw upon three philosophies when studying the allocation of housing in
Ireland. These philosophies have a critical influence of the kinds of policies pursued by
central and local government and the type of housing system that emerges as a result of those
policies (Drudy, 2007, p85). There are different tenure types that vary across different nation
states, These three tenure types are, owner-occupied housing, rented housing and social
housing. For the purposes of this essay we will focus of the provision of owner-occupied and
socially rented housing.
Approaches to housing: A commodity or a social right.
Market system
The first approach views the market as the ideal provider for housing and determining
market prices. In this philosophy housing can be considered to be a commodity like any other
object of value such as cars and televisions (Drudy, 2007).
As the market grows, the state’s main role is to provide the private developers with the
necessary means to construct houses. This may involve fast tracking planning, providing tax
breaks, and paying for services such as sewerage and waste removal. (Considine, Dukelow,
2009, p339).
Despite having a minimal role in housing provision, the state will provide housing for those
who cannot afford it. Thus it can be argued that the market philosophy can lead to
segregation between those of housing types and various social groups (Drudy, 2006, pp 242-
243). This social diversity leads to structured patterns of social segregation within certain
areas. These areas differ from each other in terms of age and population, occupation, levels of
education, etc (McCafferty, cited in Hourigan 2011, p4).
7. Socially Rented housing
The second approach, places emphasis on housing as a social right. In this approach, social
housing is provided by government. The supply of housing is considered to be part of a
‘holistic process’ to improve the quality of life for all. Housing is placed within a broader
development framework in order to create a more ‘sustainable society’. These include access
to employment, lifelong learning opportunities, a high standard of health services and
adequate social amenities (Drudy 2007, p87).
As housing is provided is not for the purposes of profit. Allocation to social housing is
granted through allocation mechanisms designed to distribute housing to those most in need.
(Considine, Dukelow, 2009a, p333).
History of Housing polices in Ireland.
Irish housing policy has undergone huge transformation since Independence. The state’s role
has changed from the provider of social housing in the 1920s and 1930s toward the facilitator
of social housing at the end of the 20th
century
In the early 1920s, following the formation of the Irish Free State, it was deemed necessary
for the State to address the issues of slum conditions in many urban areas.
Central and local government provide publically rented housing to the lower classes to assist
the low-income population in achieving a better quality of life. The 1930s saw the state began
to shift away from government provided public-rented housing to increasing private output
through subsidising private companies to construct social housing (Norris, 2004, p17).
Since the 1930s the number of owner-occupied dwellings in Ireland has doubled, while the
socially rented sector has declined on account of government policies favouring home
ownership such as tenant purchase despite high levels of social housing construction since the
1970s. This has had a major impact that this has had on socially excluded individuals who are
unable to afford to purchase housing.
8. 1970s-1980s
In the mid-20th
century demand for social housing rose due to an increased population that
outpaced social housing output. The 1970s saw investment in the construction of social
housing on the outskirts of towns and cities with estates such as Southill in Limerick and
Tallaght in Dublin. Due to the economic difficulties, urban design was stripped down to the
bare minimum in order to save costs. ‘Roads were long and straight as this saved on the road
length per house…Economies of scale were achieved through the construction of hundreds of
standardized houses and reducing the size space between houses as much as possible
(Considine Dukelow, 2009a pp347-348 Norris, 2004, pp170-172).
Also during this period, Ireland’s economy also began to grow as it experienced a shift in
policy from economic and social protectionism toward a model of Fordist economy which
sought to export-oriented manufacturing, and adopting policies which would later be labelled
‘neoliberal’ (Kitchin et al, 2002, p1306). This shift was a conscious one in order to modernize
the national economy to achieve exports that coincided with economic growth which
continued until the early 1980s. At the same time, the emergence of multinational companies,
who located subsidiarity’s in Ireland, created jobs and a rise in income (Considine, Dukelow,
2009b, p5, O Donnell, 2008, p4).
Due to rise in income, construction of owner-occupied dwellings began to outpace the
development of social housing. The housing policy document Housing in the 70s’ began the
drive to encourage the number of owner-occupied homes to be increased.
As the middle class gained affluence and began to turn to home ownership, the ‘better off’
tenants living in social housing areas began to turn toward other tenures of housing
(Considine, Dukelow, 2009a, p348).
At this time Ireland has refashioned its institutional economy since the late 1980s by moving
towards greater neo-liberal policies due to economic decline and began to reduce the role of
local government in the provision of housing in favour of market provision (Boucher,
Collins, 2003, p297).
As a result of this, in order to ‘free-up’ social housing for the without having to construct new
housing units, ‘surrender-grant scheme of 1984 were introduced by local authorities, where
residents were given a grant of £5000 encouraged tenants to purchase their own homes
(Fahy, et al, 2004, p2). However it must be noted that these neoliberal policies have resulted
9. in areas becoming increasingly residualised as many remaining tenants who did not have the
means to leave these estates had low levels of education, the unemployed, lone-parent
families and those ‘at risk of poverty’ (Norris, 2009).
Throughout the 1980s, economic decline led to high levels of unemployment, emigration and
high levels of public debt (Honohan, 2009 p2). This caused lower social classes to be unable
to pay for the cost of housing in higher valued areas and found themselves excluded from the
of housing due to lack of non-market options and the prohibitive cost of housing. These upper
social classes were in effect ‘ring fenced from ‘undesirable social, groups who must then seek
accommodation through poorer quality social housing’ (Considine, Dukelow 2009a, p350,
McCafferty, Canny, 2005, p14, Drudy, 2007, p244).
1990s-2000s
From 1988 to 2007 GDP expanded by 6% per annum, the unemployment rate shrank to 4%
by 2000 in 2007 (Honohan, 2009, p2). During this period it can be argued that Irish Housing
Policy shifted almost completely towards a market orientated housing system. The provision
of social housing in this period had dropped to cater for 7% of the population and social
housing stock had dropped from 125,000 in 1961 to 88,000 in 1998 while by 2002 the
proportion of owner occupied housing had risen to 77% of total housing stock (Drudy, 2006,
pp247-249).
Social housing policy also underwent considerable reform during the 1990s in line with the
new market orientated housing system as outlined in the 1991 White Paper A Plan for Social
Housing. It proposed that ‘significant change be made to social housing provision to move
away from the construction of large local authority housing estates that have reinforced social
segregation…and local authorities build smaller housing schemes to private estates’ (Norris,
2004, p182, Drudy, 2006, p257).
10. PART 3: Combating social exclusion through urban regeneration.
Aims of this chapter
This chapter will describe various methods and strategies of combatting social exclusion
through urban regeneration. Social housing areas are now considered to be ‘problem estates’
that are associated with problems of derelict houses, poor infrastructure and social decline. It
will examine the relevant literature regarding why and how urban regeneration is defined in
the academic fields of thought. In addition to this, we will examine the three major aspects of
regeneration that include physical regeneration, social regeneration and economic
regeneration.
Introduction
Mehta considers regeneration to be ‘the process of renewal and to improve the physical,
economic and social conditions of a particular area’ (2006, p1). It has been found that in
order for this urban regeneration to successfully renew an area, the improvement of all three
of these conditions must have equal focus through a system of management that focuses on
the changing the physical, social and economic conditions that result in relative deprivation in
these areas.
Fitzgerald notes that regeneration cannot take place without the support of relevant local
authorities who are responsible for the drafting, and implementation of regeneration reports.
In many regeneration projects in Ireland and the United Kingdom, special purpose agencies
have been established by the state with a time limited mandate to drive regeneration within
certain regeneration areas (Fitzgerald, 2007, pp14-15). These regeneration agencies seek
empower and support the residents of disadvantaged areas to allow them to take more control
of their own lives and resolving the issues within their own communities.
Colantonio and Dixon note that the objectives of regeneration can allow for neighbourhood
interventions that improve the quality of life by addressing the physical social and economic
issues that result in the stigmatisation of local housing estates, and to reduce levels of social
segregation and isolation within these areas (2011, pp55-56).
Physical Regeneration
Physical Regeneration can be considered to be the most visible aspect of urban renewal. The
main aim of physical regeneration is to make the physical appearance of housing estates more
11. attractive to both the residents living in the estates and to make the estates attractive to those
who live outside it.
It is argued that while investment in housing and urban renewal is a vital condition for
neighbourhood change, improvements to the social and economic structures of estates are
equally, if not more important to not only offering opportunities for social inclusion also to
improve the image of the city as a whole to the outside world (Glossop, 2008, pp7-8).
In the process of physical regeneration, low demand for housing is addressed by internal
improvements to housing stock. These include the demolition of derelict houses, the creation
of space and landscaping, the refurbishment of current housing stock and the addition of
modern houses to the estates. (Hall, 1997, p880). Houses constructed should be designed in
small clusters providing additional security for residents with open spaces that can be
supervised by the overseeing properties. There should also be provisions made for the
construction of community infrastructure such as community centre, and healthcare facilities
(Limerick Regeneration, 2007 pp30-15).
Also attempts should be made to improve access to housing estate through the construction of
new roads allowing residents located at the rear of estates is to access and exit the estates and
also to link up regeneration areas to the mainstream economy of the area (Hall, 1997, p879).
Also another feature of physical regeneration is to give the local residents living in
regeneration areas a role in the decision making process in estate management in order to
give local government direction on where to direct resources where the residents feel that
they are needed most (Hall, 2009, p 882). It must be noted that the community perpestive is
becoming and important feature of the regeneration theory. (Bissett, 2008, p5).
While there are attempts to define participation by the community in estate management, they
tend to concentrate on the level of management, emphasise the need to build structure that go
beyond collecting opinions and allowing for involvement in decision making. Participation
should note limited to the rule of law but go beyond the consultation process by actively
involving stakeholders in the process of making urban regeneration sustainable (Nexus 2011,
p8).
There has been much debate on the impact of the impact of the theory of social mix in the
success of regeneration of housing areas. Social mix is described as a process of moving
residents of disadvantaged areas into areas of greater advantage and greater income. The
12. supposed benefits of social mix include that the residents who have left the areas of
disadvantage will have improved access to opportunities of education and unemployment
(Arthurson, 2008, pp1-6).
Social Regeneration
Social regeneration aims to enhance community empowerment in disadvantaged areas and
tries to involve residents in initiatives that will help reduce isolation and improve the quality
of life of those living on the estate (Hall, 1997, p9.)
This can be done through helping residents in disadvantaged areas to participate better in
economic activities through providing education via ‘life-long learning’ and ‘up-skilling’ and
reducing the number of early school leavers in the disadvantaged areas (Limerick City
Regeneration, 2008, pp2-36).
Putnam notes that in addition to education, social regeneration projects are often built upon
with the assistance of community groups, sports clubs, and voluntary organisations that
promote youth, elderly and cultural activities. There is also a major concern that
improvements in educational attainment will assist the individuals living in the areas rather
than the area as a whole. As a person gains more skills and becomes more independent,
he/she make wish to leave that area in search of employment and a better neighbourhood.
This concern must be addressed through physical regeneration and improving the area to
make it more attractive to live in (Taylor, 1998, p10).
Power and Barnes note that as part of social regeneration there should also be a greater
emphasis on policing regeneration areas as the reduce the effects of crime. They note in
particular, the importance of community policing and the visibility of armed policing as a
majorly effective policy response that represents ‘a frontline intervention’ and can help to
reduce crime rates and improve relationships between police and communities (Power and
Barnes, 2011, pp13-14).
In addition Taylor argues that social regeneration can only be successful if the services of the
state i.e. police, social services, housing departments; work in partnership with each other to
work across interdepartmental boundaries in order to provide effective responses that effect
disadvantaged areas. (Taylor, 1998, p10).
13. Economic Regeneration
The third pillar of regeneration is known as economic regeneration, The main purpose of
economic regeneration is to reintegrate disadvantaged areas into the mainstream economy of
the region in which they are located (Limerick City Regeneration 2008, p68).
Economic regeneration has grown to be of great importance in the regeneration system. In the
1980’s according to Sim, economic initiatives of early regeneration projects featured less in
importance mainly due to the difficulties in ‘developing opportunities in times of severe
recession’.(Sim, 1986, p.27, cited in Hall 1997, p10).
Previously we noted the importance for good housing quality and to allow residents to build
up social capital and empowerment through physical and social regeneration. Taylor argues
that even if a disadvantaged area has undergone physical and social regeneration and now
features good quality infrastructure and a high level of skill, knowledge and education,
without a local economy, the social capital that has been created is likely to erode in a short
period of time (Taylor, 1998 p11). .
Taylor notes the extreme difficulty in bringing jobs back into an area that is known for not
only economic exclusion but also areas that have a negative stereotype. Taylor notes that
these stereotypes can be broken down if estates develop ‘a rich patchwork of local activity
and worked with partners to turn the estate around, it may become easier to persuade outside
firms to employ people from the area and to persuade banks to lend’ (Taylor, 1998, p12).
Regeneration in Ireland
Bissett notes that in Ireland, there are predominantly two types to regeneration in Ireland.
There is the model of Public Private Partnership and the model put forward by tenants and
community groups (Bissett, 2008,p113).
The public private partnership model in Ireland, according to Bissett is the preferred
regeneration model that can be described as the ‘market for profit’. In recent years there has
been an appreciation amongst regeneration policy makers that many of the problems of
14. regeneration areas are multi-dimensional and demand a response from a wide variety of
sector (Norris, 2009). During the early 1990s to the late 2000s (the Celtic Tiger period) the
majority of regeneration programmes in Ireland have used the mechanism of the ‘Public
Private Partnership’ (PPP). Proponents of PPPs argue that they can address the deficits of
public services and infrastructure that would not be possible through state funding alone.
PPPs also introduce private sector innovations that result in ‘improved speed of delivery,
value for money and higher productivity for labour and capital resources.
The PPP model for regeneration emerged in the Dublin Area. Local communities in two
social housing areas (St Michaels Estate and Fatima Mansions) had developed plans for the
wholesale regeneration of their areas. However Government neoliberal polices of instructed
Dublin City Council to pursue different regeneration plans using the PPP model. This would
result in zero financial cost to the state by transferring market land values of estates to the
private developers in return for a certain amount of social and privately rented housing, and
the construction of community facilities and retail sectors in the areas. There would also an
argument that the profits made from PPP would be able to fund social regeneration as a
means to reduce social exclusion in the areas (Bissett, 2008, pp113-119).
Despite government favouring the method of public-private partnership, it has been criticised
by residents and community groups who argue that PPP regeneration can have an impact on
the entire regeneration process. With PPP regeneration, residents argue that tenancies will be
drastically reduced and PPP is used as an attempt by government to repossess the land and
use it in other ways (Bissett, 2008, p7). In early 2008 the collapse of the housing markets
significantly damaged the regeneration programmes in the Dublin regeneration estates.
Tenants First noted that many of the fears of the community organisations were confirmed.
They argued that the continued reliance on the PPP model of regeneration has contributed to
disillusionment and uncertainty to the already poor living conditions endured by these
communities’. Residents have been told that the plans that they invested so much effort in are
cancelled due to the private sector no longer being able to provide construction services
15. Chapter 4 Social Exclusion and Social Housing in Limerick
As we have seen, the aim of Irish social housing policy is to oversee and maintain an efficient
housing market by facilitating market responses to housing demand. Nationally, the social
housing as a tenure has declined significantly since the 1960s and is now just 10% of Irish
housing stock. Because of the reduction in the demand for social housing, processes of
residualisation now occur where public housing is used to house those who are unable to seek
their preferred housing tenure and are socially and economically vulnerable.
This chapter will now examine how the residualisation has affected social housing areas
within Limerick City particularly the current regeneration areas in Limerick. We will
examine the historical context of housing policies in the affected estates and the impact these
policies have had, we will examine the social geography of Limerick, the historical context of
how housing policy has shaped social segregation in Limerick.
Social geography of Limerick
Limerick City is the third largest city in Ireland. From 1996 to 2006 the population of both
the city and county increased by 14%, the labour force increased by 32% and the employment
rate increased by 40%. However social dichotomies that exist between different geographical
areas within the city. While some areas experience great affluence and wealth, other areas
may suffer from urban deprivation, and unemployment.
McCafferty in his study Profile of a Changing City provides on Limericks ‘complex mosaic’
of economic and social patterns that are characterised by social diversity. This social diversity
is expressed in terms of a wide array of process, having their origins in the market and also
urban governance systems, which has resulted in social types typically being placed within
certain areas in the city (McCafferty, citied in Hourigan, 2011).
Limericks social geography is constantly evolving due to changing social, economic and
educational differences in the city. Areas in Limerick can be compared with each other in
terms of the age of the occupants, the size and types of families living in the areas, the levels
of educational attainment, the occupation of the residents, their income and levels of
consumption (McCafferty, O Keefe, 2009, p17).
16. Historical Context
(Map reproduced from Limerick Regeneration Website)
According to the Fitzgerald report, out of the 18,900 households in the City Council
administrative area, 8,000 are constructed as social housing. The majority of private housing
has been constructed in the Limerick County Council, which has distorted the demographic
profile of the City. (O Sullivan, 2010, p31).
17. The late 1920s the social geography of Limerick city was very different to what is seen today.
The affluent upper and middle classes of society lived in the limerick suburbs while the
poorer middle-income working classes remained closer to the city centre in neighbourhoods
near factories and centres of industry. Poor local service provision led to the creation of slum-
like conditions that drew attention from international and national commentators. Following
the foundation of the State early attempts at slum clearance were made by local authorities,
with the construction of estates such as Ballinacurra Weston and St Marys Park (Hourigan,
2011). This was the result of the innovative ‘million pound scheme’ were, funding was
provided to local authority house building (Norris, 2004). (Hourigan, 2011, pp45-47).
However the modernisation of Irish industry resulted in migration of the cities poorer
residents to the older social housing areas. As the number of people employed in agriculture
began to decline, and there was widespread in migration toward Limerick City from County
Limerick, and neighbouring counties such as Clare and Tipperary there was increasing
demand for further publically rented accommodation to be provided as older estates began to
become overcrowded and unfit for purpose (Norris, 2004, p174). Successive government
pressurised Limerick Cooperation to address this problem by constructing up to 1,000 houses
to meet the cities requirements through the introduction of the Housing Act 1966, which
enabled housing authorities to deal with unfit dwellings and districts in their operational areas
by requiring them the access housing need every five years (ibid).
As a result of these pressures, two major housing initiatives were undertaken by Limerick
Cooperation. The development of Southill which began in 1967, and the development of
Moyross which began in the early 1970s (Hourigan, 2011, p47).
Due to the intensity of the housing crisis, local authorities had very little time or resources to
provide other forms of community infrastructure. Urban design was stripped down to the bare
minimum in order to save costs. In Southill many houses were built in the 1960s from Mass
Concrete, with very little insulation. In Southill in particular the construction of houses based
on economies of scale could be considered to have been a solution to the escalating housing
crises invoking tenements within the city centre in the 1960s and the houses in South were
‘built in a hurry to resolve these issues. In contrast to Southill the estate of Moyross ‘were of
an immensely better build . However houses were built on large scales without any social
infrastructure such as schools, churches, community centres etc. (Hourigan, 2011, p12)
18. However despite the lack of resources the local authority estates were populated by both
middle income workers as well as families who were moved in from the tenements from the
city. This was a deliberate move by planning authorities to mix the ‘better families’ with the
other families in the hope that they would set the social standards for the community.
Despite the infrastructural issues within many local authority estates, areas there was a deep
sense of community within areas such as Moyross and Southill. Community organisations
were set up by many residents in order to provide for social activities for young and old.
These organisations campaign for Garda Stations, Churches and community centres and
schools to be set up in the area to help resolve the issues with social infrastructure (Power,
Barnes, cited in Hourigan, 2011).
The move toward market orientated housing strategy.
Fahy notes that as affluence grew among the middle classes, many began to turn to owner
occupied housing as an alternative to social housing. The Irish economic climate during the
1980s meant that investment in social housing declined , as a result of this the output of social
housing fell sharply for 5,984 units constructed in 1980 to only 768 units in 1989 (Considine,
Dukelow, 2009, p349).
The better off segments of the social housing providers began to turn toward other forms of
housing tenure either through purchasing their homes in local authority estates or leaving the
estates in favour of privately developed housing (Fahy, 2000). The polices pursues by local
authorities unintentionally resulted in the role of social housing shifting toward social
housing becoming the physical receptors of many social problems in the 1980s, including
homelessness, long-term unemployment (Considine, Dukelow, 2009, p348).
Also the introduction of the National tenant surrender scheme was another policy aimed at
making the most out of the housing stock. Its aims were to allow the tenants an incentive to
leave their local authority house area and purchase their own dwelling in the private market.
This scheme was in operation from 1984 to 1987, it provided a grant of £5000 to local
authority tenants to give up the local authority accommodation in order to purchase a private
dwelling. (Fahy, 1999, pp40-41).
Also in attempts to diversify housing tenure, the surrender grant was eventually replaced with
tenant purchase schemes allowed some of the higher income tenants who did not wish to
leave the public authority houses to purchase their homes from the local authority. (Fahy,
19. 2004, p2-4). The scheme allowed tenants to purchase their homes at cost efficient prices
without having to secure a mortgage. Tenants were able to purchase their homes from the
local authorities (O Connell, cited in O Dea, 2012).
However, these schemes were mostly accessible to higher income and employed
householders. The result of this scheme was the movement of persons not just between tenure
categories but between housing area types which resulted in the social destabilisation of
estates (McCafferty, 2009). In the Southill area in particular, the surrender grant had a
negative impact on the O Malley Park and Keyes Park which affected the levels of
community activity which declined significantly and resulted in the creation of a vacuum
from which the estates never fully recovered’, (McCafferty, Canny 2005, p93).
Issues within Limerick local authority estates.
As stated previously, Irish housing policies such as the surrender grant have resulted in the
unintended segregation of many of its resident particular in Limerick City. This section will
examine how this segregation has impacted upon resident’s daily lives prior to regeneration
commencing in Limerick City.
Anti-social behaviour and criminality
Following the implementation of the surrender grant O Malley Park in Southill experienced a
69% decrease in population from 1985 to 2006. Power and Barnes note that this has
contributed significantly to the ‘problems experienced in the area and the failure of the City’s
housing programme (Power, Barnes, 2011, p7).
The people who had left the estates had asserted law and order in the communities, and
created the conditions for community organisations and who had campaigned for Garda
substations the populations of these estates who remained behind had a higher proportion of
unemployment and single parent households. Levels of educational attainment dropped
significantly.
Due to the high proportion of unemployed and educated, some young people began to engage
in anti-social behaviour which gradually evolved into more serious criminal activities. This
anti-social behaviour has hence had a profound impact on many ordinary residents who
20. consequently feel vulnerable to random attacks and those who experience extreme anxiety as
a result. (Hourigan, 2011, cited in Power and Barnes, 2012, piii).
Because of their addresses, many residents experienced stigmatisation from the ‘outer
Limerick society’. Many found difficulty when applying for jobs and because of patterns of
early school leaving, many young people did not progress through the education system.
Because of this many felt excluded from mainstream society and were unable to achieve a
status in society. Because of this they began to go about creating their own status reminiscent
of being a ‘hard man’ who has the capacity for violence and represents toughness. Within
their communities they are deeply feared by the many decent people in the community. As a
result the image of toughness is being passed down to the younger generation who feel the
image of toughness is something to live up to and attempt to replicate it (Hourigan, 2011,
p73).
Through intimidation and acts of violence, residents note that many people in the community
are unable to raise their voice on issues concerning their estate. Some people have tried to
stand up to criminals have been intimidated and attacked out of their homes. Also to the rest
of Ireland, Limerick began to be perceived as a violent, rough city, as portrayed by the label
‘Stab City’ by the media, which for many people living in the city is not the truth (O Sullivan,
2008, p31).
21. Design and living conditions in estates.
In Limerick, the design of large social housing estates are located at the edge of the city.
Access to the areas is limited with some estates such as Moyross being cut off from the rest
of the cities transport and road infrastructure. Moyross in particular has been termed ‘the
biggest cul de sac in Limerick’.
Figure 1.2 Moyross (Reproduced from Limerick Regeneration Website)
Also the majority of the Moyross estate is served by just one road of the Knockalisheen
Road. This not only creates a limited access condition with implications for crime and safety,
but makes access to the facilities and opportunities of the city by walking or public transport
difficult (Limerick Regeneration, 2008, p80).
22. (Figure 1.3) St Marys Park (Reproduced from Limerick Regeneration Website)
St Marys Park in particular suffers from isolation due to its location on the ‘island’ in
Limerick City. The only way to access St. Mary Park is through the Island Road roundabout
and three other access roads that converge at that roundabout. In effect like Moyross, this
gives a cul de sac effect resulting in limited accessibility. This single point of access/egress
has contributed greatly to the isolation of the estate and its resulting social problems
(Limerick Regeneration, p172).
23. (Figure 1.4) Southill (Reproduced from Limerick Regeneration Website)
Similarly the Southill area is marked by the large Roxboro Roundabout. To the south of this
Roundabout, lie the estates of O Malley Park, Keyes Park, and Carew Park. Despite a
distance of 1.5km towards Limerick City Centre, the estate is cut off from the city due to lack
of accessibility for major roads and railway (Limerick Regeneration 2008, p117).
24. Figure 1.4 Ballinacurra Weston (Reproduced from Limerick City Regeneration Website)
Ballinacurra Weston is located between Hyde Avenue and Prospect Hill, with access to the
estate from Hyde Avenue only. Also the internal structure of the estate is based on a system
of cul de sacs with no continuous routes or connections. The nearest retail centre is located at
Punches Cross, but is difficult to reach because of the poor design of cul-de-sacs (Limerick
City Regeneration, 2008, p120).
Size of Estates
Another issue that Hall addresses is that the size of housing estates can be seen to be a major
causal factor in the creation of social problems within the estates. Many housing estates were
located on the periphery of cities because it was possible to assemble green field sites for
industrialised housing projects to be built using economies of scale. Size contributes to
management difficulties for the local authorities who are responsible for the estates, which
hence contributes to the segregation of residents living there (Hall, 1997, p886).
In Moyross, there were 1,600 houses built in the area that were divided into 12 parks. Also in
Southside of the city comprised of 1,360 houses in various estates. The area of Ballinacurra
25. Weston consists of 200 houses. In 2008 these areas had a combined population of, 10,000
people (Limerick Regeneration, 2008, p31).
Poor economic opportunities
Also there are few employment opportunities in Moyross aside from the Galvone Industrial
Estate in Southill, a retail development at Watch House Cross and fuel depot in Moyross.
However because of security problems many of the retailers in these areas left (Limerick
Regeneration, 2008 p26). The closure of many factories in Limerick such as Dell, Krups, and
Ferenka had a terrible impact in the area as these factories were the main source of income
for many residents (McCafferty, cited in Hourigan, 2011).
Living conditions
There is highly visible degradation of housing stock in all four housing areas. Many houses of
the estates have been built of poor quality due to being built in economies of scale; they were
constructed of mass concrete, with little to insulation (Fitzgearld report, 2007).
Conclusion
The chapter has examined how changing Irish housing policies have affected some local
authority estates in Limerick. From examine the history of social housing in Limerick; we
can see that local authority estates such as Moyross and St Marys Park were constructed in
the 1960s in order to relive social problems within the slums and tenements within the city
centre. While this plan was somewhat successful, the design of housing estates was poor,
many houses were of poor quality, and lacked social amenities. ‘You got houses…; full stop
(Councillor X)
Government policies of the 1980s unintentionally undermined the social mix of the
communities through policies such as the surrender grant. Because of this those in the estate
who had access to social capital and where also the community leaders of the estate left the
areas. Following this, rates of unemployment and dependency on the state rose, and the areas
faced growing problems with anti-social behaviour and more serious crime occurring within
the areas. This resulted in the stigmatisation of the areas and the segregation from mainstream
26. Limerick society. These areas became essentially ‘no-go” areas for local authorities who led
to the rapid decline of housing in these areas and also a lack of social capital in the areas.
The next chapter will discuss the work of the Limerick regeneration agencies to date and how
it has affected the social and infrastructural situation within the estates. We will also make
reference to the findings of the qualitative research undertaken to see how the areas have
changed.
The introduction of regeneration policies in Limerick local authority housing estates
The issues of housing, crime and social exclusion came to national attention in September
2006, following the firebombing of a car in Moyross which contained two young children.
This incident caused a national outcry.
In November 2006, John Fitzgerald former Dublin City Manager was requested to conduct a
review of the social exclusion, crime and disorder issues in Limerick City. On the 3 April
2007 Mr Fitzgerald presented his report Addressing Issues of Social Exclusion in Moyross
and Other Disadvantaged Areas of Limerick City: report to the cabinet committee on social
inclusion, commonly known as the Fitzgerald report (Limerick Regeneration, 2008).
Mr Fitzgerald worked with representatives from community organisations and the public
sector from Limerick City and County to identify actions which could address problems
within the Moyross and other areas of disadvantage.
Several issues were identified that needed to be addressed including low-level crime and
disorder and the intimidation of residents and public sector staff, preventing both from going
about their daily lives and work. In addition there were very limited opportunities for local
employment for those living in the areas, poor infrastructure has essentially cut off the areas
from the rest of the city (Fitzgerald, 2007, pp4-5).
Mr Fitzgerald recommended a multi-faceted approach to address the social issues in Moyross
and Southill, including putting intensive policing arrangements in place, including a highly
visible Garda presence in the areas involving the addition of 100 extra Gardaí to the areas.
Also Mr Fitzgerald noted that the efforts of the statutory and voluntary agencies needs to be
better focused in a long term strategy to address the problems through the ‘wholesale
regeneration of Moyross and Southill areas of the city (ibid, pp7-8). Mr Fitzgearld also
recommended a proposal for a limited extension of the City Councils boundary up to the
27. Limerick County Council boundary in the northern part of the city. This would bring the
social housing estates of Pineview Gardens and Delmeage Park under Limerick City Council,
, thus facilitating the regeneration process.
On the 15th
of June, 2007 Ministerial Orders S.I275/276 established the Limerick
Regeneration Agencies, Southside and Northside. Both Agencies were given the task
designing a programme of regeneration to be implemented in the areas of Moyross on the
Northside, and Southill and Ballinacurra Weston on the Southside and have a lifespan of five
years.
In March 2008, the estate of St. Marys Park was added to the remit of the Regeneration
Project (Limerick Regeneration, 2008, p7). Former Assistant Dublin City Manager Brendan
Kenny was appointed the Chief Executive of the Agencies and John Fitzgerald Chairman for
the Board of Directors for both agencies. A board for each agency was appointed by the
Minister of Environment.
The work of the Limerick Regeneration to date
Limerick Regeneration Agencies focused on establishing long term community structures to
assist in the management of regeneration in Limerick. This was done by forming
Regeneration Committees consisting of residents, community groups, gardaí and officials
from Limerick City Council who worked with the Regeneration Agencies to formulate a
programme of regeneration in these areas (Limerick Regeneration, 2008).
From 2008 to 2012 Limerick Regeneration agencies for the Southside and the Northside have
developed comprehensive measures to combat social exclusion and disadvantage and drive
forward regeneration under three pillars, as previously mentioned in Chapter 3, social
regeneration, physical regeneration and economic regeneration. Regeneration CEO Brendan
Kenny, in his speech ‘Education as a Catalyst for Regeneration’ noted that the state had set
out a budget of €24 billion of regeneration, half to be supplied from the private sector, half
from the public sector. He also noted that social regeneration can be considered to be the
most important aspect of regeneration as the most important and difficult to do. This is
because physical regeneration on its own will not be sufficient to promote social inclusion
without addressing the social problems in the areas first.
28. Boundary Extension
One of the major issues first faced was the issue of the northwest boundary of the city, where
many estates, including a significant portion of the regeneration estate of Moyross was
located outside the boundary of Limerick City, and in the Clare County council. This created
several issues of neglect and a lack of services and political representation for an area of
roughly 300 houses.
On recommendation of the Fitzgeards report, a boundary committee was established resulting
in a recommendation that the City Councils northern boundary be extended to facilitate
intensive development and regeneration. This boundary alteration took effect on the 1st
of
March 2008 and the housing estates of Pineview Gardens and Delmeage Park and also the
areas in north Limerick were added to the remit of the City Council. (Dr Mattew Potter, City
Boundary has had the edges knocked down for centries 2009 Limerick Leader the granary)
Physical regeneration
There was also major controversy regarding the plans for the physical regeneration of the
areas as they placed emphasis on rebuilding the physical housing of the estate through public-
private partnerships which highlighted concerns that residents views on the regeneration
process would be ignored and the local communities would be relegated in favour of strategic
political interests in freeing up public land for ‘development’(Hourigan, 2011 p150, Bissett,
2008, p xxv).Also external events of the global economic downturn had a major impact on
the Irish economy pushing it into a deep recession that it has yet to emerge from and created a
crisis in the construction industry. The diminished the potential for the use of public private
partnership to fund the regeneration programme. As a response to these difficulties, the
Limerick Regeneration Agencies reoriented their programme toward social regeneration
particularly in the areas of education and providing healthcare (Hourigan, 2011, pp150-151).
Also in order to facilitate the building process many residents were moved out to the
regeneration estates to other areas in the City and Limerick County. It is hoped that by
moving ‘disadvantaged’ residents that their life conditions would improve in new areas.
While construction began on the first block of new apartment in 2011 the majority of the
work that has been completed in the estate predominantly involves the demolition of houses.
While this policy has benefitied some areas it has also resulted in the rapid degradation other
areas. In order to improve access to the estates there has been a proposed Northern Distrubter
29. Road linking the bac of Moyross to the rest of Limerick City. This road is currently in the
planning stages of construction.
Social regeneration
The second pillar of social regeneration has been identified as the keystone pillar for the
regeneration programme in Limerick.
Social regeneration in the areas were to be coordinated by not only Limerick Regeneration
but multiple state agencies including the department of education, the HSE, and the Gardaí to
promote interests in Education, Health, Youth and Family Support and also Neibhourhoods
and people(Limerick, Regeneration, 2008). There were also major recommendation to put in
place intensive policing arrangements.
Policing
Intensive policing arrangements in the regeneration areas with an emphasis on community
policing and the use of Community Gardaí have resulted in a stronger link between many
people in the community and their relationship with the Gardaí. Power and Barnes note in
addition to the Community and local policing in the areas, the continued work and presence
of National Garda Units has been effective in reducing criminal activity in the areas and
making them safer places to live. Crime has decreased 12% in the areas and has described it
as phenomenal (Power, Barnes, 2011, p11-12).
Education
Improving educational opportunities within regeneration areas was considered to be one of
the keystone of the regeneration programme in Limerick. The Limerick Regeneration
agencies funded and supported iniativiates to support educational disadvantage for children
both inside and outside of school. These services include assist special needs children, the
development of school infrastructure, Psychological and Counselling support schemes are
also available to provide to young people living in the estates. The Agencies also supported
many diversion projects put in place in regeneration areas, especially in supporting
community based partnerships. In particular the Southside of Limerick City the Regeneration
Agencies has continually supported the community, education and training programmes
provided by the Limerick Enterprise Development Partnership (LEDP). This organisation
provides funding of up to €300,000 per annum in support of education and community
30. projects in Limerick City and the surrounding area. LEDP provides educational support and
youth diversion facilities for the people of Southill and Ballinacurra Weston and Moyross
(Lee, Boland, 2011, pp1-2).
Economic Regeneration
The third and final pillar of economic regeneration created a plan to provide for the creation
of long term employment for the local people of the affected estates. The Masterplan notes
that the high levels of unemployment were running way above the national average, existing
in the regeneration areas and serve to exacerbate social exclusion (Limerick Regeneration,
2008, p9). The economic regeneration plan proposed that financial incentives be introduced
by Government for Limerick Regeneration Areas to attract private sector investment which
would assist in changing the social and economic problems within the areas. The plan also
noted that education and specialist training was to play a key role in the economic
regeneration process(Limerick Regeneration, 2008, p9). However the economic downturn
resulted in limited resources for economic regeneration and the programme was scaled back
significantly.
Community Perpestive on Regeneration
The communities of regeneration estates have severely criticised the regeneration process,
arguing that it has in fact made the situation worse than it was prior to the programme
commencing. Due to the economic downturn the construction of the physical regeneration
has never taken place. Despite the social aspect, there has been very little work done in the
area of physical regeneration. The Limerick Regeneration Watch note that during the life of
the regeneration agencies, over €120 million was spent on the programme without being of
any benefit to the areas. ‘In Many ways we are worse off than before the regeneration came
to town.’ They contend that 1,000 families have been ‘displaced’. The policy of boarding up
houses is attracting anti-social behaviour and encouraging residents to leave the areas.
Demolishing homes has resulted in major issues with collapsed sewage pipes, water mains
and gas leaks. Many residents argue that the continued policy of relocation of residents is
destabilising the estates (Limerick Leader, 2012, p12)
31. Following the end of the regeneration agencies.
In June 2012 the Limerick Regenerations agencies completed their 5 year mandate and were
disbanded and the housing scheme was transferred a Limerick Regeneration Office under the
Limerick City Council. Following the amalgamation of the City and County Council in 2014
the Regeneration Office will be under the new unitary authority. One of the main objectives
of this new regeneration office is to begin the construction phase of the Regeneration Process
(Limerick Leader, 2012, pp6-7).
In December 2012 contracts were signed for the first €5.3 million regeneration project on the
southside of the city. This will involve the construction of a retirement complex in Carew
Park and is expected to be completed next year (Limerick voice, 2012, p1). January 2013 saw
the €17million to the City regeneration budget. (Limerick Chronicle 2013, p32). Director for
regeneration Ollie O Loughlin has also announced intentions to improve communications
woth regeneration communities and attempt to provide employment to as many local people
as possible.