This document provides a summary of the life and work of historian Fustel de Coulanges. It describes him as a powerful thinker who developed an original historical method focused on exhaustive analysis of primary sources. His major works included La Cite Antique, which analyzed ancient Greek and Roman institutions as originating from ancestor worship, and Institutions Politiques de l'Ancienne France, examining early French political systems. The document evaluates both the strengths and limitations of his logical but narrowly focused approach to history.
This chapter discusses doing anthropology with the ancient Greeks. It argues against views that see the Greeks as the ancestors of Western civilization or the source of concepts like democracy and philosophy. Instead, it advocates a comparative and experimental anthropological approach to studying ancient societies. This involves making thoughtful observations and comparisons between Greek and other ancient and modern cultures to better understand concepts like mythology, politics, and truth from a variety of perspectives. The goal is to move beyond Eurocentric views of history and gain new insights into problems that are both culturally specific and universally important.
This document discusses two medieval "peasant visions" from the late 12th-early 13th centuries that provide insight into oral and written culture of the time period. It analyzes the Visions of Thurkill and Godeschalk, which were accounts of visions experienced by simple peasants that were later written down by clergy. While some visions may have been fictional, these two are treated as genuine reflections of contemporary folk beliefs that shed light on views of the afterlife and religious ideology. The document examines how the visions reveal the interplay between oral tradition and written texts shaped by ecclesiastical influences.
This document analyzes Perry Anderson's book "The New Old World" and whether it can be considered a work of transnational history. It discusses two key issues: Anderson's avoidance of direct comparison between nation states and his focus on political elites as drivers of integration. While Anderson examines ideas and forces crossing borders, in line with transnational history, his rejection of comparison as a method and narrow focus on political actors differs from transnational theory's prescriptions. The document analyzes these issues in depth and questions whether Anderson's approach provides useful insights for critiquing transnational history paradigms.
The document discusses the impact of humanism in Christopher Marlowe's play "The Tragical History of Doctor Faustus". It summarizes that Renaissance humanism emphasized individualism and secularism over religious doctrine. The play presented Faustus as a humanist figure who revolts against God's authority by seeking earthly pleasures over salvation. While influenced by theological constraints of his time, Faustus chooses happiness in defiance of what is deemed "evil" by the church. The play illustrates the inner struggle between Christian faith and ancient Greek secular beliefs that was emblematic of the Renaissance period.
This document is an excerpt from the journal Orientalia Parthenopea discussing Jerusalem in the poetry of Yehuda Amichai, Israel's greatest poet of the 20th century. It analyzes how Amichai's poetry explores the themes of conflict with God and religious tradition, as well as themes of exile and return, through his depictions of Jerusalem. The excerpt focuses on how Jerusalem serves as a central unifying theme and "great clasp" that brings together the most important topics in Amichai's work. It has been shown by other scholars that Amichai's relationship with the city reflected his grappling with these theological and ideological issues.
11th_Peter matheson breaking_the_silence_women_censorship_and_the_reformationSt. George's College
Argula von Grumbach was a female German Protestant reformer in the early 16th century who wrote extensively criticizing the Catholic Church and authorities. She faced intense backlash, being called shameful names for speaking out as a woman. Her writings defended Protestant ideas and called for open debate, religious freedom, and an end to censorship. They became widespread bestsellers, with an estimated 30,000 copies circulating in just two years. Von Grumbach's activism challenged social norms but was emboldened by her sense of the imminent apocalypse and judgment prophesied in scripture. She served as a notable early female voice of the Protestant Reformation.
A history of_classical_greek_literature_v2_1000104793 (1)Joy Mukherjee
This chapter introduces the history of Greek prose literature and discusses the early use of writing in Greece. It argues that writing was likely used in Greece before 700 BC based on early inscriptions. Around this time, lawgivers developed written legal codes and the sayings of wise men were recorded, indicating the growing use and familiarity with writing. However, poetry remained the dominant literary form until special influences in the 6th century encouraged the development of prose. These influences included changes in religion with the spread of Orphic and Eleusinian mysteries, and the dawn of philosophy in Greece.
Foundations Unearthed, Maria Hall, Histories Mysteries Chuck Thompson
This document provides an introduction and summary of the findings of Maria Bauer's research into the Bacon-Shakespeare controversy. It begins by outlining William Shakespeare's background, noting he had little education and no evidence of literary genius. It then contrasts this with Sir Francis Bacon's background as a highly learned statesman, scholar, scientist and philosopher. The document argues that based on the available historical facts, Bacon is the only candidate who could have plausibly written the plays. It notes many scholars and codes found in the works point to Bacon's authorship. The document aims to enlighten Freemasons on Bauer's research as it relates to discovering answers about the origins of Freemasonry from materials in the buried Bruton
This chapter discusses doing anthropology with the ancient Greeks. It argues against views that see the Greeks as the ancestors of Western civilization or the source of concepts like democracy and philosophy. Instead, it advocates a comparative and experimental anthropological approach to studying ancient societies. This involves making thoughtful observations and comparisons between Greek and other ancient and modern cultures to better understand concepts like mythology, politics, and truth from a variety of perspectives. The goal is to move beyond Eurocentric views of history and gain new insights into problems that are both culturally specific and universally important.
This document discusses two medieval "peasant visions" from the late 12th-early 13th centuries that provide insight into oral and written culture of the time period. It analyzes the Visions of Thurkill and Godeschalk, which were accounts of visions experienced by simple peasants that were later written down by clergy. While some visions may have been fictional, these two are treated as genuine reflections of contemporary folk beliefs that shed light on views of the afterlife and religious ideology. The document examines how the visions reveal the interplay between oral tradition and written texts shaped by ecclesiastical influences.
This document analyzes Perry Anderson's book "The New Old World" and whether it can be considered a work of transnational history. It discusses two key issues: Anderson's avoidance of direct comparison between nation states and his focus on political elites as drivers of integration. While Anderson examines ideas and forces crossing borders, in line with transnational history, his rejection of comparison as a method and narrow focus on political actors differs from transnational theory's prescriptions. The document analyzes these issues in depth and questions whether Anderson's approach provides useful insights for critiquing transnational history paradigms.
The document discusses the impact of humanism in Christopher Marlowe's play "The Tragical History of Doctor Faustus". It summarizes that Renaissance humanism emphasized individualism and secularism over religious doctrine. The play presented Faustus as a humanist figure who revolts against God's authority by seeking earthly pleasures over salvation. While influenced by theological constraints of his time, Faustus chooses happiness in defiance of what is deemed "evil" by the church. The play illustrates the inner struggle between Christian faith and ancient Greek secular beliefs that was emblematic of the Renaissance period.
This document is an excerpt from the journal Orientalia Parthenopea discussing Jerusalem in the poetry of Yehuda Amichai, Israel's greatest poet of the 20th century. It analyzes how Amichai's poetry explores the themes of conflict with God and religious tradition, as well as themes of exile and return, through his depictions of Jerusalem. The excerpt focuses on how Jerusalem serves as a central unifying theme and "great clasp" that brings together the most important topics in Amichai's work. It has been shown by other scholars that Amichai's relationship with the city reflected his grappling with these theological and ideological issues.
11th_Peter matheson breaking_the_silence_women_censorship_and_the_reformationSt. George's College
Argula von Grumbach was a female German Protestant reformer in the early 16th century who wrote extensively criticizing the Catholic Church and authorities. She faced intense backlash, being called shameful names for speaking out as a woman. Her writings defended Protestant ideas and called for open debate, religious freedom, and an end to censorship. They became widespread bestsellers, with an estimated 30,000 copies circulating in just two years. Von Grumbach's activism challenged social norms but was emboldened by her sense of the imminent apocalypse and judgment prophesied in scripture. She served as a notable early female voice of the Protestant Reformation.
A history of_classical_greek_literature_v2_1000104793 (1)Joy Mukherjee
This chapter introduces the history of Greek prose literature and discusses the early use of writing in Greece. It argues that writing was likely used in Greece before 700 BC based on early inscriptions. Around this time, lawgivers developed written legal codes and the sayings of wise men were recorded, indicating the growing use and familiarity with writing. However, poetry remained the dominant literary form until special influences in the 6th century encouraged the development of prose. These influences included changes in religion with the spread of Orphic and Eleusinian mysteries, and the dawn of philosophy in Greece.
Foundations Unearthed, Maria Hall, Histories Mysteries Chuck Thompson
This document provides an introduction and summary of the findings of Maria Bauer's research into the Bacon-Shakespeare controversy. It begins by outlining William Shakespeare's background, noting he had little education and no evidence of literary genius. It then contrasts this with Sir Francis Bacon's background as a highly learned statesman, scholar, scientist and philosopher. The document argues that based on the available historical facts, Bacon is the only candidate who could have plausibly written the plays. It notes many scholars and codes found in the works point to Bacon's authorship. The document aims to enlighten Freemasons on Bauer's research as it relates to discovering answers about the origins of Freemasonry from materials in the buried Bruton
Perspectivism holds that one can only access and understand the world through their own unique perspective and interpretation. It rejects the idea of objective reality that is separate from perspectives. Nietzsche fully developed the idea of perspectivism, challenging prior Western philosophers like Plato, Descartes, and Kant.
Literary history charts the developments and experiments of authors through various periods in hopes of stimulating global discourse and cultural understanding. While a dominant view is that our current understanding is more advanced, studying the past often fosters respect for the intelligence of prior eras.
The American literary historian R.E. Spiller put forward four theories about literary history, which are not described further in the text.
The Antichrist, By F.W. Nietzsche, Free eBookChuck Thompson
The Antichrist, By F.W. Nietzsche, Free eBook. World literature from the days of old. Nietzsche is often quoted today for his insight into many areas still used in modern thought. Brought to you from the folks at Gloucester, Virginia Links and News website. Visit us for more.
Archetypal criticism interprets texts by focusing on recurring myths, archetypes, symbols, and character types. It views literature as imitating the collective dreams and experiences of humanity. Northrop Frye was a founding father of archetypal criticism and viewed literature through a mythical lens. He believed that myths reflect a profound reality and that poetic thought can powerfully impact the human mind. The Bible also employs archetypal structures like typology, where people and events in the Old Testament prefigure revelations in the New Testament.
This document discusses the selective memory of Palestinian women leaders during the British Mandate period in Palestine from 1920-1948. It notes that while certain women leaders are continually referenced in modern nationalist narratives, their prominence contradicts historical sources from the time period. In particular, Zlikha Shihabi is often invoked despite limited evidence of her actual role. More broadly, the women's movement has been marginalized in the national narrative, only referenced when politically convenient. This disconnect between historical remembering and forgetting highlights how memory, gender, and history can be politicized.
Language, until the inception of 19th century, was related to philosophers and the theories, they presented to define its philosophy.
The scientific study of language did not of course, begin in this century; but the years around 1900 happen to have marked an important turning-point in the history of modern linguistics.
This document provides an introduction and overview for the book "The Gutenberg Galaxy" by Marshall McLuhan. It discusses how the book will take a mosaic approach to trace how forms of experience, thought, and social organization have been modified by the phonetic alphabet and printing. It notes that historians have previously omitted studying revolutions in thought and social structures resulting from changes in communication technologies. The introduction explains that the book will extend the work of Milman Parry on oral vs. written poetry to other forms. It aims to supply insight into the basic change in attitudes and values that released the technological revolution, which previous studies had not explained.
The article discusses Fustel de Coulanges as a historian and the change in his focus from ancient history to medieval history. It suggests that the Franco-Prussian War of 1870 profoundly impacted Fustel and motivated him to shift his research from antiquity to studying the early history of France in order to counter German claims and restore French national pride. The war experience ignited Fustel's passion for using history to address contemporary political issues facing France. He embarked on his major work on early French institutions in 1874 in an effort to refute ideas that France was simply a degraded province of Rome and instead show its independent historical development.
This document discusses the relationship between anecdotes and history. It argues that while anecdotes have existed for a long time in various forms, they have an ambiguous relationship with history. On one hand, anecdotes can support and illustrate points in history by providing examples. However, anecdotes can also challenge official histories by presenting alternative perspectives or unusual events not included in traditional narratives. The document uses the example of an anecdote about Wittgenstein and Popper arguing to illustrate how anecdotes can raise historiographical problems when eyewitness accounts conflict. It then analyzes how anecdotes have been used and interpreted in different eras and genres of writing history.
The document discusses the origins of philosophy and poetry according to Aristotle and others. It says that Aristotle believed wonder is the source of both, as it prompts people to seek understanding and knowledge. While Aristotle saw philosophy and poetry as having the same starting point in wonder, he believed they diverged into explanation (philosophy) versus myth-making (poetry). The document also discusses Plato's view of poetry and contrasts Aristotle and Plato's differing influences on later centuries.
Scientists have been studying the impacts of climate change on various aspects of the environment and society. Rising global temperatures are causing sea levels to rise and weather patterns to become more extreme and unpredictable. This is damaging infrastructure and agriculture, as well as disrupting ecosystems. While governments are taking action to reduce emissions, further international cooperation will be needed to address this pressing issue.
This document summarizes and reviews a book titled "Hellas on Screen. Cinematic Receptions of Ancient History, Literature and Myth." that examines how Greek antiquity has been portrayed in films. The review provides the following key points:
1) The book contains diverse essays from classicists and ancient historians analyzing how films have represented Greek themes, figures, and history either through examining historical context or questions of historical representation.
2) While most contributions offer stimulating analysis, some focus more on recounting film scenes than interpretation.
3) Oliver Stone's Alexander film features prominently due to its biographical support and impact in popularizing Greek antiquity in modern cinema.
4) The review critiques the
The document discusses Lawrence Stone's argument that there has been a revival of narrative history due to a decline in "big why" questions and generalizing models of historical explanation. The author agrees there has been a shift toward more diverse topics, but argues historians still aim to provide coherent explanations of change. Reasons for shifts include addressing new complexities from expanding fields, and succeeding in prioritizing certain topics without abandoning explanation. Some prefer starting with specific situations that exemplify structures rather than structures alone.
A Thing Or Two About Absolutism And Its HistoriographyRachel Doty
This article examines the contested concept of "absolutism" in historiography. While some scholars argue it is an anachronistic term that should be abandoned, the author believes it can describe a portion of early modern political thought. The essay addresses debates around absolutism, including whether it refers to the theories of absolutist thinkers or the practices of early modern monarchies. It also suggests the term "absolutisms" may better capture the plural political languages and opinions of the past. The author proposes a new methodological approach and definitions to understand absolutism, addressing both its complexity and role as a troublesome historiographical category.
My Religion by Leo Tolstoi. What most people are not aware of is that Leo Tolstoi wrote this book about his found Christianity and how he patterned the rest of his life on those beliefs. The picture of Tolstoi on the cover is very rare and highly prized and was a color photo taken in 1901.
Gloucester, Virginia Links and News website. Visit us.
THE HEDGEHOG AND THE FOXAn Essay on Tolstoy’s View of Hist.docxoreo10
THE HEDGEHOG AND THE FOX
An Essay on Tolstoy’s View of History
To the memory of Jasper Ridley
A queer combination of the brain of an English
chemist with the soul of an Indian Buddhist.
E. M. de Vogüé1
i
There is a line among the fragments of the Greek poet Archilo-
chus which says: ‘The fox knows many things, but the hedgehog
knows one big thing.’2 Scholars have differed about the correct
interpretation of these dark words, which may mean no more than
that the fox, for all his cunning, is defeated by the hedgehog’s one
defence. But, taken figuratively, the words can be made to yield a
sense in which they mark one of the deepest differences which
divide writers and thinkers, and, it may be, human beings in
general. For there exists a great chasm between those, on one side,
who relate everything to a single central vision, one system, less or
more coherent or articulate, in terms of which they understand,
think and feel – a single, universal, organising principle in terms of
which alone all that they are and say has significance – and, on the
other side, those who pursue many ends, often unrelated and even
contradictory, connected, if at all, only in some de facto way, for
some psychological or physiological cause, related to no moral or
aesthetic principle. These last lead lives, perform acts and entertain
ideas that are centrifugal rather than centripetal; their thought is
scattered or diffused, moving on many levels, seizing upon the
1 Le Roman russe (Paris, 1886), p. 282.
2 ‘po* ll’ oi# d’ a$ lw* phx, a$ ll’ e$ ci& nov e= n me* ga.’ Archilochus fragment 201 in
M. L. West (ed.), Iambi et Elegi Graeci, vol. 1 (Oxford, 1971).
the hedgehog and the fox 437
essence of a vast variety of experiences and objects for what they
are in themselves, without, consciously or unconsciously, seeking
to fit them into, or exclude them from, any one unchanging, all-
embracing, sometimes self-contradictory and incomplete, at times
fanatical, unitary inner vision. The first kind of intellectual and
artistic personality belongs to the hedgehogs, the second to the
foxes; and without insisting on a rigid classification, we may,
without too much fear of contradiction, say that, in this sense,
Dante belongs to the first category, Shakespeare to the second;
Plato, Lucretius, Pascal, Hegel, Dostoevsky, Nietzsche, Ibsen,
Proust are, in varying degrees, hedgehogs; Herodotus, Aristotle,
Montaigne, Erasmus, Molière, Goethe, Pushkin, Balzac, Joyce are
foxes.
Of course, like all over-simple classifications of this type, the
dichotomy becomes, if pressed, artificial, scholastic and ultimately
absurd. But if it is not an aid to serious criticism, neither should it
be rejected as being merely superficial or frivolous; like all
distinctions which embody any degree of truth, it offers a point of
view from which to look and compare, a starting-point for genuine
investigation. Thus we have no doubt about the violence of the
contrast between Pushkin and Dostoevsky; a ...
Language Essay | Essay on Language for Students and Children in English .... Essay On English Language [Short & Long]. English world language essay. Essay On Learning Language. Language Analysis English Essay | English - Year 12 VCE | Thinkswap. Essays on Language, Communication and Literature in Africa - Cambridge .... Analysis Essay - 14+ Examples, Format, Pdf | Examples. How To Write an Essay - How to Write an Essay English is a global .... Two Language Analysis Essays | English - Year 12 VCE | Thinkswap. Analytical Essay: Essay in english literature. PPT - AP LANGUAGE ESSAYS PowerPoint Presentation, free download - ID .... Analytical Essay: Essays about english language. Essay On Language. Language Analysis Essay | English - Year 12 VCE | Thinkswap. English Language Analysis Sample Essays | English - Year 12 VCE | Thinkswap. Incredible Ap Lang Argument Essay Prompts ~ Thatsnotus. How to Write the AP Lang Rhetorical Essay | CollegeVine Blog. Language Essay Example for Free - 947 Words | EssayPay. Write a short essay on English language | Essay | English. Write an essay on Languages | Essay Writing | English - YouTube. The Language Between - Free Essay Example | PapersOwl.com. Essay On "Importance of English Language" | writing | English writing .... AP Language and Composition argumentative essay | AP English Language .... Essay on languages of india. Ap Lang Rhetorical Analysis Essay Example - slidesharetrick. English Language A Level Essay Help: English Language Foundation Level. Language Analysis Essays | English - Year 12 VCE | Thinkswap. Argumentative Essay | English Language | Science. A Level English Language Paper 1 Example Student Essays by astarlevels ....
This document summarizes a paper on gallows in late medieval Frisia. It provides context on the lack of historical study on gallows despite their prominence. It notes that place names referencing gallows can be used to map their locations. The document introduces the unique political situation in Frisia, with decentralized communal governments holding high jurisdiction, and questions how the death penalty fit within this system traditionally focused on compensation over capital punishment.
Encyclopedia of Greek and Roman Mythology (Facts on File Library of Religion ...KhiemNguyenBinh
This document provides an introduction to an encyclopedia about Greek and Roman mythology. It discusses how myths were used and viewed in the ancient world. Myths were not seen as strictly true or false, and were an important source of knowledge. Later classical authors engaged more consciously with myths through allusions, rationalizations, and adapting them for contemporary purposes. Myths permeated Roman culture as the Romans embraced Greek culture. The encyclopedia aims to present myths in their original literary and artistic contexts.
World Literature Essay. World Lit Essay 1 Explanation - YouTubeMorgan Hampton
The document discusses the history of Long Term Capital Management, a large hedge fund that collapsed in 1998 and helped reveal issues with lack of oversight in the hedge fund industry. It also provides an overview of how hedge funds operate, including their fee structures, investment strategies, and regulations around redemptions. The failure of LTCM highlighted the potential for systemic risk from large hedge funds and contributed to increased regulation for the industry.
A Literary And Philosophical Commentary To Seneca NQ 3Andrea Porter
This document provides context for Seneca's Naturales Quaestiones by summarizing Seneca's life and works. It notes that Seneca was a wealthy Roman philosopher, writer, and tutor to Nero who wrote extensively on ethics. His Naturales Quaestiones discusses aspects of the natural world from a Stoic perspective to show how understanding nature can inform ethics and help eliminate fears. This introduction discusses Seneca's education, political career under difficult emperors like Caligula, and retirement after tutoring Nero, setting the stage for his philosophical work on nature.
A Fairy Tale From Before Fairy Tales Egbert Of Li Ge S Quot De Puella A Lup...Sara Alvarez
This article examines a short Latin poem from the early 11th century called "De puella a lupellis seruata" ("The Girl Saved from the Wolves") and argues that it provides early evidence related to the fairy tale of "Little Red Riding Hood". The author critiques those who dismiss the value of early literary evidence in understanding fairy tales, noting that this Latin text predates the earliest known oral versions of "Little Red Riding Hood" by centuries. Analyzing this early medieval text can provide insights into the cultural background and origins of this well-known fairy tale.
Black History Month Essay African American History Martin Luther .... Black history month essay contest. 2019 Black History Month Essay amp; Poster Contest. Black history month essay scholarship. Black History Month Writing Prompts for Students - Kids Play and Create. Persuasive Essay: Essay on black history month. Essays on black history - writingquizzes.web.fc2.com. Black History Month Essay Contest Template PosterMyWall. Black History Essay Examples. Essay On African American History Telegraph. Black History Month by The Fabulous Life of an Elementary Teacher. Whiz Kid: Black History Month Essay Winners Peekskill, NY Patch. Black History Month Essay Contest Associated Students Inc. Cal State LA. quot;Voices The Struggles, The Faith, The Hopequot; in Wilson NC on Feb. 23 .... Black history month essay. Black History Month Essay Example for Free .... Black History Month Video Essay Writing Project on Tongal.com. Narrative essay: Black history month essay example. Black History Month: Diversifying the Educational Workforce with .... Black History Month Annual Essay Contest City of Linden. Black History Month Is Still Relevant Free Essay Sample on Samploon.com. essays on black history month. Black History Month Essay and Poster Contest Deadline - Friday, January .... What Black History Month Means to Me Draft. 2012hall blackhistorymonthessaycontest specificrules_sweepstake. February is the Black History Month Free Essay Sample on Samploon.com. Black History Month Essay Contest Award Ceremony. Black history month essay. African american history essay. African American History Essay .... Getting to the Heart of Black History Month Freebie! - Teach-A-Roo. Narrative essay: Black history essay Black History Month Essay Black History Month Essay
Perspectivism holds that one can only access and understand the world through their own unique perspective and interpretation. It rejects the idea of objective reality that is separate from perspectives. Nietzsche fully developed the idea of perspectivism, challenging prior Western philosophers like Plato, Descartes, and Kant.
Literary history charts the developments and experiments of authors through various periods in hopes of stimulating global discourse and cultural understanding. While a dominant view is that our current understanding is more advanced, studying the past often fosters respect for the intelligence of prior eras.
The American literary historian R.E. Spiller put forward four theories about literary history, which are not described further in the text.
The Antichrist, By F.W. Nietzsche, Free eBookChuck Thompson
The Antichrist, By F.W. Nietzsche, Free eBook. World literature from the days of old. Nietzsche is often quoted today for his insight into many areas still used in modern thought. Brought to you from the folks at Gloucester, Virginia Links and News website. Visit us for more.
Archetypal criticism interprets texts by focusing on recurring myths, archetypes, symbols, and character types. It views literature as imitating the collective dreams and experiences of humanity. Northrop Frye was a founding father of archetypal criticism and viewed literature through a mythical lens. He believed that myths reflect a profound reality and that poetic thought can powerfully impact the human mind. The Bible also employs archetypal structures like typology, where people and events in the Old Testament prefigure revelations in the New Testament.
This document discusses the selective memory of Palestinian women leaders during the British Mandate period in Palestine from 1920-1948. It notes that while certain women leaders are continually referenced in modern nationalist narratives, their prominence contradicts historical sources from the time period. In particular, Zlikha Shihabi is often invoked despite limited evidence of her actual role. More broadly, the women's movement has been marginalized in the national narrative, only referenced when politically convenient. This disconnect between historical remembering and forgetting highlights how memory, gender, and history can be politicized.
Language, until the inception of 19th century, was related to philosophers and the theories, they presented to define its philosophy.
The scientific study of language did not of course, begin in this century; but the years around 1900 happen to have marked an important turning-point in the history of modern linguistics.
This document provides an introduction and overview for the book "The Gutenberg Galaxy" by Marshall McLuhan. It discusses how the book will take a mosaic approach to trace how forms of experience, thought, and social organization have been modified by the phonetic alphabet and printing. It notes that historians have previously omitted studying revolutions in thought and social structures resulting from changes in communication technologies. The introduction explains that the book will extend the work of Milman Parry on oral vs. written poetry to other forms. It aims to supply insight into the basic change in attitudes and values that released the technological revolution, which previous studies had not explained.
The article discusses Fustel de Coulanges as a historian and the change in his focus from ancient history to medieval history. It suggests that the Franco-Prussian War of 1870 profoundly impacted Fustel and motivated him to shift his research from antiquity to studying the early history of France in order to counter German claims and restore French national pride. The war experience ignited Fustel's passion for using history to address contemporary political issues facing France. He embarked on his major work on early French institutions in 1874 in an effort to refute ideas that France was simply a degraded province of Rome and instead show its independent historical development.
This document discusses the relationship between anecdotes and history. It argues that while anecdotes have existed for a long time in various forms, they have an ambiguous relationship with history. On one hand, anecdotes can support and illustrate points in history by providing examples. However, anecdotes can also challenge official histories by presenting alternative perspectives or unusual events not included in traditional narratives. The document uses the example of an anecdote about Wittgenstein and Popper arguing to illustrate how anecdotes can raise historiographical problems when eyewitness accounts conflict. It then analyzes how anecdotes have been used and interpreted in different eras and genres of writing history.
The document discusses the origins of philosophy and poetry according to Aristotle and others. It says that Aristotle believed wonder is the source of both, as it prompts people to seek understanding and knowledge. While Aristotle saw philosophy and poetry as having the same starting point in wonder, he believed they diverged into explanation (philosophy) versus myth-making (poetry). The document also discusses Plato's view of poetry and contrasts Aristotle and Plato's differing influences on later centuries.
Scientists have been studying the impacts of climate change on various aspects of the environment and society. Rising global temperatures are causing sea levels to rise and weather patterns to become more extreme and unpredictable. This is damaging infrastructure and agriculture, as well as disrupting ecosystems. While governments are taking action to reduce emissions, further international cooperation will be needed to address this pressing issue.
This document summarizes and reviews a book titled "Hellas on Screen. Cinematic Receptions of Ancient History, Literature and Myth." that examines how Greek antiquity has been portrayed in films. The review provides the following key points:
1) The book contains diverse essays from classicists and ancient historians analyzing how films have represented Greek themes, figures, and history either through examining historical context or questions of historical representation.
2) While most contributions offer stimulating analysis, some focus more on recounting film scenes than interpretation.
3) Oliver Stone's Alexander film features prominently due to its biographical support and impact in popularizing Greek antiquity in modern cinema.
4) The review critiques the
The document discusses Lawrence Stone's argument that there has been a revival of narrative history due to a decline in "big why" questions and generalizing models of historical explanation. The author agrees there has been a shift toward more diverse topics, but argues historians still aim to provide coherent explanations of change. Reasons for shifts include addressing new complexities from expanding fields, and succeeding in prioritizing certain topics without abandoning explanation. Some prefer starting with specific situations that exemplify structures rather than structures alone.
A Thing Or Two About Absolutism And Its HistoriographyRachel Doty
This article examines the contested concept of "absolutism" in historiography. While some scholars argue it is an anachronistic term that should be abandoned, the author believes it can describe a portion of early modern political thought. The essay addresses debates around absolutism, including whether it refers to the theories of absolutist thinkers or the practices of early modern monarchies. It also suggests the term "absolutisms" may better capture the plural political languages and opinions of the past. The author proposes a new methodological approach and definitions to understand absolutism, addressing both its complexity and role as a troublesome historiographical category.
My Religion by Leo Tolstoi. What most people are not aware of is that Leo Tolstoi wrote this book about his found Christianity and how he patterned the rest of his life on those beliefs. The picture of Tolstoi on the cover is very rare and highly prized and was a color photo taken in 1901.
Gloucester, Virginia Links and News website. Visit us.
THE HEDGEHOG AND THE FOXAn Essay on Tolstoy’s View of Hist.docxoreo10
THE HEDGEHOG AND THE FOX
An Essay on Tolstoy’s View of History
To the memory of Jasper Ridley
A queer combination of the brain of an English
chemist with the soul of an Indian Buddhist.
E. M. de Vogüé1
i
There is a line among the fragments of the Greek poet Archilo-
chus which says: ‘The fox knows many things, but the hedgehog
knows one big thing.’2 Scholars have differed about the correct
interpretation of these dark words, which may mean no more than
that the fox, for all his cunning, is defeated by the hedgehog’s one
defence. But, taken figuratively, the words can be made to yield a
sense in which they mark one of the deepest differences which
divide writers and thinkers, and, it may be, human beings in
general. For there exists a great chasm between those, on one side,
who relate everything to a single central vision, one system, less or
more coherent or articulate, in terms of which they understand,
think and feel – a single, universal, organising principle in terms of
which alone all that they are and say has significance – and, on the
other side, those who pursue many ends, often unrelated and even
contradictory, connected, if at all, only in some de facto way, for
some psychological or physiological cause, related to no moral or
aesthetic principle. These last lead lives, perform acts and entertain
ideas that are centrifugal rather than centripetal; their thought is
scattered or diffused, moving on many levels, seizing upon the
1 Le Roman russe (Paris, 1886), p. 282.
2 ‘po* ll’ oi# d’ a$ lw* phx, a$ ll’ e$ ci& nov e= n me* ga.’ Archilochus fragment 201 in
M. L. West (ed.), Iambi et Elegi Graeci, vol. 1 (Oxford, 1971).
the hedgehog and the fox 437
essence of a vast variety of experiences and objects for what they
are in themselves, without, consciously or unconsciously, seeking
to fit them into, or exclude them from, any one unchanging, all-
embracing, sometimes self-contradictory and incomplete, at times
fanatical, unitary inner vision. The first kind of intellectual and
artistic personality belongs to the hedgehogs, the second to the
foxes; and without insisting on a rigid classification, we may,
without too much fear of contradiction, say that, in this sense,
Dante belongs to the first category, Shakespeare to the second;
Plato, Lucretius, Pascal, Hegel, Dostoevsky, Nietzsche, Ibsen,
Proust are, in varying degrees, hedgehogs; Herodotus, Aristotle,
Montaigne, Erasmus, Molière, Goethe, Pushkin, Balzac, Joyce are
foxes.
Of course, like all over-simple classifications of this type, the
dichotomy becomes, if pressed, artificial, scholastic and ultimately
absurd. But if it is not an aid to serious criticism, neither should it
be rejected as being merely superficial or frivolous; like all
distinctions which embody any degree of truth, it offers a point of
view from which to look and compare, a starting-point for genuine
investigation. Thus we have no doubt about the violence of the
contrast between Pushkin and Dostoevsky; a ...
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This summary provides an overview of the document in 3 sentences:
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Fustel de coulanges
1. Fustel de Coulanges
Author(s): H. A. L. Fisher
Source: The English Historical Review, Vol. 5, No. 17 (Jan., 1890), pp. 1-6
Published by: Oxford University Press
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2. THE ENGLISH
HISTORICAL REVIEW
NO. XVII.-JANUARY I890
FEistelde Coudazges
BYthe death of Fustel de Coulanges, a very notable figure
passes away from the ranks of historians. Fustel de
Coulanges was not only a man of wide and exact erudition; he
was one of those powerful and coherent thinkers who have the
force to shape out a path for themselves, and the faith to abide by
it. Drawn instinctively towards the most delicate and the most
contested points of history, he has left everywhere an abundance
of new lights. Indeed, wherever he has trodden, he seems to have
changed the centre of gravity, so that, in proportion to the bulk of
their writings, few men have effected more. His lofty almost con-
temptuous indeperndencewas due to no vulgar hostility or love of
parade. It sprang from a sustained faith in the value of an
historical method from which he believed that other historians
had departed. To read all the available texts and to report upon
them strictly, such was, in the eyes of Fustel de Coulanges, the
function of the historian. If every word in the text has been given
its due weight, the truth will be disengaged not hypothetically
but necessarily. After an exhaustive analysis of institutions as
presented to us by all the existing documents, their affinities will
emerge by a sequence as imperious as that which exists between
the flash and report of a cannon. History is not an art, but the
most arduous of sciences, in which subjective elements have no
place. 11 se peut sans doutte,he says, qu'une certaine philosophie se
degage de cette histoire scientifique, mais il faut qu'elle se degage
naturellement,d'elle-meme, presqute dehors de larolonte de l'historien.
en
In an article written for the Revue des deux Mondes in September
1872, entitled 'La Maniere d'ecrire l'Histoire en France et en
Allemagne,' he complains, in tones which are perhaps too rancorous,
that German history is throughout infected by patriotism. He was
3. 2 FUSTEL DE COULANGES Jan.
animated by a profound belief that the origins of medieval history
had been written on wrong lines to serve the ends of Teutonic
self-glorification, that the texts had been insufficiently studied,
and that a large amount of interested speculation had been im-
ported to fill up the lacunae. Sweeping away the Teutonic tradi-
tion, he set himself to build up history anew from its very base,
and to correct the results of German erudition by a fresh and
thorough investigation of the texts. He possessed important quali-
fications for the task, a keen logical understanding, a subtle sense
of nice distinctions both of language and law, and untiring industry.
The one virtue on which he prided himself, that of absolute
scientific impartiality, is the one virtue which experience does not
allow us to assign to those historians who give to burning questions
a burning answer. The fact is that Fustel de Coulanges was a
logician first and an historian afterwards. He has a wonderful eye
for the unity of history, for the common properties of institutions,
for the widely distributed consequences of some remote force. But
he missed the complexity of events, and was, in the process of simpli-
fication, apt to ignore the plurality of causes. Determined to
extract a clear answer from the darkest oracles of the past, he often
submitted his texts to unwilling tortures. In his treatment of
institutions he was prone to overlook the political circumstances
whiich contributed to their growth arid gave them their distinctive
colour, to view them in an unreal and stationary isolation, and to
insist too strongly on those features which appeared to harmonise
with his own dominating convictions. Always a clear and incisive
writer, he excelled especially in the exposition and elucidation of
texts. No one has better understood the art of eliciting the maxi-
mum of meaning out of the minimum of text, of developing the result
into all its logical consequences, and of exhibiting the process in an
attractive and exhilarating form. Although every one of his works
was in part, if not in entirety, a polemic, and sustained by a back-
ground of intense personal feeling, he rarely departed from that
sobriety which is the true note of genius. He is trenchant without
bluster, imperious without insolence.
Fustel de Coulanges was born at Paris on 18 March 1830.
In 1850 he entered the Ecole Normale, and on his exit three years
later was named professor of rhetoric at the Lycee of Amiens.
Agrege in 1857, he was doctor of letters in 1858, presenting for
his doctorat the usual two theses, one in French entitled 'Polybe
ou la Grece conquise par les Romains,' the other in Latin, 'Quid
Vestae cultus in institutis veterum privatis publicisque valuerit.' In
1859 he was named professor suappleantat the Lycee St. Louis,
and in 1861 he was appointed to the chair of history at Strassburg.
'La Cite Antique' appeared in 1864, three years after Sir Henry
Maine's ' Ancient Law.' The subject was suggested by the Latin
4. 1890 FUSTEL DE CO ULANGES 3
thesis on the cult of Vesta which Fustel sent up for his doctorat
six years before. From that time onward he had devoted himself
to the study of the institutions of Greece and Rome, taking them
one by one, and submitting each to a rigorous analysis. He was
then struck by the fact that all the institutions of the ancient Aryan
world bore signs of a common origin in the primitive cult of dead an-
cestors. The remarkable cohesion of the family group in early times,
the primitive inalienability of property, the phenomena of agnation,
adoption, and female disabilities were all explicable on the hypothesis
that the social evolution of the race was controlled by a particular
order of religious belief and observance. A federal union of patri-
archal families, each worshipping a common ancestor, the ancient
city passed through the successive stages of monarchy, aristocracy,
plutocracy, and democracy, each of which marks a point in the pro-
gressive decomposition of the primitive family group. The appear-
ance of the archon and the consul, of the strategus and the tribune,
the Solonian revolution and the twelve tables are parallel steps in
the break-up of the familiar system, which yields to the pressure of
a growing non-privileged population. It is obvious that in this
conception of antiquity, pieced together though it largely is by a
medley of fragments of dateless and doubtful application, there .is
much that is true as well as striking. But its value depends not
so much on the amount of ascertained truth which it may contain,
as upon the new angle at which it presents every fact and institu-
tion of the ancient world. It is a lantern held up from an untried
corner, in the light of which familiar shapes assume new relations,
one of those fertilising conceptions which produce on every side
a fresh crop of suggestive views-on the lot at Athens, on the
Solonian otpot, the origin of priestly families-and which infuse
on
a new sap into the great reconstruction of the past.
Between ' La Cite Antique' and the first volume of ' Les Institu-
tions Politiques de l'Ancienne France,' there elapses a period of
eleven years, broken by occasional contributions to the Reeite des
deux Mondes, three of which have been substantially incorporated in
later works. In 1870 Fustel de Coulanges was summoned back to
the Ecole Normale as professor, to become its director in 1880, and
in 1875 he was admitted into the Acad6mie des Sciences Morales et
Politiques. During all these years he had been making an enthu-
siastic and unintermittent study of all the texts bearing upon Roman
and Germanic institutions. He boasted that he was the only
scholar who had studied, penl in hand, all the Latin texts from the
sixth century B.C. to the tenth century A.D., and certainly there is
no higher authority on the social history of the later Roman empire.
Four works have already appeared as the result of this great labour.
In 1875 he issued his 'Institutions Politiques de l'Ancienne France,'
in 1885 the ' Recherches sur quelques Problemes d'Histoire,' and in
5. 4 FUSTEL DE COULANGES Jan.
1888 'La Monarchie Franque.' Since his death a fourth volume
has been published, entitled 'L 'Alleu et le Domaine Rural pendant
l'Epoque Merovingienne,' and three more volumes are in prepara-
tion, two of which, 'La Gaule Romaine' and IL'Invasion Ger-
manique,' will cover in a more matured form the ground occupied
by the volume of 1875, while the third, ' Le Benefice de l'Epoque
Merovingienne,' will complete the account of the Frank land system.
We have thus not yet reaped the full harvest of Fustel's labours,
but if we may judge from the striking work which he never lived to
complete, the store which is yet in reserve will be a rich one.
The question of the primitive form of landed property had, until
quite lately, received but one answer. In 1848, J. M. Kemble
asserted that the mark is the original basis upon which all Teutonic
society rests, and his view was worked out in detail by Maurer with
reference to Germany, and by Nasse with reference to England.
Sir Henry Maine, M. de Laveleye, M. Paul Viollet, M. d'Arbois de
Jubainville, all accepted the results of the Teutonic theory, and veri-
fied them from additional sources. In 'La Cite Antique' Fustel
de Coulanges had expressed his opinion that although communism
may have been the original form of landed property, there was no
existing Greek or Latin text which indicated its existence. The
proposition, as it stands in ' La Cite Antique,' is still disputable,
but it indicates the line of attack which Fustel de Coulanges after-
wards adopted with such great results in another field. In 1844,
Guerard in his prolegomena to the 'Polyptique d'Irminon' had
attempted to trace the chief features of the manor to the legisla-
tion of the later Roman Empire, but he had not, as far as we are
aware, received any notable support until Fustel de Coulanges
opened up the whole question of the Germanic invasion and the
organisation of justice under the Merovingians in articles written
to the Revue des deux Mondes in 1871 and 1872.
The task which Fustel de Coulanges set himself was strictly
critical. The Teutonic school had in the first place overlooked the
Roman evidence, and had in the second place read the Teutonic
documents in the light of national or philosophical prepossessions.
With the leaven of Jean-Jacques still fermenting in their brains,
they had confused a positive historical problem with a speculative
ethnological hypothesis. They had run, too, into the easy excesses
opened out by the new comparative method. They had eagerly
annexed the Russian mir, which, whatever it may have been before
1592, has ever since that date been subject to a lord, and the
Javanese sawahs, concerning which the earliest quoted document
dates from 1804. Wherever they had discovered either joint
familiar holdings, or indivisibility of tenure, or village common
lands, or joint agricultural exploitation, they either boldly identified
them with the object of their quest, or treated them as sure
6. 1890 FUSTEL DE COULANGES 5
indications that the object existed. They relied upon the words
ager, mark, allmend, commntnia, had never examined their history
but
or tested their meaning. It was clear that beforeany sound result
could be attained, the problem must be divested of its dazzling
accessories,and submittedto critical tests in a narrowedarea. The
question for the historian is not, ' what was the primitive state of
man ?' but, ' what do our documentsrelate of the early German?'
Fustel de Coulangesaimed at showingthat, on the existing textual
evidence, the Teutonic tradition is not only not proven but posi-
tively contradicted. Onthe one hand all the agriculturalcharacter-
istics of the manor existed under the empire, and are again dis-
coverableunder the earliest Merovingians. On the other hand the
Germans, so far from imposing their free institutions 'on con-
queredGaul, never, in historical times at least, possessed those
institutions, and would in any case have been powerlessto impose
them.
In the admirable essay on the Colonat,in which he traces the
serfdomof the Polyptiquesto its varied origins under the Roman
empire, and in the no less admirable chapters in 'L'Alleu et le
Benefice,' in which the structure of the Roman and Merovingian
land system is analysed, Fustel de Coulanges has satisfactorily
established the first half of his contention. The second half is
larger and more complex. It involves a dissection of the Germanic
institutions beforethe conquest,an account of the invasion, and a
comprehensive minute study of the institutions which prevailed
yet
in France during the sixth, seventh, and eighth centuries. No one
can have read the four volumes which deal with these questions
without feeling the immense service which Fustel de Coulanges
has renderedto historical inquiry. Although we may hesitate to
believe that the Germansof the fifth century were the debris d'une
race epuisee, or that Clovis ruled as a delegate of the Roman empire,
it is certainly true that Germanshad been settled in Gaul, both as
cultivatorsand as soldiers, long before the conquest, and that the
Merovingianmonarchyaped the nomenclature of Constantinople.
Although Fustel de Coulanges was wrong in supposing that the
pope did not intervene in the concernsof the Merovingian dioceses,
he was right in pointing out that the bishop was always nominated
by the king. Criticismsmay be made, and those not sparingly,on
his treatment of evidence,but they are unavailing to shake the
solid fabric of his work.
He has not only recalledsocial history from hasty inferenceand
flimsy analogy to the study of the texts, but he has investigated
and largely determined the use of the terminology which serves
as its datum. Among the- many debts which we owe to
Fustel de Coulanges,it is not the least that he has traced and
accuratelynoted, through documents covering a period of six cen-
7. 6 FUSTEL DE COULANGEIS Jan.
turies, the varying significance of the terms marca, covnnunia,
allviend,alodis. He has workednew and untried veins of inquiry,
and has placed every detail of his investigations before the eye of
the reader. He has not only written history in his own way, but
he is at pains to show how the thing is done. If ever the worldis
to possessa definitiveaccount of the origins of feudalismin France,
we suspect that the author will owe his opportunityto Fustel de
Coulanges.
H. A. L. FISHER.