Biotechnology 2 year

1. FUNDAMENTALS OF
COMPUTER PART 2
BY:SURBHI SAROHA

2. SYLLABUS
• Types of computers(Analog, digital & Hybrid)
• Computer Classification
• System Software & Application Software’s
• Number systems conversions(Binary,decimal,Octal,Hexadecimal)
• Operating System and its functions(Process Management,Memory Management,File
management etc.)
• Some popular operating system(MS-DOS,Windows,Unix,Linux).
• Basic commands for DOS & Linux.

3. TYPES OF COMPUTERS(ANALOG,
DIGITAL & HYBRID)
• A computer is a device that transforms data into meaningful information. It
processes the input according to the set of instructions provided to it by the user
and gives the desired output. Computers are of various types and they can be
categorized in two ways on the basis of size and on the basis of data handling
capabilities.
• So, on the basis of size, there are five types of computers:
• Supercomputer
• Mainframe computer
• Minicomputer
• Workstation
• PC (Personal Computer)

4. CONT….
• And on the basis of data handling capabilities, there are three types of computer:
• Analogue Computer
• Digital Computer
• Hybrid Computer

5. SUPERCOMPUTER:
• When we talk about speed, then the first name that comes to mind when thinking of
computers is supercomputers.
• They are the biggest and fastest computers(in terms of speed of processing data).
• Supercomputers are designed such that they can process a huge amount of data,
like processing trillions of instructions or data just in a second.
• This is because of the thousands of interconnected processors in supercomputers.

6. CHARACTERISTICS OF
SUPERCOMPUTERS:
• Supercomputers are the computers which are the fastest and they are also very
expensive.
• It can calculate up to ten trillion individual calculations per second, this is also the
reason which makes it even more faster.
• It is used in the stock market or big organizations for managing the online currency
world such as bitcoin etc.
• It is used in scientific research areas for analyzing data obtained from exploring the
solar system, satellites, etc.

7. MAINFRAME COMPUTER:
• Mainframe computers are designed in such a way that it can support hundreds or
thousands of users at the same time.
• It also supports multiple programs simultaneously.
• So, they can execute different processes simultaneously.
• All these features make the mainframe computer ideal for big organizations like
banking, telecom sectors, etc., which process a high volume of data in general.

8. CHARACTERISTICS OF MAINFRAME
COMPUTERS:
• It is also an expensive or costly computer.
• It has high storage capacity and great performance.
• It can process a huge amount of data (like data involved in the banking sector) very
quickly.
• It runs smoothly for a long time and has a long life.

9. MINICOMPUTER:
• Minicomputer is a medium size multiprocessing computer.
• In this type of computer, there are two or more processors, and it supports 4 to 200
users at one time.
• Minicomputers are used in places like institutes or departments for different work
like billing, accounting, inventory management etc.
• It is smaller than a mainframe computer but larger in comparison to the
microcomputer.

10. CHARACTERISTICS OF
MINICOMPUTER:
• Its weight is low.
• Because of its low weight, it is easy to carry anywhere.
• less expensive than a mainframe computer.
• It is fast.
• 4. Workstation:
• Workstation is designed for technical or scientific applications. It consists of a fast
microprocessor, with a large amount of RAM and high speed graphic adapter. It is a
single-user computer. It generally used to perform a specific task with great
accuracy.

11. CHARACTERISTICS OF
WORKSTATION:
• It is expensive or high in cost.
• They are exclusively made for complex work purposes.
• It provides large storage capacity, with better graphics, and a more powerful CPU when
compared to a PC.
• It is also used to handle animation, data analysis, CAD, audio and video creation, and editing.
• 5. PC (Personal Computer):
• It is also known as a microcomputer. It is basically a general-purpose computer and designed
for individual use. It consists of a microprocessor as a central processing unit(CPU),
memory, input unit, and output unit. This kind of computer is suitable for personal work
such as making an assignment, watching a movie, or at office for office work, etc. For
example, Laptops and desktop computers.

12. CONT….
• Characteristics of PC (Personal Computer):
• In this limited number of software can be used.
• It is smallest in size.
• It is designed for personal use.
• It is easy to use.
• 6. Analogue Computer:
• It is particularly designed to process analogue data. Continuous data that changes
continuously and cannot have discrete values is called analogue data. So, an analogue
computer is used where we don’t need exact values or need approximate values such as
speed, temperature, pressure etc. It can directly accept the data from the measuring device
without first converting it into numbers and codes. It measures the continuous changes in
physical quantity. It gives output as a reading on a dial or scale. For example speedometer,
mercury thermometer, etc.

13. DIGITAL COMPUTER:
• Digital computers are designed in such a way that it can easily perform calculations
and logical operations at high speed.
• It takes raw data as an input and processes it with programs stored in its memory
to produce the final output.
• It only understands the binary input 0 and 1, so the raw input data is converted to 0
and 1 by the computer and then it is processed by the computer to produce the
result or final output.
• All modern computers, like laptops, desktops including smartphones are digital
computers.

14. HYBRID COMPUTER:
• As the name suggests hybrid, which means made by combining two different things.
• Similarly, the hybrid computer is a combination of both analog and digital
computers. Hybrid computers are fast like an analog computer and have memory,
and accuracy like a digital computer.
• So, it has the ability to process both continuous and discrete data. For working when
it accepts analog signals as input then it converts them into digital form before
processing the input data.
• So, it is widely used in specialized applications where both analog and digital data is
required to be processed.
• A processor which is used in petrol pumps that converts the measurements of fuel
flow into quantity and price is an example of a hybrid computer.

15. CLASSIFICATION ON THE BASIS OF SIZE
• Super computers : The super computers are the most high performing system. A
supercomputer is a computer with a high level of performance compared to a
general-purpose computer. All of the world’s fastest 500 supercomputers run Linux-
based operating systems.
• Mainframe computers : These are commonly called as big iron, they are usually used
by big organisations for bulk data processing such as statics, census data
processing, transaction processing and are widely used as the servers as these
systems has a higher processing capability as compared to the other classes of
computers, most of these mainframe architectures were established in 1960s, the
research and development worked continuously over the years and the mainframes
of today are far more better than the earlier ones, in size, capacity and efficiency.

16. CONT….
• Mini computers : These computers came into the market in mid 1960s and were
sold at a much cheaper price than the main frames, they were actually designed for
control, instrumentation, human interaction, and communication switching as
distinct from calculation and record keeping, later they became very popular for
personal uses with evolution.
• Micro computers : A microcomputer is a small, relatively inexpensive computer
with a microprocessor as its CPU. It includes a microprocessor, memory, and
minimal I/O circuitry mounted on a single printed circuit board.The previous to
these computers, mainframes and minicomputers, were comparatively much larger,
hard to maintain and more expensive. They actually formed the foundation for
present day microcomputers and smart gadgets that we use in day to day life.
Eg: Tablets, Smartwatches.

17. SYSTEM SOFTWARE & APPLICATION
SOFTWARE’S
• System Software is the type of software that is the interface between application
software and system. Low-level languages are used to write the system software.
System Software maintains the system resources and gives the path for application
software to run. An important thing is that without system software, the system can
not run. It is general-purpose software.
• Application Software is the type of software that runs as per user request. It runs
on the platform which is provided by system software. High-level languages are
used to write the application software. It’s a specific purpose software. The main
difference between System Software and Application Software is that without
system software, the system can not run on the other hand without application
software, the Low-level maintenance system always runs.

18. DECIMAL TO BINARY
• Decimal numbers can be converted to binary by repeated division of the number by
2 while recording the remainder.

19. CONT….
• The remainders are to be read from bottom to top to obtain the binary equivalent.
• 4310 = 1010112
• Decimal to Octal
• Decimal numbers can be converted to octal by repeated division of the number by 8
while recording the remainder.

20. CONT….
• Reading the remainders from bottom to top,
• 47310 = 7318
• Decimal to Hexadecimal
• Decimal numbers can be converted to octal by repeated division of the number by
16 while recording the remainder. Let’s take an example to see how this happens.
•

21. CONT….
• Reading the remainders from bottom to top we get,
• 42310 = 1A716

22. BINARY NUMBER SYSTEM

23. OCTAL NUMBER SYSTEM

24. HEXADECIMAL NUMBER SYSTEM

25. OPERATING SYSTEM AND ITS
FUNCTIONS
• An Operating System (OS) is an interface between a computer user and computer
hardware. An operating system is a software which performs all the basic tasks like file
management, memory management, process management, handling input and output, and
controlling peripheral devices such as disk drives and printers.
• An operating system is software that enables applications to interact with a computer's
hardware. The software that contains the core components of the operating system is called
the kernel.
• The primary purposes of an Operating System are to enable applications (spftwares) to
interact with a computer's hardware and to manage a system's hardware and software
resources.
• Some popular Operating Systems include Linux Operating System, Windows Operating
System, VMS, OS/400, AIX, z/OS, etc. Today, Operating systems is found almost in every
device like mobile phones, personal computers, mainframe computers, automobiles, TV,
Toys etc.

26. DEFINITIONS
• An operating system is a program that acts as an interface between the user and the
computer hardware and controls the execution of all kinds of programs.
• An Operting System is the low-level software that supports a computer's basic
functions, such as scheduling tasks and controlling peripherals.
• An operating system (OS) is system software that manages computer hardware,
software resources, and provides common services for computer programs.

27. FOLLOWING ARE SOME OF IMPORTANT
FUNCTIONS OF AN OPERATING SYSTEM
• Memory Management
• Processor Management
• Device Management
• File Management
• Network Management
• Security
• Control over system performance
• Job accounting
• Error detecting aids
• Coordination between other software and users

28. MEMORY MANAGEMENT
• An Operating System does the following activities for memory management −
• Keeps tracks of primary memory, i.e., what part of it are in use by whom, what part
are not in use.
• In multiprogramming, the OS decides which process will get memory when and
how much.
• Allocates the memory when a process requests it to do so.
• De-allocates the memory when a process no longer needs it or has been
terminated.

29. PROCESSOR MANAGEMENT
• An Operating System does the following activities for processor management −
• Keeps tracks of processor and status of process. The program responsible for this
task is known as traffic controller.
• Allocates the processor (CPU) to a process.
• De-allocates processor when a process is no longer required.

30. DEVICE MANAGEMENT
• It does the following activities for device management −
• Keeps tracks of all devices. Program responsible for this task is known as the I/O
controller.
• Decides which process gets the device when and for how much time.
• Allocates the device in the efficient way.
• De-allocates devices.

31. FILE MANAGEMENT
• An Operating System does the following activities for file management −
• Keeps track of information, location, uses, status etc. The collective facilities are
often known as file system.
• Decides who gets the resources.
• Allocates the resources.
• De-allocates the resources.

32. OTHER IMPORTANT ACTIVITIES
• Following are some of the important activities that an Operating System performs −
• Security − By means of password and similar other techniques, it prevents unauthorized
access to programs and data.
• Control over system performance − Recording delays between request for a service and
response from the system.
• Job accounting − Keeping track of time and resources used by various jobs and users.
• Error detecting aids − Production of dumps, traces, error messages, and other debugging
and error detecting aids.
• Coordination between other softwares and users − Coordination and assignment of
compilers, interpreters, assemblers and other software to the various users of the computer
systems.

33. SOME POPULAR OPERATING
SYSTEM(MS-DOS,WINDOWS,UNIX,LINUX
• DOS:
• DOS stands for Disk Operating System, which is an operating system that was
popular till 1995 in IBM PCs. It is a single-tasking OS i.e., it can perform one task at a
time. It is based on a command-line interface where one has to provide instructions
to the computer in the command form. It runs from hard disks, floppy disks, or any
other storage devices and thus provides an environment for the execution of
programs. It occupies less memory. To use more than 64kb of memory, memory
extenders were used, which older Windows used to use more memory. It was
originally released only to OEMs(Original Equipment Manufacturers) who added
support for their hardware. It was eventually released to the public.

34. WINDOWS:
• Windows is a product of Microsoft. It is an operating system with various versions,
Windows 10 being the latest version. It is a Graphics-Based user interface. Users give
commands through clicking or choosing icons and images with the help of a mouse,
keyboard, or touchscreen to the computer. Windows was originally a DOS extender
running on top of DOS. The Windows 9x family consisting of Windows 95, Windows
98, Windows 98SE, and Windows ME ran on top of MS-DOS and is capable of
running DOS programs directly. Windows NT was released separately and is
portable, and initially, it was written in C and C++ languages where processor
reliability code is separated into DAL and HLL and was designed to be more secure
than DOS and the Windows 9x family. The Windows NT family includes Windows NT
3.x,4.x, Windows 2000, Windows XP, Windows Vista, Windows 7, and so on. Windows
is more reliable than DOS and handles errors with ease due to various tools
available for debugging and error handling.

35. LINUX:
• Linux is a freely distributed multitasking and multi-user operating system that
behaves like UNIX.
• It was originally developed by a Finnish student, LINUS TORVALDS in 1991.
• It is the best known and most commonly used open-source operating system.
• It is a cross-platform operating system based on UNIX that can be installed on PCs
and laptops.

36. UNIX
• UNIX is a powerful Operating System initially developed by Ken Thompson, Dennis
Ritchie at AT&T Bell laboratories in 1970.
• It is prevalent among scientific, engineering, and academic institutions due to its
most appreciative features like multitasking, flexibility, and many more.
• In UNIX, the file system is a hierarchical structure of files and directories where users
can store and retrieve information using the files.

37. THE STRUCTURE OF UNIX OS LAYERS
ARE AS FOLLOWS:

38. BASIC COMMANDS FOR DOS &
LINUX.

39. THANK YOU 