This document provides an overview of fuels and combustion. It begins with definitions of fuel and the combustion reaction. It then classifies fuels as solid, liquid, or gaseous, listing the characteristics and advantages/disadvantages of each. Stoichiometric air-fuel ratios are discussed along with calculations. Enthalpy and internal energy of combustion are defined. Analysis of combustion products using an Orsat apparatus is described, involving absorption of gases like CO2, O2, and CO to determine composition.
Combustion is a chemical process in which a substance reacts rapidly with oxygen and gives off heat. The original substance is called the fuel, and the source of oxygen is called the oxidizer. The fuel can be a solid, liquid, or gas, although for airplane propulsion the fuel is usually a liquid. The oxidizer, likewise, could be a solid, liquid, or gas.
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Combustion is a chemical process in which a substance reacts rapidly with oxygen and gives off heat. The original substance is called the fuel, and the source of oxygen is called the oxidizer. The fuel can be a solid, liquid, or gas, although for airplane propulsion the fuel is usually a liquid. The oxidizer, likewise, could be a solid, liquid, or gas.
Good mornings and good morning 🌞 have a great day and a great year ahead and all the best for your products and all the best for your future and you many more happy returns of the day of the day ❤️g
Happy Birthday to you many happy 😁 day my love
Episode 3 : Production of Synthesis Gas by Steam Methane ReformingSAJJAD KHUDHUR ABBAS
Episode 3 : Production of Synthesis Gas by Steam Methane Reforming
History of Synthesis Gas
In 1780, Felice Fontana discovered that combustible gas develops if water vapor is passed over carbon at temperatures over 500 °C. This CO and H2 containing gas was called water gas and mainly used for lighting purposes in the19th century.
As of the beginning of the 20th century, H2/CO-mixtures were used for syntheses of hydrocarbons and then, as a consequence, also called synthesis gas.
Haber and Bosch discovered the synthesis of ammonia from H2 and N2 in 1910 and the first industrial ammonia synthesis plant was commissioned in 1913.
The production of liquid hydrocarbons and oxygenates from syngas conversion over iron catalysts was discovered in 1923 by Fischer and Tropsch.
Much of the syngas conversion processes were being developed in Germany during the first and second world wars at a time when natural resources were becoming scare and alternative routes for hydrogen production, ammonia synthesis, and transportation fuels were a necessity.
In 1943/44, this was applied for large-scale production of artificial fuels from synthesis gas in Germany.
PRESENTATION ON PLANT DESIGN FOR MANUFACTURING OF HYDROGENPriyam Jyoti Borah
Steam reforming or steam methane reforming is a method for producing syngas (hydrogen and carbon monoxide) by reaction of hydrocarbons with water. Commonly natural gas is the feedstock. The main purpose of this technology is hydrogen production.The reaction is conducted in a reformer vessel where a high pressure mixture of steam and methane are put into contact with a nickel catalyst. Catalysts with high surface-area-to-volume ratio are preferred because of diffusion limitations due to high operating temperature. Examples of catalyst shapes used are spoked wheels, gear wheels, and rings with holes. Additionally, these shapes have a low pressure drop which is advantageous for this application.
Episode 3 : Production of Synthesis Gas by Steam Methane ReformingSAJJAD KHUDHUR ABBAS
Episode 3 : Production of Synthesis Gas by Steam Methane Reforming
History of Synthesis Gas
In 1780, Felice Fontana discovered that combustible gas develops if water vapor is passed over carbon at temperatures over 500 °C. This CO and H2 containing gas was called water gas and mainly used for lighting purposes in the19th century.
As of the beginning of the 20th century, H2/CO-mixtures were used for syntheses of hydrocarbons and then, as a consequence, also called synthesis gas.
Haber and Bosch discovered the synthesis of ammonia from H2 and N2 in 1910 and the first industrial ammonia synthesis plant was commissioned in 1913.
The production of liquid hydrocarbons and oxygenates from syngas conversion over iron catalysts was discovered in 1923 by Fischer and Tropsch.
Much of the syngas conversion processes were being developed in Germany during the first and second world wars at a time when natural resources were becoming scare and alternative routes for hydrogen production, ammonia synthesis, and transportation fuels were a necessity.
In 1943/44, this was applied for large-scale production of artificial fuels from synthesis gas in Germany.
PRESENTATION ON PLANT DESIGN FOR MANUFACTURING OF HYDROGENPriyam Jyoti Borah
Steam reforming or steam methane reforming is a method for producing syngas (hydrogen and carbon monoxide) by reaction of hydrocarbons with water. Commonly natural gas is the feedstock. The main purpose of this technology is hydrogen production.The reaction is conducted in a reformer vessel where a high pressure mixture of steam and methane are put into contact with a nickel catalyst. Catalysts with high surface-area-to-volume ratio are preferred because of diffusion limitations due to high operating temperature. Examples of catalyst shapes used are spoked wheels, gear wheels, and rings with holes. Additionally, these shapes have a low pressure drop which is advantageous for this application.
CFD Simulation of By-pass Flow in a HRSG module by R&R Consult.pptxR&R Consult
CFD analysis is incredibly effective at solving mysteries and improving the performance of complex systems!
Here's a great example: At a large natural gas-fired power plant, where they use waste heat to generate steam and energy, they were puzzled that their boiler wasn't producing as much steam as expected.
R&R and Tetra Engineering Group Inc. were asked to solve the issue with reduced steam production.
An inspection had shown that a significant amount of hot flue gas was bypassing the boiler tubes, where the heat was supposed to be transferred.
R&R Consult conducted a CFD analysis, which revealed that 6.3% of the flue gas was bypassing the boiler tubes without transferring heat. The analysis also showed that the flue gas was instead being directed along the sides of the boiler and between the modules that were supposed to capture the heat. This was the cause of the reduced performance.
Based on our results, Tetra Engineering installed covering plates to reduce the bypass flow. This improved the boiler's performance and increased electricity production.
It is always satisfying when we can help solve complex challenges like this. Do your systems also need a check-up or optimization? Give us a call!
Work done in cooperation with James Malloy and David Moelling from Tetra Engineering.
More examples of our work https://www.r-r-consult.dk/en/cases-en/
Sachpazis:Terzaghi Bearing Capacity Estimation in simple terms with Calculati...Dr.Costas Sachpazis
Terzaghi's soil bearing capacity theory, developed by Karl Terzaghi, is a fundamental principle in geotechnical engineering used to determine the bearing capacity of shallow foundations. This theory provides a method to calculate the ultimate bearing capacity of soil, which is the maximum load per unit area that the soil can support without undergoing shear failure. The Calculation HTML Code included.
Cosmetic shop management system project report.pdfKamal Acharya
Buying new cosmetic products is difficult. It can even be scary for those who have sensitive skin and are prone to skin trouble. The information needed to alleviate this problem is on the back of each product, but it's thought to interpret those ingredient lists unless you have a background in chemistry.
Instead of buying and hoping for the best, we can use data science to help us predict which products may be good fits for us. It includes various function programs to do the above mentioned tasks.
Data file handling has been effectively used in the program.
The automated cosmetic shop management system should deal with the automation of general workflow and administration process of the shop. The main processes of the system focus on customer's request where the system is able to search the most appropriate products and deliver it to the customers. It should help the employees to quickly identify the list of cosmetic product that have reached the minimum quantity and also keep a track of expired date for each cosmetic product. It should help the employees to find the rack number in which the product is placed.It is also Faster and more efficient way.
Immunizing Image Classifiers Against Localized Adversary Attacksgerogepatton
This paper addresses the vulnerability of deep learning models, particularly convolutional neural networks
(CNN)s, to adversarial attacks and presents a proactive training technique designed to counter them. We
introduce a novel volumization algorithm, which transforms 2D images into 3D volumetric representations.
When combined with 3D convolution and deep curriculum learning optimization (CLO), itsignificantly improves
the immunity of models against localized universal attacks by up to 40%. We evaluate our proposed approach
using contemporary CNN architectures and the modified Canadian Institute for Advanced Research (CIFAR-10
and CIFAR-100) and ImageNet Large Scale Visual Recognition Challenge (ILSVRC12) datasets, showcasing
accuracy improvements over previous techniques. The results indicate that the combination of the volumetric
input and curriculum learning holds significant promise for mitigating adversarial attacks without necessitating
adversary training.
NO1 Uk best vashikaran specialist in delhi vashikaran baba near me online vas...Amil Baba Dawood bangali
Contact with Dawood Bhai Just call on +92322-6382012 and we'll help you. We'll solve all your problems within 12 to 24 hours and with 101% guarantee and with astrology systematic. If you want to take any personal or professional advice then also you can call us on +92322-6382012 , ONLINE LOVE PROBLEM & Other all types of Daily Life Problem's.Then CALL or WHATSAPP us on +92322-6382012 and Get all these problems solutions here by Amil Baba DAWOOD BANGALI
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Hybrid optimization of pumped hydro system and solar- Engr. Abdul-Azeez.pdffxintegritypublishin
Advancements in technology unveil a myriad of electrical and electronic breakthroughs geared towards efficiently harnessing limited resources to meet human energy demands. The optimization of hybrid solar PV panels and pumped hydro energy supply systems plays a pivotal role in utilizing natural resources effectively. This initiative not only benefits humanity but also fosters environmental sustainability. The study investigated the design optimization of these hybrid systems, focusing on understanding solar radiation patterns, identifying geographical influences on solar radiation, formulating a mathematical model for system optimization, and determining the optimal configuration of PV panels and pumped hydro storage. Through a comparative analysis approach and eight weeks of data collection, the study addressed key research questions related to solar radiation patterns and optimal system design. The findings highlighted regions with heightened solar radiation levels, showcasing substantial potential for power generation and emphasizing the system's efficiency. Optimizing system design significantly boosted power generation, promoted renewable energy utilization, and enhanced energy storage capacity. The study underscored the benefits of optimizing hybrid solar PV panels and pumped hydro energy supply systems for sustainable energy usage. Optimizing the design of solar PV panels and pumped hydro energy supply systems as examined across diverse climatic conditions in a developing country, not only enhances power generation but also improves the integration of renewable energy sources and boosts energy storage capacities, particularly beneficial for less economically prosperous regions. Additionally, the study provides valuable insights for advancing energy research in economically viable areas. Recommendations included conducting site-specific assessments, utilizing advanced modeling tools, implementing regular maintenance protocols, and enhancing communication among system components.
Automobile Management System Project Report.pdfKamal Acharya
The proposed project is developed to manage the automobile in the automobile dealer company. The main module in this project is login, automobile management, customer management, sales, complaints and reports. The first module is the login. The automobile showroom owner should login to the project for usage. The username and password are verified and if it is correct, next form opens. If the username and password are not correct, it shows the error message.
When a customer search for a automobile, if the automobile is available, they will be taken to a page that shows the details of the automobile including automobile name, automobile ID, quantity, price etc. “Automobile Management System” is useful for maintaining automobiles, customers effectively and hence helps for establishing good relation between customer and automobile organization. It contains various customized modules for effectively maintaining automobiles and stock information accurately and safely.
When the automobile is sold to the customer, stock will be reduced automatically. When a new purchase is made, stock will be increased automatically. While selecting automobiles for sale, the proposed software will automatically check for total number of available stock of that particular item, if the total stock of that particular item is less than 5, software will notify the user to purchase the particular item.
Also when the user tries to sale items which are not in stock, the system will prompt the user that the stock is not enough. Customers of this system can search for a automobile; can purchase a automobile easily by selecting fast. On the other hand the stock of automobiles can be maintained perfectly by the automobile shop manager overcoming the drawbacks of existing system.
Student information management system project report ii.pdfKamal Acharya
Our project explains about the student management. This project mainly explains the various actions related to student details. This project shows some ease in adding, editing and deleting the student details. It also provides a less time consuming process for viewing, adding, editing and deleting the marks of the students.
About
Indigenized remote control interface card suitable for MAFI system CCR equipment. Compatible for IDM8000 CCR. Backplane mounted serial and TCP/Ethernet communication module for CCR remote access. IDM 8000 CCR remote control on serial and TCP protocol.
• Remote control: Parallel or serial interface.
• Compatible with MAFI CCR system.
• Compatible with IDM8000 CCR.
• Compatible with Backplane mount serial communication.
• Compatible with commercial and Defence aviation CCR system.
• Remote control system for accessing CCR and allied system over serial or TCP.
• Indigenized local Support/presence in India.
• Easy in configuration using DIP switches.
Technical Specifications
Indigenized remote control interface card suitable for MAFI system CCR equipment. Compatible for IDM8000 CCR. Backplane mounted serial and TCP/Ethernet communication module for CCR remote access. IDM 8000 CCR remote control on serial and TCP protocol.
Key Features
Indigenized remote control interface card suitable for MAFI system CCR equipment. Compatible for IDM8000 CCR. Backplane mounted serial and TCP/Ethernet communication module for CCR remote access. IDM 8000 CCR remote control on serial and TCP protocol.
• Remote control: Parallel or serial interface
• Compatible with MAFI CCR system
• Copatiable with IDM8000 CCR
• Compatible with Backplane mount serial communication.
• Compatible with commercial and Defence aviation CCR system.
• Remote control system for accessing CCR and allied system over serial or TCP.
• Indigenized local Support/presence in India.
Application
• Remote control: Parallel or serial interface.
• Compatible with MAFI CCR system.
• Compatible with IDM8000 CCR.
• Compatible with Backplane mount serial communication.
• Compatible with commercial and Defence aviation CCR system.
• Remote control system for accessing CCR and allied system over serial or TCP.
• Indigenized local Support/presence in India.
• Easy in configuration using DIP switches.
3. CONTENTS
Introduction
Fuels and their classification
Combustion reaction of common fuels
Air-fuel ratio
Enthalpy and Internal energy of combustion
Application of First law of Thermodynamics to
chemical reaction (combustion)
Analysis of products of combustion
Orsat apparatus.
4. INTRODUCTION
Fuel is a combustible substance, containing carbon as a
main constituent, which on proper burning gives large
amount of heat, which can be used economically for
domestic and industrial purpose. Example : Wood,
charcoal, coal, kerosene, petrol, diesel, producer gas, oil
gas etc. During the process of combustion, carbon,
hydrogen, etc., combine with oxygen with a liberation of
heat.
The combustion reaction can be explained as
C + O2 CO2 + 94 kcals
2H2 + O2 2H2O + 68.5 kcals
The calorific value of a fuel depends mainly on the
amount of Carbon and Hydrogen.
5. Requirements of a Good Fuel
A good fuel should have the following characteristics:
High calorific value.
Moderate ignition temperature.
Low contents of non-combustible matters.
Low moisture content.
Free from objectionable and harmful gases like CO, SOx , H2 S.
Moderate velocity of combustion.
Combustion should be controllable.
Easy to transport and readily available at low cost
6.
7. SOLID FUELS AND THEIR CHARACTERISTICS
Solid fuels are mainly classified into two categories, i.e. natural fuels, such as wood, coal, etc.
and manufactured fuels, such as charcoal, coke, briquettes, etc.
Advantages
(a) They are easy to transport.
(b) They are convenient to store without any risk of spontaneous explosion.
(c) (c) Their cost of production is low.
(d) They posses moderate ignition temperature.
Disadvantages
(a) Their ash content is high.
(b) Their large proportion of heat is wasted.
(c) They burn with clinker formation.
(d) Their combustion operation cannot be controlled easily.
(e) Their cost of handling is high.
8. LIQUID FUELS AND THEIR CHARACTERISTICS
The liquid fuels can be classified as follows : (a) Natural or crude oil, and (b) Artificial or manufactured oils
Advantages
(a) They posses higher calorific value per unit mass than solid fuels.
(b) They burn without dust, ash, clinkers, etc.
(c) Their firing is easier and also fire can be extinguished easily by stopping liquid fuel supply.
(d) They are easy to transport through pipes.
(e) They can be stored indefinitely without any loss.
(f) They are clean in use and economic to handle.
(g) They require less excess air for complete combustion.
Disadvantages
(a) The cost of liquid fuel is relatively much higher as compared to solid fuel.
(b) Costly special storage tanks are required for storing liquid fuels.
(c) There is a greater risk of five hazards, particularly, in case of highly inflammable and volatile liquid fuels.
(d) For efficient burning of liquid fuels, specially constructed burners and spraying apparatus are required.
9. GASEOUS FUELS AND THEIR CHARACTERISTICS
Gaseous fuels occur in nature, besides being manufactured from solid and liquid fuels. The advantages and
disadvantages of gaseous fuels are given below : Advantages Gaseous fuels due to erase and flexibility of their
applications.
Advantages
(a) They can be conveyed easily through pipelines to the actual place of need, thereby eliminating manual labor
in transportation.
(b) They can be lighted at ease.
(c) They have high heat contents and hence help us in having higher temperatures. (d) They can be pre-heated by
the heat of hot waste gases, thereby affecting economy in heat.
(e) Their combustion can readily by controlled for change in demand like oxidizing or reducing atmosphere,
length flame, temperature, etc.
(f) They are clean in use.
(g) They do not require any special burner.
(h) They burn without any shoot, or smoke and ashes.
Disadvantages
(a) Very large storage tanks are needed.
(b) They are highly inflammable, so chances of fire hazards in their use is high.
10. COMBUSTION REACTIONS
A combustion reaction is a major class of chemical reactions, commonly referred to as
"burning." In the most general sense, combustion involves a reaction between any
combustible material and an oxidizer to form an oxidized product. It usually occurs
when a hydrocarbon reacts with oxygen to produce carbon dioxide and water. Good
signs that you're dealing with a combustion reaction include the presence of oxygen
as a reactant and carbon dioxide, water, and heat as products. Inorganic combustion
reactions might not form all of those products but remain recognizable by the
reaction of oxygen.
Combustion Doesn't Necessarily Mean Fire
Combustion is an exothermic reaction, meaning it releases heat, but sometimes the
reaction proceeds so slowly that the change in temperature is not noticeable.
Combustion doesn't always result in fire, but when it does, a flame is a characteristic
indicator of the reaction. While the activation energy must be overcome to initiate
combustion (i.e., using a lit match to light a fire), the heat from a flame may provide
enough energy to make the reaction self-sustaining.
General Form of a Combustion Reaction
hydrocarbon + oxygen → carbon dioxide + water
11. COMBUSTION REACTIONS
Examples of Combustion Reactions
It's important to remember that combustion reactions are easy to recognize because the
products always contain carbon dioxide and water. Here are several examples of balanced
equations for combustion reactions. Note that while oxygen gas is always present as a reactant,
in the trickier examples, the oxygen comes from another reactant.
Combustion of methane
CH4(g) + 2 O2(g) → CO2(g) + 2 H2O(g)
Burning of naphthalene
C10H8 + 12 O2 → 10 CO2 + 4 H2O
Combustion of ethane
2 C2H6 + 7 O2 → 4 CO2 + 6 H2O
Combustion of butane (commonly found in lighters)
2C4H10(g) +13O2(g) → 8CO2(g) +10H2O(g)
Combustion of methanol (also known as wood alcohol)
2CH3OH(g) + 3O2(g) → 2CO2(g) + 4H2O(g)
Combustion of propane (used in gas grills, fireplaces, and some cook stoves)
2C3H8(g) + 7O2(g) → 6CO2(g) + 8H2O(g)
Combustion of hydrogen
2H2 + O2 → 2 H2O
12. Complete Versus Incomplete Combustion
Combustion, like all chemical reactions, does not always proceed with 100% efficiency. It's
prone to limiting reactants the same as other processes. As a result, there are two types of
combustion you're likely to encounter:
Complete Combustion: Also called "clean combustion," complete combustion is the
oxidation of a hydrocarbon that produces only carbon dioxide and water. An example of
clean combustion would be burning a wax candle: The heat from the flaming wick
vaporizes the wax (a hydrocarbon), which in turn, reacts with oxygen in the air to release
carbon dioxide and water. Ideally, all the wax burns so nothing remains once the candle is
consumed, while the water vapor and carbon dioxide dissipate into the air.
Incomplete Combustion: Also called "dirty combustion," incomplete combustion is
hydrocarbon oxidation that produces carbon monoxide and/or carbon (soot) in addition
to carbon dioxide. An example of incomplete combustion would be burning coal (a fossil
fuel), during which quantities of soot and carbon monoxide are released. In fact, many
fossil fuels—including coal—burn incompletely, releasing waste products into the
environment.
13. Stoichiometric air fuel ratio
The stoichiometric air fuel ratio is the ratio that gives the amount of air required
for the complete combustion of the unit amount of fuel.
This ratio is calculated on the molecular level. The stoichiometric ratio gives the
exact amount of air required for the complete combustion of any fuel.
If the mixture has a lower air-fuel ratio than a stoichiometric ratio then it is
known as a lean mixture.
And if the air-fuel ratio of the mixture is higher than the stoichiometric ratio then
this mixture is considered a rich mixture
14. Stoichiometric air fuel ratio
Stoichiometric air fuel ratio for different fuels:
Here are the stoichiometric ratios for the different fuels:-
Fuels Stoichiometric air-fuel ratio
Gasoline 14.7:1
Octane 15:1
Hydrogen 34.5
Methane 17
Methanol 6.5:1
Diesel 14.5:1
Ethanol 9:1
15. Stoichiometric air fuel ratio
How to calculate stoichiometric air fuel ratio?
Here are the steps to find the stoichiometric ratio of the fuel.
Step 1] Find the chemical equation of the oxidation of the fuel.
Step 2] Balance the equation.
Step 3] Find the molecular weight of fuel and the weight of the oxygen.
Step 4] Find the mass of oxygen: mass of fuel ratio
Step 5] Divide this value by 0.232 as there is only 23.2 percent of oxygen is present in
atmospheric air. This is the value of stoichiometric air-fuel for the particular fuel.
16. Stoichiometric air fuel ratio
Stoichiometric air fuel ratio example:
Stoichiometric air-fuel ratio for methane:-
The balanced chemical equation for the oxidation of methane is,
CH4+2O2→CO2+2H2OCH4+2O2→CO2+2H2O
Atomic weight of C = 12.01
Atomic weight of H = 1.00
Atomic weight of O = 16
∴ Molecular weight of CH4 = 12.01 + 4(1) = 16.01
Molecular weight of O2O2 = 2(16) = 32
The oxygen: fuel ratio is,
=Weight of oxygen Weight of methane Weight of oxygen Weight of methane
=Molecular Weight of 2O2Molecular Weight of methane CH4Molecular Weight of 2O2Molecular Weight of methane CH4
=2×3216.01=2×3216.01
= 3.997 %
The stoichiometric air fuel ratio is given by,
=3.9970.232=3.9970.232
= 17.2
Hence the stoichiometric air-fuel ratio for methane is 17.2:1.
17. Enthalpy and Internal energy of combustion
Enthalpy of combustion of a substance
It is the change in enthalpy produced when one mole of the substance is completely
burnt in air or oxygen at a given temperature.
In combustion reactions, some substances will release more energy than others.
Enthalpies of combustion can be used to compare which fuels or substances release the
most energy when they are burned. They can be calculated using a bomb calorimeter.
18. Enthalpy and Internal energy of combustion
Enthalpy of combustion of a substance
Fuel is burned and the temperature increase measured. The mass of fuel corresponding to
the temperature increase can be used to calculate the enthalpy change of the reaction,
which in turn can be used to calculate the enthalpy of combustion of that fuel.
The enthalpy of combustion of a substance is defined as the heat energy given out when
one mole of a substance burns completely in oxygen.
Combustion reactions are exothermic so the value for the enthalpy change (ΔH) is always
negative.
19. Enthalpy and Internal energy of combustion
Internal energy
It is defined as the energy associated with the random, disordered motion of molecules.
It is separated in scale from the macroscopic ordered energy associated with moving
objects;
it refers to the invisible microscopic energy on the atomic and molecular scale.
For example, a room temperature glass of water sitting on a table has no apparent energy,
either potential or kinetic. But on the microscopic scale it is a seething mass of high speed
molecules traveling at hundreds of meters per second. If the water were tossed across the
room, this microscopic energy would not necessarily be changed when we superimpose an
ordered large scale motion on the water as a whole.
20. Analysis of products of combustion
Combustion analysis is a method used in both organic chemistry and analytical
chemistry to determine the elemental composition (more precisely empirical formula) of
pure organic compound by combusting the sample under conditions where the resulting
combustion products can be quantitatively analyzed. Once the number of moles of each
combustion product has been determined the empirical formula or a partial empirical
formula of the original compound can be calculated.
Applications for combustion analysis involve only the elements of carbon (C), hydrogen
(H), nitrogen (N), and sulfur (S) as combustion of materials containing them convert
elements to their oxidized form (CO2, H2O, NO or NO2, and SO2) under high
high oxygen conditions. Notable interests for these elements involve measuring total
nitrogen in food or feed to determine protein percentage, measuring sulfur in petroleum
products, or measuring total organic carbon (TOC) in water.
21. Analysis of products of combustion
Combustion analysis, the products, carbon dioxide and water vapor, are trapped by
absorption onto reactive solids located in tubes above the reaction vessel. These tubes can
then be weighed to determine the absorbed masses of carbon dioxide and water.
The mass of carbon in the starting material is determined by a 1:1 ratio with the mass of
carbon dioxide produced (as in the combustion reaction for methane already displayed).
The initial hydrogen mass is determined by a 2:1 ratio with the amount of water produced.
The data and the ratios can then be used to calculate the empirical formula of the unknown
sample. Combustion analysis can also be performed using a CHN analyzer, which uses gas
chromatography to analyze the combustion products.
22. Analysis of products of combustion
Why Perform Combustion Analysis?
Improve Fuel Efficiency
Reduce
Improve Safety
What’s Measured?
Combustion analysis involves the measurement of gas concentrations, temperatures and pressure for boiler
tune-ups, emissions checks and safety improvements.
Parameters that are commonly examined include:
• Oxygen (O2)
• Carbon Monoxide (CO)
• Carbon Dioxide (CO2)
• Exhaust gas temperature
• Supplied combustion air temperature
• Draft
• Nitric Oxide (NO)
• Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2) • Sulphur Dioxide (SO2)
23. Orsat apparatus
The Orsat Apparatus is used to Analysis the products combustion, this is done by the process explained
below.
It consists of burette to measure and there are three flasks.
There is a chemical in the flasks to absorb different types of gasses, like CO2, O2, CO.
This flask has Potassium hydroxide (KOH), Pyrogallic acid which is an alkali, Cuprous chloride. this is to
observe the gases.
By the lowering, the leveling bottle a small number of combustion products gets into the measuring
burette.
This small amount of sample is passed through every flask which has reagents that are used to absorbs
the gases.
This sample is returned to the vessel where the volume is measured.
At the absorption process, there is a volume decrease this used to represent the partial volume of each
constituent
Which has been absorbed.
In this, the CO2 is taken as N2 After the absorption which is remainder of flue gas.
There is a sequence in absorption CO2, O2, and CO.
In this, if the Absorbent is used to absorbing O2 which can absorb a small amount of CO2, by this amount
of CO2 is less which is given by the Or sat apparatus if there is the first CO2 is observed and next CO2.
25. Orsat apparatus
This small amount of sample is passed through every flask which has reagents that are used
to absorbs the gases.
This sample is returned to the vessel where the volume is measured.
At the absorption process, there is a volume decrease this used to represent the partial
volume of each constituent
Which has been absorbed.
In this, the CO2 is taken as N2 After the absorption which is remainder of flue gas.
There is a sequence in absorption CO2, O2, and CO.
In this, if the Absorbent is used to absorbing O2 which can absorb a small amount of CO2, by
this amount of CO2 is less which is given by the Or sat apparatus if there is the first CO2 is
observed and next CO2.
The analysis of this apparatus gives on the due basis, this is given by the temperature which
is lower than the dew point temperature of combustion temperature.
The analysis of this apparatus gives on the due basis, this is given by the temperature which
is lower than the dew point temperature of combustion temperature.