This document discusses research topics and procedures related to freight transport in Africa and Asia. It examines modelling vehicle operating costs, improving transport system efficiency, and rural transport. Survey procedures for data collection are outlined, including roadside surveys, driver records, and instrumented vehicles. Case studies from countries like Pakistan, China, Tanzania, and Indonesia are mentioned. Charts show trends in transport costs, tariffs, fuel consumption and other metrics. Factors influencing high transport costs in Africa versus Asia are analyzed.

1. FREIGHT TRANSPORT
RESEARCH IN AFRICA &
ASIA
John Hine

2. FREIGHT TRANSPORT RESEARCH TOPICS
 Modelling Vehicle Operating Costs for Road Appraisal
– Can time savings be used productively ?
– Speed and fuel consumption
– Vehicle maintenance costs
 Examining the efficiency and constraints of national transport
systems.
– Reducing Empty Running
– Comparative Transport Costs and Tariffs between Africa
and Asia
 Improving the efficiency of rural transport
2

3. SURVEY PROCEDURES
3
Procedure Vehicle
Fleet
Load,
Tariff
Utilisation,
empty
running
Fuel,
Speed
Mainte
nance
costs
Road
roughn
ess/
shocks
Country
examples
Roadside
Survey
Y Y Y Y Y Pakistan, China,
Tanzania,
Driver records Y Y Y Y Pakistan
Travelling
observer
Y Y Y Y Pakistan
Office
interviews
Y Y Pakistan, China,
Indonesia,
Tanzania
Freight
Agents
Y Pakistan
Instrumented
Vehicle
Y Y Indonesia,
Pakistan
Truck parks Y Y Y Y Y Indonesia,
Ghana

4. LOG LOADED TRIPS PER DAY = 0.97 -0.932 LOG WORKING TIME PER
TRIP (THE ELASTICITY SUGGESTS TIME SAVINGS WOULD BE FULLY
USED) – PAKISTAN TRAVELLING OBSERVER SURVEY
4

5. MODELLING VEHICLE OPERATING
COSTS IN RELATION TO ROAD CHARACTERISTICS
 Road Appraisal Models such as HDM4 and RED calculate vehicle
operating costs as a function of road alignment, road width, traffic
volume and road roughness. The models are used to estimate the
benefits of upgrading earth and gravel roads to a paved bitumen
standard.
 The models predict vehicle speeds, fuel consumption and
maintenance costs. Generally the smoother, wider and better
aligned the road surface so the lower the operating costs. Speed
is calculated by complex formula whereby the key limiting factor
(gradient, curvature, roughness, traffic volume etc) determines
the speed. Fuel is dependent on speed and gradient. Vehicle
maintenance is dependent on road roughness.
5

6. HDM4
(The Road Planning Model)
The Calculation of Fuel Consumption
FUEL CONSUMPTION
Uses the ARFCOM model - an instantaneous model
of engine power requirements which includes
• Tractive power to overcome resistance to motion
• Accessory power
• Internal engine resistance
ACCELERATION NOISE
Speeds in congested traffic conditions are not
constant and speed variations need to be included in
the fuel consumption model

7. Light Vehicle Fuel Consumption in Indonesia:
Observed to Predicted ARFCOM Results
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
ARFCOM Fuel (cc/ km)
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
450
500
ObservedFuel(cc/km)
Observed
Predicted

8. Medium Truck Fuel Consumption
(Flat Straight Road in Indonesia)
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Speed (km/h)
FuelConsumption(cc/km)
HDMIII no congestion
ARFCOM /HDM-4 no congestion
Estimated fuel
consumption with
congestion by
ARFCOM/HDM4

9. HDM-4
MAINTENANCE PARTS CONSUMPTION
• The most important component of road user costs
• The most 'variable' and most difficult to model
• Function of new vehicle price, vehicle age and road
roughness
• HDM-4 relationships less sensitive to roughness
• Essential to calibrate
MAINTENANCE LABOUR
• Dependent on parts consumption

10. Observed
Predicted
Vehicle Age
Observed and Predicted Vehicle
Maintenance Costs- Articulated Truck

11. Transport Tariffs depend upon Distance, Mode
and Road Surface: Evidence from Ethiopia
Transport Tariffs (Derived from
Regression Analysis)
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
0 50 100
Distance, km
Tariff,Birrperqt.
main road rough road animal transport

12. A STUDY OF EMPTY RUNNING IN CHINA
 In 1990s China had a high degree of empty running. This appeared
to relate to a high level of own account operations in addition to a
poorly developed system of commercial freight forwarding agents.
 A study was carried out in Zhengzhou (at the cross roads of main
east west and north south highways) in which 1024 truck drivers
were interviewed.
 Empty running data was compared with Pakistan and UK data and a
‘load matching’ analysis was carried out by computer. Potential
savings were estimated at between 13 % and 19% of total distance
travelled in the survey.
 Overall with a better developed freight forwarding industry about
4% of total freight vehicle distance may be saved in China.
12

13. Empty Running in China and Pakistan

14. LOGISTICS PERFORMANCE INDEX : LPI
The LPI is a set of indicators that measure perceptions of the
logistics environment of 155 countries on several logistics
dimensions. The survey uses an anonymous, web-based
questionnaire and assess several logistics dimensions:
• International transportation costs;
• Domestic transportation costs;
• Timeliness of shipments;
• Traceability of shipments;
• Transport and IT infrastructure;
• Customs and other border procedures; and
• Logistics competence.

15. October 2007
15
2.19 2.27
2.49
2.73
3.01
3.14
3.91 3.99
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
West
Africa
Central
Africa
East
Africa
Southern
Africa
LAC Eastern
europe
USA Western
Europe
TransportQuality
(LPI)
TRANSPORT QUALITY IS LOW IN AFRICA : LPI

16. TRANSPORT COSTS IN AFRICA AND ASIA
 Over the past 25 years there have been at least five
major comparative studies of transport costs in
Africa and Asia
 The studies confirm that transport tariffs in Africa,
for comparable journeys are many times higher than
in Africa than in Asia
 However there are differences in the reasons behind
the higher costs: earlier studies emphasised cost
factors while the latest study by the World Bank
(2009) puts more emphasis on very high profits.
16

17. TRANSPORT COSTS IN AFRICA & ASIA: MAIN SOURCES
TRL Study on Pakistan, INRETS & LET, Francophone Africa. See: A
comparison of the costs and productivity of road freight transport in
Africa and Pakistan. Transport Reviews, Vol 13, No.2, Rizet & Hine,
1993
A Comparison of Freight Transport Operations in Tanzania and
Indonesia,1997. TRL Report 267. J Hine, J. Ebden and P Swan)
The transition from non-motorised to motorised modes of transport.
7th World Conference on Transport Research, Sydney, 1995( S. Ellis
& J. Hine).
: Transport Prices and Costs in Africa: A review of the International
Corridors. By S. Teravaninthorn and G. Raballand. World bank 2009
17

18. Comparison of Long Distance Tariffs:
US$ per ton km, 1988

19. Tariff Comparison
0.2 0.5 1 2 5 10 20 50
10
20
30
40
50
Thousand tonne km per trip
Tariff (1988 US cents/tonne/km)
Pakistan
Ivory Coast
Mali
Cameroon

20. INPUT COSTS (1988 US$)
Africa Pakistan
with without with without
New vehicle
Tyre
Diesel (US$/L)
Annual costs :
Veh. Insurance
Goods insurance
Licenses and taxes
154,500 123,300 39,710 33,093
758 425 224 169
0.74 0.50 0.27 0.24
4,888
1,751
1,028
1,361
4,888
1,432
839
-
8 8
4,103 4,103
--
145 -
Crew
Taxes:

21. FREIGHT TRANSPORT COSTS
Design Payload
Mean Payload
Empty running
Annual travel
Depreciation, Interest
Fuel
Maintenance
Tyres
Crew
Insurance
Taxes, Overheads
Police, Agents Fees
Total costs per km
Total costs per ton km
35.5
39.4
32.0
16.9
9.8
5.6
17.5
6.1
4.0
13.2
5.2
1.8
3.3
0.006
1.0
2.4
162.6
7.6
31.0
1.4
US cents per km
tons
tons
%
km
Africa
25
32
34
50,000
Pakistan
13
26
12
123,000

22. Tariffs per ton/km 1995 prices

23. Component price US$, 1995
Item Tanzania Indonesia Pakistan
2 axle truck 64 900 22 300 24 200
3 axle truck 97 400 n.a. 37 800
Artic 135 000 73 100 46 500
Truck tyre 292 142 169
Diesel/ltr 0.435 0.166 0.32
Oil/ltr 2.27 1.66 1.0
Maint. Lab. 2.11 2.19 0.7
Crew: 2 axle 136 219 320
Crew: Artic 203 263 400

24. DIFFERENT MODES OF TRANSPORT
 Many factories in Thailand
produce the Etan farm vehicle
out second hand parts. They
can give low transport costs for
small loads travelling short and
medium distances.
 The power tiller (or single axle
tractor) is now an important
means of transport, particularly
in rural Asia.
 Both of these vehicles may not
be licensed to operate in Africa.
24

25. Comparison of operating tariffs
1995 for local rural transport vehicles
Thailand Sri
Lanka
Pakistan Ghana Zimbabwe
Pickup
Cents
/t km
8.7 - 13.7 39.0 -
Truck (8-12
t.) Cents
/t km
- - 2.1 20.6 21.4
Tractor
Cents/ hr
- 320 270 1 240 740
Power Tiller
Cents/ hr
123 127 - 357 -
-

26. Vehicle utilisation:
local transport vehicles
Thailand Sri-
Lanka
Pakistan Ghana Zimbabwe
Pickup
km/yr
61 000 - 44 000 29 000 -
Tractor
hr/yr
- 1 440 1 900 800 750
Power
Tiller hr/yr
500 740 - 400 -
Ox cart
hr/yr
- 875 2 000 - 400
Donkey
cart km/yr
- - 4 600 1 600 -

27. TRANSPORT TARIFFS US$ Per Ton Km 2007
(WORLD BANK STUDY )
27
2
3.5 4
5 5 5
7
8
11
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
Pakistan
Brazil
USA
China
Western
Europe–long
distance
Africa-
Durban-
Lusaka
Africa-Lomé-
Ouagadougou
Africa–
Mombasa
Kampala
Africa-
Douala-
Ndjaména
Averagetransportprices
(inUScentspertkm)

28. 28
Corridor Route
Gateway-Destination
Variable
Cost
(US$ / km)
Fixed Cost
(US$ / day)
Yearly
ratio
FC/VC
Average
yearly
mileage
Average
truck fleet
age
Profit
margin
Central
Africa
(Cameroon)
Douala-N’Djaména
(Chad)
0.93 58 25% - 74% 60-70 12 74%
Douala-Bangui (CAR) 0.92 80 33% - 66% 50-60 10 120%
Ngaounderé-N’Djaména
(Chad)
1.29 29 24% - 75% 50-60 15 158%
Ngaoundéré-Moundou
(Chad)
1.70 27 29% - 70% 10-20 19 289%
East Africa
(Uganda and
Kenya)
Kampala-Mombasa
(Kenya)
0.90 65 29% - 70% 130-140 12 42%
Mombasa-Kampala
(Uganda)
0.62 92 46% - 53% 130-140 7 107%
West Africa
(Burkina and
Ghana)
Ouagadougou-
Tema/Accra (Ghana)
1.01 30 15% - 84% 30-40 12 183%
Tema/Accra-Bamako
(Mali)
0.93 34 17% - 82% 20-30 9 310%
Estimated Costs from 2007 Study

29. High Transport Costs In Africa
Earlier Studies Stressed:
• High initial input prices for vehicles, fuel, parts
• Exclusive dealerships, low demand
• Poor driver knowledge of vehicle maintenance
• Unnecessary fast driving speeds
• Poor road surfaces
• Little competition, particularly on rural routes
• Low utilisation caused by low density of demand and
operation of operator cartels

30. HIGH TRANSPORT COSTS IN AFRICA - 2
Later studies emphasised:
 Most vehicles are imported second hand
 Low utilisation of vehicles
 High barrier costs on international routes
 Super profits being made by operators
 The presence of cartels preventing competition
30

31. Pakistan – a Model for Success ?
• One of the most efficient
freight transport systems in
the world
• Large network of freight
forwarding agents
– individually owned
– 25% general merchandise
– 75% specialist consignments
e.g. quarried materials, iron,
steel
– ⅓ of consignments were
“smalls” (< one ton)
Credit: TRL Limited

32. FREIGHT AGENT

33. FACTORS PROMOTING LOW COST
TRANSPORT IN PAKISTAN - OPERATIONAL
 On-the-job training for drivers
 Drivers given a lot of responsibility
 Continuous vehicle maintenance practiced
 Two drivers per vehicle achieve high utilization
 Oil changed frequently
 Slow driving speeds

34. FACTORS PROMOTING LOW COST
TRANSPORT IN PAKISTAN - ORGANISATIONAL
 Very competitive free market
 Little government regulation
 Efficient network of forwarding agents
 Low initial vehicle prices
 Many cheap parts made locally
 Many good local workshops
 High Density of Demand

35. DENSITY OF DEMAND : GPD PER SQ KM IN 2011
35
0
100,000
200,000
300,000
400,000
500,000
600,000
700,000
800,000
900,000
1,000,000

36. GHANA . GPRTU 1.
About 70% of transport operators belong to the GPRTU (Ghana Private
Road Transport Union of the TUC). The Union runs most of the truck
and bus parks in the country. It also enforces passenger fares.
A queuing system is enforced by the truck and bus parks. Operators
are assigned to certain routes. Customers are directed to the first
vehicle in the queue, which will move once the vehicle is full.
Freight drivers can queue for two weeks to get a load.
There are a number of large bus companies that operate in urban and
interurban routes, however virtually all rural and freight transport is
run by informal small scale operators.
36

37. GHANA -GPRTU 2.
The union tries to assist members in various ways. Michel Delaquis’
study found that they would help long serving drivers become
owners operators through advancing loans.
It is possible for freight operators to bypass the queuing system and
visit factories, etc, for loads on spec. Although ‘fines’ have
sometimes been imposed for doing this.
Freight Transport Tariffs are very high. A recent study found
transporting an import container from Accra to Ougadougou was
$4,800 compared with $654 between Newark and Chicago, (i.e. 7
times for a similar distance). An export container cost 2.5 times as
much.
37

38. MALAWI TRANSPORT COSTS
 A recent study by the World Bank found a 20 fold difference in
transport charges between transport of tobacco between
local towns and city compared with the charges for
international transport to export ports.
 The main reasons identified were a combination of
infrastructure issues, and segmented markets preventing
competition.
 It was suggested that larger trucks would find it difficult to
operate on rural roads, and there was likely to be higher
empty running on shorter trips.
38

39. Malawi Transport Costs
for Tobacco
Origin Destinati
on
Distance
Km
Load
ton
Price
Kwacha
Price Kwacha
ton/km
Price US $
ton/km
Ag.
town
City 85 2.5 19,323 228.4 $ 2.10
Ag.
town
Export
port
2272 24.6 23,462 10.3 9.5 Cents
City Export
port
2012 19.9 24,433 12.1 11.2 Cents
Explaining High Transport Costs within Malawi - Bad Roads or Lack of
Trucking Competition?
Policy Research Working Paper 5133, Somik V. Lall, Hyoung Wang,
Thomas Munthali – World Bank, 2009
39

40. A Comparison of Transport Operations in
Cameroon
The Mayor of Ngoundere District in Northern
Cameroon decided to address the issue of poor
transport services and high tariffs. Substantial
results followed.
A comparison was made by surveys between
Ngoundere and two other Districts in the South
Cameroon

41. First surveys around Buea
Second surveys

42. Characteristics of Transport in Southern
Cameroon
• Transport operations are organised by syndicates
• The syndicate determines fares and routes
• The drivers wait in line and only leave when they
are full
• The syndicate negotiates with the mayor for
access and fees for the terminal
• The vehicles tend to be small (taxis), overloaded
and in poor condition

43. Will this provide a good service?

44. Transport Characteristics in
Northern Cameroon
• There are a number of travel agencies operating
in competition with each other
• The mayor has granted licenses for these travel
agencies to operate out of individual terminals in
the town
• The operations are professional and regular
• The vehicles are clean, well maintained and large
30 seaters

45. Kwatal Travel Agency

46. Impact of these differences on the
customer
• In the North passenger fares dropped by 50% in 2
years as competition increased
• In the North customers had a safer and more
comfortable ride
• Greater service frequency to rural areas
• Customer/user becomes the focus
• The price of transport is dramatically lower in the
North than the South

47. 47

48. Cameroon Study Policy Implications
• Support of a more competitive environment can
have a large pay off.
• In these cases infrastructure was not an issue - if
anything the quality of infrastructure was worse in
the North.
• When transport is provided as it is in the North it is
possible to start thinking about introducing subsidy
on remote and economically unviable routes.

49. 49
Further research papers are available on the TRL transport-links
website: . http://www.transport-links.org/transport_links/index.asp