The document summarizes a study assessing the risk of widespread fires in Patan, Nepal after a major earthquake. It involved analyzing case studies of past earthquakes, interviewing local officials, and conducting field observations in two neighborhoods. The study found that while Nepal's infrastructure has increased fire risks since 1934, the risk of widespread fires may be lower than expected due to fire-resistant building materials. However, the local fire brigade's capacity is limited, so the area would benefit from increased preparation for post-quake fires.
Remote sensing and GIS can play an important role in disaster management by providing tools and techniques for monitoring, mapping, and modeling disasters. This includes early warning systems, finding safe areas, rescue routing, and assessing damage. Some key capabilities are disaster mapping and monitoring, scenario simulation, emergency response support, and vulnerability analysis to help with preparedness, relief, recovery, reconstruction, and mitigation efforts.
ESTO NO ES UNA LECTURA - ES UN TEXTO DE APOYO
Este es el resumen de políticas para de la comisión que analizo el Cambio Climatico en Copenhagen en 2007. Este informe es ENORME, pero tiene este breve resumen para personas que hagan políticas. Si les interesa, hojeenlo y descarguenlo. No hay puntaje ni actividad para este texto; pero es UTILISIMO y HERMOSO. Puede ser de mucha utilidad en los debates.
mapc
This document is the Summary for Policymakers from the IPCC Special Report on Renewable Energy Sources and Climate Change Mitigation (SRREN). It provides an overview of the key findings from the SRREN, which assesses the scientific, technological, environmental, economic and social aspects of renewable energy sources. The summary discusses how renewable energy can help lower greenhouse gas emissions while meeting increasing global energy demand. It outlines the structure of the full report and introduces the different types of renewable energy technologies covered.
This document provides a summary of an ornithology study conducted for a proposed 100MW wind energy project in Kajiado District, Kenya. It describes the study methodology which included monthly bird surveys from April to December 2011 using vantage point watches and bird transect surveys. A total of 130 bird species were recorded during the study period. The document discusses the project environment including bird habitats, species diversity, spatial and temporal use of habitats by birds, and flight patterns. It identifies potential impacts of the wind project such as bird mortality from collisions and habitat loss. Mitigation measures are proposed to reduce impacts. The study concludes the development may have limited impacts on birds but some species are specialized to existing habitats on site.
Flooding is one of the most devastating natural
disasters in Nigeria. The impact of flooding on human activities
cannot be overemphasized. It can threaten human lives, their
property, environment and the economy. Different techniques
exist to manage and analyze the impact of flooding. Some of these
techniques have not been effective in management of flood
disaster. Remote sensing technique presents itself as an effective
and efficient means of managing flood disaster. In this study,
SPOT-10 image was used to perform land cover/ land use
classification of the study area. Advanced Space borne Thermal
Emission and Reflection Radiometer (ASTER) image of 2010 was
used to generate the Digital Elevation Model (DEM). The image
focal statistics were generated using the Spatial Analyst/
Neighborhood/Focal Statistics Tool in ArcMap. The contour map
was produced using the Spatial Analyst/ Surface/ Contour Tools.
The DEM generated from the focal statistics was reclassified into
different risk levels based on variation of elevation values. The
depression in the DEM was filled and used to create the flow
direction map. The flow accumulation map was produced using
the flow direction data as input image. The stream network and
watershed were equally generated and the stream vectorized. The
reclassified DEM, stream network and vectorized land cover
classes were integrated and used to analyze the impact of flood on
the classes. The result shows that 27.86% of the area studied will
be affected at very high risk flood level, 35.63% at high risk,
17.90% at moderate risk, 10.72% at low risk, and 7.89% at no
risk flood level. Built up area class will be mostly affected at very
high risk flood level while farmland will be affected at high risk
flood level. Oshoro, Imhekpeme, and Weppa communities will be
affected at very high risk flood inundation while Ivighe, Uneme,
Igoide and Iviari communities will be at risk at high risk flood
inundation level. It is recommended among others that buildings
that fall within the “Very High Risk” area should be identified
and occupants possibly relocated to other areas such as the “No
Risk” area.
Japan's current nuclear energy policy centers on pursuing safety as the top priority while recognizing nuclear power as an important source of stable, low-carbon energy. Key points include:
1) Nuclear power will continue playing a role in energy supply, provided the highest safety standards are met. The Nuclear Regulation Authority will independently verify safety at restarting plants.
2) Efforts to improve safety include establishing a new risk research center, fostering a culture of continuous safety improvement, and maintaining nuclear technology expertise for decommissioning and contributing to global non-proliferation.
3) Dependency on nuclear power will be lowered by developing renewable energy and energy efficiency, while carefully assessing energy needs and the timeline for restarting reactors
An Update on Fukushima Recovery and Reactor RestartsJoe Bacchus
1. Japan's current nuclear energy policy aims to pursue safety, economic efficiency, and environmental goals. Nuclear power is considered an important source of stable, low-carbon energy.
2. After the Fukushima accident, efforts have focused on achieving the highest safety standards and gaining public confidence. The Nuclear Regulation Authority evaluates plants to strict new regulations before any restart.
3. The policy also emphasizes maintaining nuclear technologies and human resources for decommissioning plants and contributing to international nuclear safety and non-proliferation.
Remote sensing and GIS can play an important role in disaster management by providing tools and techniques for monitoring, mapping, and modeling disasters. This includes early warning systems, finding safe areas, rescue routing, and assessing damage. Some key capabilities are disaster mapping and monitoring, scenario simulation, emergency response support, and vulnerability analysis to help with preparedness, relief, recovery, reconstruction, and mitigation efforts.
ESTO NO ES UNA LECTURA - ES UN TEXTO DE APOYO
Este es el resumen de políticas para de la comisión que analizo el Cambio Climatico en Copenhagen en 2007. Este informe es ENORME, pero tiene este breve resumen para personas que hagan políticas. Si les interesa, hojeenlo y descarguenlo. No hay puntaje ni actividad para este texto; pero es UTILISIMO y HERMOSO. Puede ser de mucha utilidad en los debates.
mapc
This document is the Summary for Policymakers from the IPCC Special Report on Renewable Energy Sources and Climate Change Mitigation (SRREN). It provides an overview of the key findings from the SRREN, which assesses the scientific, technological, environmental, economic and social aspects of renewable energy sources. The summary discusses how renewable energy can help lower greenhouse gas emissions while meeting increasing global energy demand. It outlines the structure of the full report and introduces the different types of renewable energy technologies covered.
This document provides a summary of an ornithology study conducted for a proposed 100MW wind energy project in Kajiado District, Kenya. It describes the study methodology which included monthly bird surveys from April to December 2011 using vantage point watches and bird transect surveys. A total of 130 bird species were recorded during the study period. The document discusses the project environment including bird habitats, species diversity, spatial and temporal use of habitats by birds, and flight patterns. It identifies potential impacts of the wind project such as bird mortality from collisions and habitat loss. Mitigation measures are proposed to reduce impacts. The study concludes the development may have limited impacts on birds but some species are specialized to existing habitats on site.
Flooding is one of the most devastating natural
disasters in Nigeria. The impact of flooding on human activities
cannot be overemphasized. It can threaten human lives, their
property, environment and the economy. Different techniques
exist to manage and analyze the impact of flooding. Some of these
techniques have not been effective in management of flood
disaster. Remote sensing technique presents itself as an effective
and efficient means of managing flood disaster. In this study,
SPOT-10 image was used to perform land cover/ land use
classification of the study area. Advanced Space borne Thermal
Emission and Reflection Radiometer (ASTER) image of 2010 was
used to generate the Digital Elevation Model (DEM). The image
focal statistics were generated using the Spatial Analyst/
Neighborhood/Focal Statistics Tool in ArcMap. The contour map
was produced using the Spatial Analyst/ Surface/ Contour Tools.
The DEM generated from the focal statistics was reclassified into
different risk levels based on variation of elevation values. The
depression in the DEM was filled and used to create the flow
direction map. The flow accumulation map was produced using
the flow direction data as input image. The stream network and
watershed were equally generated and the stream vectorized. The
reclassified DEM, stream network and vectorized land cover
classes were integrated and used to analyze the impact of flood on
the classes. The result shows that 27.86% of the area studied will
be affected at very high risk flood level, 35.63% at high risk,
17.90% at moderate risk, 10.72% at low risk, and 7.89% at no
risk flood level. Built up area class will be mostly affected at very
high risk flood level while farmland will be affected at high risk
flood level. Oshoro, Imhekpeme, and Weppa communities will be
affected at very high risk flood inundation while Ivighe, Uneme,
Igoide and Iviari communities will be at risk at high risk flood
inundation level. It is recommended among others that buildings
that fall within the “Very High Risk” area should be identified
and occupants possibly relocated to other areas such as the “No
Risk” area.
Japan's current nuclear energy policy centers on pursuing safety as the top priority while recognizing nuclear power as an important source of stable, low-carbon energy. Key points include:
1) Nuclear power will continue playing a role in energy supply, provided the highest safety standards are met. The Nuclear Regulation Authority will independently verify safety at restarting plants.
2) Efforts to improve safety include establishing a new risk research center, fostering a culture of continuous safety improvement, and maintaining nuclear technology expertise for decommissioning and contributing to global non-proliferation.
3) Dependency on nuclear power will be lowered by developing renewable energy and energy efficiency, while carefully assessing energy needs and the timeline for restarting reactors
An Update on Fukushima Recovery and Reactor RestartsJoe Bacchus
1. Japan's current nuclear energy policy aims to pursue safety, economic efficiency, and environmental goals. Nuclear power is considered an important source of stable, low-carbon energy.
2. After the Fukushima accident, efforts have focused on achieving the highest safety standards and gaining public confidence. The Nuclear Regulation Authority evaluates plants to strict new regulations before any restart.
3. The policy also emphasizes maintaining nuclear technologies and human resources for decommissioning plants and contributing to international nuclear safety and non-proliferation.
Les Miserables, five volumes, complete by victor hugoChuck Thompson
This document provides a table of contents for Victor Hugo's novel Les Misérables. It lists the volumes, books, and chapters that make up the work. The novel is divided into 5 volumes, with each volume containing multiple books divided into chapters. Some key details include that Volume I is titled "Fantine" and contains 14 chapters across 2 books. Volume II is titled "Cosette" and includes 19 chapters across 7 books related to the Battle of Waterloo.
http://www.gloucestercounty-va.com The Battle of Gettysburg. Civil war history for those who would like to learn more about the past of the United States. Free downloads to Slideshare members. Enjoy.
This document provides an overview of the textbook "Robotics: Control, Sensing, Vision, and Intelligence". The textbook was written to provide a comprehensive account of the basic principles underlying the design, analysis, and synthesis of robotic systems. It covers topics such as robot arm kinematics and dynamics, trajectory planning and motion control, robot sensing, programming languages, and machine intelligence. The textbook is intended for engineers, scientists, and students involved in robotics and automation.
This document is a book introduction for Fred Wilson's book "Simple Attacking Plans". It introduces the four basic concepts that the book will explore: 1) Attacking the f7/f2 squares in the opening whenever possible, 2) Most successful kingside attacks target the h7/h2 squares after eliminating their defender, 3) Trapping the king in the center and dominating the e-file and sometimes d-file, 4) Pointing as many pieces as possible towards the opponent's king. It then provides four brief game summaries as examples of these concepts in action.
The document discusses the benefits of exercise for mental health. It notes that regular physical activity can help reduce anxiety and depression and improve mood and cognitive function. Exercise causes chemical changes in the brain that may help alleviate symptoms of mental illness.
This document is the preface to a book titled "Handbook of Mechanical Engineering Terms". It provides background information on the purpose and contents of the book. The preface explains that the book aims to serve as both an up-to-date reference for key terms in mechanical engineering, and as a general reference for students and engineers. It covers terms across 26 parts that span most areas of mechanical engineering. Suggestions from readers are welcomed to improve future editions.
This document discusses various types of equipment that can be used to recover waste heat, including recuperators, regenerators, heat wheels, heat pipes, economizers, shell and tube heat exchangers, plate heat exchangers, and run around coil exchangers. It provides details on the design and operation of each type of equipment and examples of common industrial applications where they are used, such as recovering heat from boiler flue gases, furnaces, dryers, and other processes to improve energy efficiency.
40 lessons on refrigeration and air conditioning yr2008 p809Nikolay Mavrodiev
The document provides a historical overview of refrigeration. It discusses natural refrigeration methods such as using ice transported from colder regions or harvested in winter and stored in ice houses. Other natural methods mentioned include producing ice at night through radiation cooling of water and using evaporative cooling. The document then discusses the development of artificial refrigeration techniques, including early domestic refrigeration systems and air conditioning, as well as vapor absorption, solar, air cycle, steam jet, thermoelectric, and vortex tube systems. It provides context on important figures and developments in the history of refrigeration.
The document discusses how utility company executives contribute to the success of capital projects. It outlines the challenges executives face in project selection and portfolio management given budget constraints, regulatory factors, and infrastructure needs. It describes how top utilities take a long term planning approach, rigorously assess proposed projects, oversee project execution through reporting triggers, and work collaboratively with regulators. The strategies discussed aim to improve return on investment, deliver quality results on time and on budget, and ensure reliable energy systems.
This thesis proposal aims to develop strategic planning for using the Ring Road in Kathmandu Valley as an open space for temporary shelters after an earthquake disaster. The specific objectives are to quantify how much area of the Ring Road can be used for shelters, calculate the capacity of existing identified open spaces, identify evacuation routes and shelter capacity. The methodology will include literature review, data collection, field visits, estimations of damage, casualties, homeless populations based on earthquake magnitudes. Standards from Sphere Project will be followed to assess shelter needs. A work schedule of 6 months and a budget of 100,000 NPR are proposed. The expected outputs include estimates of shelter space required, strategies and plans for using the Ring Road as temporary shelters, and
Participatory Earthpuake Vulnerability Assessment: A Case Study on Motijhorna...Kazi Mahfuzur Rahman
Abstract:
This paper aims to assess the earthquake vulnerability of Matijhorna Slum in Chittagong City. Like any other slum, it is a densely populated area with high room density. Chittagong is a hilly region & sometimes earthquake has occurred here though their intensity is not very high. If a large earthquake occurs it will bring immeasurable sufferings especially to the study area as it is vulnerable for landslide occurrence also. The area is not well developed & most of the people are poor to build their living structures strong enough which may resist earthquake occurrence. The vulnerability is assessed using participatory approach as it is the best way to make realize the community how vulnerable they are. Different types of risk factors such as Ground Factor, Secondary Hazards, Demographic Factor, Emergency Preparedness and Structural Factors are considered. Different types of PRA tools and modified PRA tools are used in the study to assess the vulnerability of Earthquake.
Disaster earth quake rescue and relief assessmentAmit Pokharel
This document summarizes a case study on emergency response and relief efforts for earthquakes. The study examined the response to a 1934 earthquake in Kathmandu, Nepal. It found that over 80% of buildings in the area did not comply with building codes and were poorly constructed, exacerbating earthquake damage. The study recommends a long-term disaster management program with a focus on preparedness through public education and capacity building. Activities should aim to incorporate the special needs of vulnerable groups like women, children, the elderly and disabled. Adoption of earthquake-resistant building standards is also emphasized.
This document discusses Japan's decision to return to nuclear energy four years after the Fukushima disaster. It provides context on Japan's pre-Fukushima nuclear policy and the global discourse around nuclear energy. Post-Fukushima, some countries like Germany decided to phase out nuclear power due to risks, while others like Japan took the approach of reinforcing safety measures to continue nuclear energy. The document examines factors like public opinion and media framing that influenced Japan's decision to restart nuclear reactors at Sendai, signaling its return to nuclear power generation.
1) The document presents a quantitative model for assessing seismic mortality risks at the county level in China. The model uses population exposure, earthquake probability, and a vulnerability curve relating seismic intensity to mortality to calculate risk.
2) The authors collected data on historical earthquakes, population, seismic intensities, and fault lines to determine input parameters for each of China's 2355 counties.
3) The results show the spatial patterns of seismic mortality risk across China, with generally higher risks in eastern and central regions where populations are dense and earthquakes are more common.
Gorkha Earthquake: Recovery Challenges in a Fluid TerrainKenneth MacClune
This document discusses recovery challenges following the 2015 Gorkha earthquake in Nepal. It provides context on Nepal's hazard landscape and history of disasters. Recovery from major disasters is challenging, especially integrating resilience. In Nepal, recovery responsibilities have historically focused on emergency response rather than long-term recovery. The National Reconstruction Authority was established to lead earthquake recovery and reconstruction, but faced difficulties with coordination, funding disbursement, technical support, and monitoring progress. Integrating resilience into recovery requires considering multiple hazards, expanding the focus beyond housing to livelihoods and services, and building on local capacity and resources. A community of practice could help contextualize knowledge and actions for resilient recovery.
Soil Liquefaction Potential Maps for Earthquake Events in Yangon, Myanmarijtsrd
The soil liquefaction is one of the main topics of geotechnical engineering associated with the strong earthquakes. The study area has been selected in Yangon City because it is most populated density area and located near the active faults and the rivers. The main objective of study is the development of liquefaction potential maps as a prominent feature for site planners and decision makers to reduce loss of lives. The borehole data including ground water table, Standard Penetration Test (SPT), blow counts, wet density and fine content etc. have been collected from the 530 representative sites in Yangon City. The safety factor of soil liquefaction is evaluated by using National Center of Earthquake Engineering Research (NCEER) Method (1997). The Liquefaction Potential Index (LPI) is proposed by Luna and Frost Method (1998) to predict the potential of liquefaction at sites. The proposed liquefaction potential map is analyzed by using Geographic Information Software. The development of liquefaction potential maps is associated with 1%, 2%, 5%, 10% and 20% of probabilities of exceedance in 50 years. Zar Lee Tint | Nyan Myint Kyaw | Kyaw Kyaw"Soil Liquefaction Potential Maps for Earthquake Events in Yangon, Myanmar" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-2 | Issue-3 , April 2018, URL: http://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd12747.pdf http://www.ijtsrd.com/engineering/civil-engineering/12747/soil-liquefaction-potential-maps-for-earthquake-events-in-yangon-myanmar/zar-lee-tint
To Establish Evacuation Decision-Making Selection Modes of Aboriginal Tribes ...IJERA Editor
In this study I try to utilize the concepts of ―environmental vulnerability‖ and ―evacuation behaviors among minority groups‖ and apply the evacuation selection mode generated from the public hazard perception to geographic information system, and analyze movement paths of residents during after disaster by using composite technology so that I can modify the suggested service scope and capacity of evacuation sites in the regions investigated in this study and provide minority groups with optimal selection mode.
Decades to Accumulate, Seconds to fall A Case Study on Meethotamulla Garbage ...ijtsrd
This investigation presents a case study on one of Sri Lanka's most devastating man made environmental catastrophes. Three decades ago, a marshland paddy field was converted into a dumping site for municipal garbage. With the increasing population and urbanization, the country lacked a more suitable method for waste disposal. The continued practice resulted in a large mountain of solid waste. Experts suggest that physical characteristics, instability of the bottom layers and increase in the water table caused the collapse. Mountainous shaped dump has been growing in size and reached ~50 m in height and was occupying ~40 acers. The extent of the area has not undergone any significant change. Spreading chemicals, intense rain and heavy garbage loading has contributed to the collapse. Residents did not come across any signs of danger prior to the incident. Chathumani D | Deepthi Wickrama Singhe | Isuru Gunarathna ""Decades to Accumulate, Seconds to fall: A Case Study on Meethotamulla Garbage Dump Collapse in Sri Lanka"" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-3 | Issue-3 , April 2019, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd23080.pdf
Paper URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/other-scientific-research-area/enviormental-science/23080/decades-to-accumulate-seconds-to-fall-a-case-study-on-meethotamulla-garbage-dump-collapse-in-sri-lanka/chathumani-d
International Journal of Engineering Research and Applications (IJERA) is an open access online peer reviewed international journal that publishes research and review articles in the fields of Computer Science, Neural Networks, Electrical Engineering, Software Engineering, Information Technology, Mechanical Engineering, Chemical Engineering, Plastic Engineering, Food Technology, Textile Engineering, Nano Technology & science, Power Electronics, Electronics & Communication Engineering, Computational mathematics, Image processing, Civil Engineering, Structural Engineering, Environmental Engineering, VLSI Testing & Low Power VLSI Design etc.
To share the overall activities of the project, along with its results, in a way such that it can be easily referred to and understood from, the JICA-ERAKV Project (The Project for Assessment of Earthquake Disaster Risk for the Kathmandu Valley in Nepal), published the project brochure and shared with the counterparts and the general public during the Final Seminar (14th February, 2018).
Les Miserables, five volumes, complete by victor hugoChuck Thompson
This document provides a table of contents for Victor Hugo's novel Les Misérables. It lists the volumes, books, and chapters that make up the work. The novel is divided into 5 volumes, with each volume containing multiple books divided into chapters. Some key details include that Volume I is titled "Fantine" and contains 14 chapters across 2 books. Volume II is titled "Cosette" and includes 19 chapters across 7 books related to the Battle of Waterloo.
http://www.gloucestercounty-va.com The Battle of Gettysburg. Civil war history for those who would like to learn more about the past of the United States. Free downloads to Slideshare members. Enjoy.
This document provides an overview of the textbook "Robotics: Control, Sensing, Vision, and Intelligence". The textbook was written to provide a comprehensive account of the basic principles underlying the design, analysis, and synthesis of robotic systems. It covers topics such as robot arm kinematics and dynamics, trajectory planning and motion control, robot sensing, programming languages, and machine intelligence. The textbook is intended for engineers, scientists, and students involved in robotics and automation.
This document is a book introduction for Fred Wilson's book "Simple Attacking Plans". It introduces the four basic concepts that the book will explore: 1) Attacking the f7/f2 squares in the opening whenever possible, 2) Most successful kingside attacks target the h7/h2 squares after eliminating their defender, 3) Trapping the king in the center and dominating the e-file and sometimes d-file, 4) Pointing as many pieces as possible towards the opponent's king. It then provides four brief game summaries as examples of these concepts in action.
The document discusses the benefits of exercise for mental health. It notes that regular physical activity can help reduce anxiety and depression and improve mood and cognitive function. Exercise causes chemical changes in the brain that may help alleviate symptoms of mental illness.
This document is the preface to a book titled "Handbook of Mechanical Engineering Terms". It provides background information on the purpose and contents of the book. The preface explains that the book aims to serve as both an up-to-date reference for key terms in mechanical engineering, and as a general reference for students and engineers. It covers terms across 26 parts that span most areas of mechanical engineering. Suggestions from readers are welcomed to improve future editions.
This document discusses various types of equipment that can be used to recover waste heat, including recuperators, regenerators, heat wheels, heat pipes, economizers, shell and tube heat exchangers, plate heat exchangers, and run around coil exchangers. It provides details on the design and operation of each type of equipment and examples of common industrial applications where they are used, such as recovering heat from boiler flue gases, furnaces, dryers, and other processes to improve energy efficiency.
40 lessons on refrigeration and air conditioning yr2008 p809Nikolay Mavrodiev
The document provides a historical overview of refrigeration. It discusses natural refrigeration methods such as using ice transported from colder regions or harvested in winter and stored in ice houses. Other natural methods mentioned include producing ice at night through radiation cooling of water and using evaporative cooling. The document then discusses the development of artificial refrigeration techniques, including early domestic refrigeration systems and air conditioning, as well as vapor absorption, solar, air cycle, steam jet, thermoelectric, and vortex tube systems. It provides context on important figures and developments in the history of refrigeration.
The document discusses how utility company executives contribute to the success of capital projects. It outlines the challenges executives face in project selection and portfolio management given budget constraints, regulatory factors, and infrastructure needs. It describes how top utilities take a long term planning approach, rigorously assess proposed projects, oversee project execution through reporting triggers, and work collaboratively with regulators. The strategies discussed aim to improve return on investment, deliver quality results on time and on budget, and ensure reliable energy systems.
This thesis proposal aims to develop strategic planning for using the Ring Road in Kathmandu Valley as an open space for temporary shelters after an earthquake disaster. The specific objectives are to quantify how much area of the Ring Road can be used for shelters, calculate the capacity of existing identified open spaces, identify evacuation routes and shelter capacity. The methodology will include literature review, data collection, field visits, estimations of damage, casualties, homeless populations based on earthquake magnitudes. Standards from Sphere Project will be followed to assess shelter needs. A work schedule of 6 months and a budget of 100,000 NPR are proposed. The expected outputs include estimates of shelter space required, strategies and plans for using the Ring Road as temporary shelters, and
Participatory Earthpuake Vulnerability Assessment: A Case Study on Motijhorna...Kazi Mahfuzur Rahman
Abstract:
This paper aims to assess the earthquake vulnerability of Matijhorna Slum in Chittagong City. Like any other slum, it is a densely populated area with high room density. Chittagong is a hilly region & sometimes earthquake has occurred here though their intensity is not very high. If a large earthquake occurs it will bring immeasurable sufferings especially to the study area as it is vulnerable for landslide occurrence also. The area is not well developed & most of the people are poor to build their living structures strong enough which may resist earthquake occurrence. The vulnerability is assessed using participatory approach as it is the best way to make realize the community how vulnerable they are. Different types of risk factors such as Ground Factor, Secondary Hazards, Demographic Factor, Emergency Preparedness and Structural Factors are considered. Different types of PRA tools and modified PRA tools are used in the study to assess the vulnerability of Earthquake.
Disaster earth quake rescue and relief assessmentAmit Pokharel
This document summarizes a case study on emergency response and relief efforts for earthquakes. The study examined the response to a 1934 earthquake in Kathmandu, Nepal. It found that over 80% of buildings in the area did not comply with building codes and were poorly constructed, exacerbating earthquake damage. The study recommends a long-term disaster management program with a focus on preparedness through public education and capacity building. Activities should aim to incorporate the special needs of vulnerable groups like women, children, the elderly and disabled. Adoption of earthquake-resistant building standards is also emphasized.
This document discusses Japan's decision to return to nuclear energy four years after the Fukushima disaster. It provides context on Japan's pre-Fukushima nuclear policy and the global discourse around nuclear energy. Post-Fukushima, some countries like Germany decided to phase out nuclear power due to risks, while others like Japan took the approach of reinforcing safety measures to continue nuclear energy. The document examines factors like public opinion and media framing that influenced Japan's decision to restart nuclear reactors at Sendai, signaling its return to nuclear power generation.
1) The document presents a quantitative model for assessing seismic mortality risks at the county level in China. The model uses population exposure, earthquake probability, and a vulnerability curve relating seismic intensity to mortality to calculate risk.
2) The authors collected data on historical earthquakes, population, seismic intensities, and fault lines to determine input parameters for each of China's 2355 counties.
3) The results show the spatial patterns of seismic mortality risk across China, with generally higher risks in eastern and central regions where populations are dense and earthquakes are more common.
Gorkha Earthquake: Recovery Challenges in a Fluid TerrainKenneth MacClune
This document discusses recovery challenges following the 2015 Gorkha earthquake in Nepal. It provides context on Nepal's hazard landscape and history of disasters. Recovery from major disasters is challenging, especially integrating resilience. In Nepal, recovery responsibilities have historically focused on emergency response rather than long-term recovery. The National Reconstruction Authority was established to lead earthquake recovery and reconstruction, but faced difficulties with coordination, funding disbursement, technical support, and monitoring progress. Integrating resilience into recovery requires considering multiple hazards, expanding the focus beyond housing to livelihoods and services, and building on local capacity and resources. A community of practice could help contextualize knowledge and actions for resilient recovery.
Soil Liquefaction Potential Maps for Earthquake Events in Yangon, Myanmarijtsrd
The soil liquefaction is one of the main topics of geotechnical engineering associated with the strong earthquakes. The study area has been selected in Yangon City because it is most populated density area and located near the active faults and the rivers. The main objective of study is the development of liquefaction potential maps as a prominent feature for site planners and decision makers to reduce loss of lives. The borehole data including ground water table, Standard Penetration Test (SPT), blow counts, wet density and fine content etc. have been collected from the 530 representative sites in Yangon City. The safety factor of soil liquefaction is evaluated by using National Center of Earthquake Engineering Research (NCEER) Method (1997). The Liquefaction Potential Index (LPI) is proposed by Luna and Frost Method (1998) to predict the potential of liquefaction at sites. The proposed liquefaction potential map is analyzed by using Geographic Information Software. The development of liquefaction potential maps is associated with 1%, 2%, 5%, 10% and 20% of probabilities of exceedance in 50 years. Zar Lee Tint | Nyan Myint Kyaw | Kyaw Kyaw"Soil Liquefaction Potential Maps for Earthquake Events in Yangon, Myanmar" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-2 | Issue-3 , April 2018, URL: http://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd12747.pdf http://www.ijtsrd.com/engineering/civil-engineering/12747/soil-liquefaction-potential-maps-for-earthquake-events-in-yangon-myanmar/zar-lee-tint
To Establish Evacuation Decision-Making Selection Modes of Aboriginal Tribes ...IJERA Editor
In this study I try to utilize the concepts of ―environmental vulnerability‖ and ―evacuation behaviors among minority groups‖ and apply the evacuation selection mode generated from the public hazard perception to geographic information system, and analyze movement paths of residents during after disaster by using composite technology so that I can modify the suggested service scope and capacity of evacuation sites in the regions investigated in this study and provide minority groups with optimal selection mode.
Decades to Accumulate, Seconds to fall A Case Study on Meethotamulla Garbage ...ijtsrd
This investigation presents a case study on one of Sri Lanka's most devastating man made environmental catastrophes. Three decades ago, a marshland paddy field was converted into a dumping site for municipal garbage. With the increasing population and urbanization, the country lacked a more suitable method for waste disposal. The continued practice resulted in a large mountain of solid waste. Experts suggest that physical characteristics, instability of the bottom layers and increase in the water table caused the collapse. Mountainous shaped dump has been growing in size and reached ~50 m in height and was occupying ~40 acers. The extent of the area has not undergone any significant change. Spreading chemicals, intense rain and heavy garbage loading has contributed to the collapse. Residents did not come across any signs of danger prior to the incident. Chathumani D | Deepthi Wickrama Singhe | Isuru Gunarathna ""Decades to Accumulate, Seconds to fall: A Case Study on Meethotamulla Garbage Dump Collapse in Sri Lanka"" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-3 | Issue-3 , April 2019, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd23080.pdf
Paper URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/other-scientific-research-area/enviormental-science/23080/decades-to-accumulate-seconds-to-fall-a-case-study-on-meethotamulla-garbage-dump-collapse-in-sri-lanka/chathumani-d
International Journal of Engineering Research and Applications (IJERA) is an open access online peer reviewed international journal that publishes research and review articles in the fields of Computer Science, Neural Networks, Electrical Engineering, Software Engineering, Information Technology, Mechanical Engineering, Chemical Engineering, Plastic Engineering, Food Technology, Textile Engineering, Nano Technology & science, Power Electronics, Electronics & Communication Engineering, Computational mathematics, Image processing, Civil Engineering, Structural Engineering, Environmental Engineering, VLSI Testing & Low Power VLSI Design etc.
To share the overall activities of the project, along with its results, in a way such that it can be easily referred to and understood from, the JICA-ERAKV Project (The Project for Assessment of Earthquake Disaster Risk for the Kathmandu Valley in Nepal), published the project brochure and shared with the counterparts and the general public during the Final Seminar (14th February, 2018).
This document discusses flooding that occurred in Compostela Valley Province in the Philippines after Typhoon Pablo hit in 2012. It summarizes the impacts of the typhoon, which caused over 1,000 deaths and $42 billion in damages. It also describes how certain low-lying areas of Compostela Valley Province are prone to flooding from rivers overflowing due to heavy rainfall. The document aims to provide a flood mitigation plan and structural recommendations for flood-resistant housing in the province, focusing on cost-effective solutions. It reviews past studies on evaluating flood risks and assessing existing housing for flood resilience. The goal is to help the affected community safely rebuild housing that can withstand future flooding.
The document provides background on India's growing energy needs and its plans to increase nuclear power capacity. It discusses the Koodankulam nuclear power plant project in Tamil Nadu, which initially faced little opposition but grew as residents realized it did not provide jobs as promised and could threaten their livelihoods from fishing. The 2011 Fukushima disaster intensified protests against the project. The government insists on the plant's safety, but protesters demand more transparency and representation. Tensions increased with police action against protests, legal battles, and intimidating shows of state power. Key issues raised include whether lower classes should risk their lives and livelihoods to fuel energy growth mainly benefiting other classes.
Tornado Disaster in Joplin, Missouri and in Birmingham, Alabama.docxjuliennehar
Tornado Disaster in Joplin, Missouri and in Birmingham, Alabama
Samantha Tallarine
Capella University
BSN-FP4014
July, 2019
EFFECTS ON COMMUNITY HEALTH
.
The occurrence of crises such as hurricanes and volcanic eruptions leave the affected communities without access to healthcare (Delgado, Gonzalez, & Swathi, 2017).
Natural disasters destroy the necessary infrastructure like roads and power supply
The outbreak of diseases like Ebola affects health care delivery because of the exposure to the virus.
In the long-run, the crisis’s effect on the social susceptibility of the populace can have a ripple impact, which further burdens health care delivery care in the community.
Shifts in victim demographics creates significant workload for weakened health systems
2
RESPONSE TO 2011, TORNADO IN JOPLIN
The Missouri Department of Health and Senior Services (DHSS) activated the PHEP-financed State Emergency Operations Center and Emergency(CDC, 2011).
It integrated public health into the emergency response and, in partnership with its associates, lead and coordinated the health care and public health sectors.
Local health units took advantage of existing collaborations with health units in others states to offer mutual aid utilities like administering tetanus vaccinations.
The private sector-inclusive of churches, Joplin residents, the business community, and volunteers offered relief to the victims.
3
RESPONSE IN BIRMINGHAM, ALABAMA
The state through FEMA activated its National Response Coordination Staff to Level II
Level II activates its emergency support operations inclusive of search and rescue, public health, mass care, and transportation (FEMA, 2011).
FEMA coordinated the emergency response teams ensuring that the exercise went on smoothly.
The private sector also provided aid, with the Salvation Army offering free meals to the affected victims.
In comparison to the Joplin tornado the Birmingham response was well coordinated.
4
Key Lessons Learned in the Joplin Disaster
Hospitals should test all emergency plans to pinpoint and correct weaknesses(Smith & Sutter, 2013).
It is important to draft emergency plans to provide medical staff with critical thinking capabilities to manage disaster responses.
Tactical and strategic communication is vital to coordinating response teams, media and the public.
5
Key Lessons Learnt in Birmingham, Alabama
It is important to update disaster training and have the necessary equipment for future disasters
inclusive of items to assist hospitals in evacuating and kits to convert busies for patient transport.
The disaster also showed the need for counties and cities to have debris contracts in place before a disaster.
6
CURRENT PRACTICES JOPLIN
A majority of hospitals in Missouri have their emergency operations plans and their command centers active.
In case of a community crisis there is enough notice and time to prepare and communication systems are uninterrupted.
The hospitals are abl ...
Iranian J Publ Health, Vol. 41, No.6, Jun 2012, pp.12-20 Review Article
Crisis Management of Tohoku; Japan Earthquake and Tsunami,
11 March 2011
*M Zaré 1, S Ghaychi Afrouz 2
1. International Institute of Earthquake Engineering and Seismology (IIEES), Tehran, Iran
2. Mining Engineering, School of Mining Engineering, University College of Engineering, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran
(Received 12 Dec 2011; accepted 22 Apr 2012)
Introduction
The magnitude 9.0 Japan’s Tohoku Earthquake
occurred at 14:46 local time on Friday, 11 March
2011, 125 km east coast of Honshu and 380 km
far from Tokyo and rattled the large parts of Ja-
pan and some part of east China and Russia with
30 km depth of the hypocenter (1). This earth-
quake that lasted approximately 3 minutes (170
seconds) caused a 130 km long by 159 km wide
rupture zone on the pacific plate subduction zone
and followed by a huge tsunami with more than
40 meter waves. The destructive aftermaths of this
incident made an irreparable disaster not only for
the Japan, but also for the whole world because
except for the enormous death toll and debris, the
damages of nuclear power plants were a hazard-
ous unexpected tragedy.
Casualties and damages
According to the report of the Japanese National
Police Agency, 15854 dead, 3167 missing and
26992 injured across twenty prefectures are the
result of this devastating earthquake and tsunami
which ruined more than 125000 buildings. Moreo-
ver, it caused long blackouts for more than 4.4
million buildings and left 1.5 million buildings out
of water for days (2), also large fires were triggered
one after another even for weeks after the main
quake. Explosion and demolition of the Fuku-
Abstract
The huge earthquake in 11 March 2012 which followed by a destructive tsunami in Japan was largest recorded
earthquake in the history. Japan is pioneer in disaster management, especially earthquakes. How this developed
country faced this disaster, which had significant worldwide effects? The humanitarian behavior of the Japanese
people amazingly wondered the word’s media, meanwhile the management of government and authorities
showed some deficiencies. The impact of the disaster is followed up after the event and the different impacts are
tried to be analyzed in different sectors. The situation one year after Japan 2011 earthquake and Tsunami is over-
viewed. The reason of Japanese plans failure was the scale of tsunami, having higher waves than what was as-
sumed, especially in the design of the Nuclear Power Plant. Japanese authorities considered economic benefits
more than safety and moral factors exacerbate the situation. Major lessons to be learnt are 1) the effectiveness of
disaster management should be restudied in all hazardous countries; 2) the importance of the high-Tech early-
warning systems in reducing risk; 3) Reconsi ...
Climate change is threatening Nepal's natural resources, livelihoods, and development. Nepal is highly vulnerable to climate impacts like changing precipitation patterns, glacial melt, floods, landslides, and droughts. Average temperatures in Nepal have been rising, rainfall is becoming more variable, and extreme weather events are becoming more frequent and intense. Key vulnerable sectors include water resources, agriculture, ecosystems, and communities in poverty. Urgent national measures are needed to address current and future climate vulnerabilities and their effects on water availability, natural disasters, and livelihoods in order to promote sustainable development.
Estimating the Probability of Earthquake Occurrence and Return Period Using G...sajjalp
In this paper, the frequency of an earthquake occurrence and magnitude relationship
has been modeled with generalized linear models for the set of
earthquake data of Nepal. A goodness of fit of a statistical model is applied for
generalized linear models and considering the model selection information
criterion, Akaike information criterion and Bayesian information criterion,
generalized Poisson regression model has been selected as a suitable model
for the study. The objective of this study is to determine the parameters (a
and b values), estimate the probability of an earthquake occurrence and its
return period using a Poisson regression model and compared with the Gutenberg-Richter
model. The study suggests that the probabilities of earthquake
occurrences and return periods estimated by both the models are relatively
close to each other. The return periods from the generalized Poisson
regression model are comparatively smaller than the Gutenberg-Richter
model.
This document summarizes a research study investigating and creating an acceleration model for protecting rights after natural disasters based on local wisdom in Central Java, Indonesia. The study analyzed legislation related to disaster management and interviewed stakeholders to understand challenges and local practices. The results identified a need to harmonize laws to better implement disaster response in accordance with local customs. The proposed acceleration model utilizes a "sister village" concept where communities support each other after disasters, as well as coordinating social groups to respond quickly through religious and cultural values.
Regional Resource Urbanism, Envisioning an Adaptive Transition for the Urbani...IEREK Press
Despite a strong tradition of harmony between the landscape and its settlements, Kathmandu's periphery now stands altered due to the contemporary challenges of modernisation. It has become the contested territory where rapid urbanisation and infrastructureprojects conflict with the valley's last remaining resources. i.e., fertile soil, floodplains, water sources, forests and agricultural land. The periphery is essential in preserving the remaining agricultural landscape, which is the mainstay of the numerous traditional communities of Kathmandu. Both the occupants and the productive landscape are threatened due to haphazard urbanisation and future mobility projects, resulting in speculative and uncontrolled sprawl. A detailed investigation was conducted on a site 15km south of Kathmandu to address the city's landscape challenges. The chosen investigation frame presented the suitable conditions to study and test strategies posed by the research objectives. The research utilises landscape urbanism and cartography to reveal the landscape's latent capacities, identify the spatial qualities, stakeholders and typologies involved in the production and consumption of resources. The study identifies existing resource flows and their ability to generate future scenarios. Systematic design strategies were applied in resource recovery projects by optimising enterprising capacity building within communities after the earthquake. The research recognises the merit in existing practices, community networks, the ongoing post-earthquake rebuilding efforts in offering an alternative design strategy in which landscape becomes the carrying structure for the sustainable reorganisation of Kathmandu's periphery
This document summarizes information about the 2015 Nepal earthquake. It provides details on the earthquake's magnitude, location, damage and casualties. It discusses the earthquake's economic and infrastructure impacts, as well as response and reconstruction efforts. Challenges included weak governance, infrastructure and preparedness. Recommendations focus on improving disaster risk reduction protocols, building standards, education and political stability.
Similar to Fire Hazard Risk and Response Capacity Assessment in Aftermath of Kathmandu Valley Earthquake (20)
Fire Hazard Risk and Response Capacity Assessment in Aftermath of Kathmandu Valley Earthquake
1. Fire Hazard Risk and Response Capacity Assessment in
Aftermath of Kathmandu Valley Earthquake
Goldsmith, Evan
University of Oregon
Geological Sciences
Academic Director: Pratt-Sitaula, Beth
Project Advisor: Jiba Raj Pokharel
Patan, Nepal
Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for Nepal: Geoscience
in the Himalaya, SIT Study Abroad Summer 2013
2. Abstract
The Patan area in the Kathmandu Valley could be at great risk for widespread fire hazard
in the aftermath of the next large earthquake. Until this risk is properly assessed, response
plans cannot be developed. To make an assessment of this risk, case studies, interviews,
and field observations will be made. These methods will provide information on the
susceptibility of Patan to a fire post-earthquake and to the degree of which the Lalitpur
Fire Brigade and local communities are prepared for such a hazard. The objectives are to
make a risk assessment for the area through two detailed area studies, be able to provide
useful information regarding the current capacity of fire response, and to propose a plan
for capacity development.
Disaster Management, Development Studies, Other Earth Sciences
Introduction
Tectonically, Nepal lies within a highly active seismic zone as the Indian plate
collides with and shallowly subducts beneath the Eurasian plate, resulting in the
Himalayan mountain range and 92 active faults that cross Nepal (Nepal, 2011). Nepal has
a history of damaging earthquakes, which includes 1 major earthquake (magnitude 8 or
greater) and 10 significant earthquakes (magnitude 6 or greater) occurring in the last
century (NSET, 2013). This proposes a problem for the Kathmandu Valley, as
geologically it is a shallow basin comprised of soft lake sediment. These sediments pose
risk of wave amplification and liquefaction in the valley, which result in greater ground
movement and infrastructure damage.
In 1911 the first Nepal population census was conducted, yielding results of 5.6
million inhabitants (Government of Nepal, Ministry of Health and Population Division,
2011). In 2010, the population of Nepal had grown to 28 million, and by 2025, a
projected 35.7 million (Government of Nepal, Ministry of Health and Population
Division, 2011). Once, the three royal kingdoms of Kathmandu, Patan, and Bhaktapur
were spatially separated within the valley, however, with population growing at a rate of
3. 1.9% (Government of Nepal, Ministry of Health and Population Division, 2011) the
kingdoms are increasingly merging into each other, a cause for concern of increased
hazard-related damage within the shallow pre-existing lake basin. Patan, just south of
Kathmandu and west of Bhaktapur, is the second largest of the three kingdoms that lie in
the valley and is the third largest city in Nepal (City of Patan, 2013). A study of the
susceptibility of this area to earthquakes and hazardous subsequent effects, such as fires,
could greatly benefit civil administrations and the people of Nepal. The findings of such a
risk and response capacity assessment could be further projected to the Kathmandu
Valley and can be used to greater prepare Patan and the valley for fire hazards in the
aftermath of large (greater than 8.0) earthquakes.
Figure 1. Liquefaction hazard map of Kathmandu Valley Floor Area, representing the risk that soft
lake sediments cause for the area. The district of Lalitpur, of which Patan belongs to, is at lower
risk of liquefaction than Kathmandu or Bhaktapur.
4. The best, although still limited, documented major earthquake in Nepal’s history
is the 1934 Bihar-Nepal earthquake. Studying this event through the Memoirs of the
Geological Survey of India, no mentions of fire occurrences post-earthquake were made,
however, it is important to consider that Nepal’s societal circumstances have changed
since 1934. Studies of this particular event will not contribute to the overall assessment of
Patans’ risk and response capacities, but will suggest what potential risks and
characteristics can be expected from the next great earthquake. For example, the
magnitude 8.4 earthquake caused damage to 60% of buildings in the valley and killed
4,300 people (JICA, Ministry of Home Affairs, 2001). Some of the recorded effects were
emissions of sand and water from fissures and damage to transportation facilities,
building and urban structures, electric power supply facilities, water supply and sewage
facilities, and telecommunications facilities. Consequences of the earthquake not
mentioned were the instances of fires and the overall damage and/or deaths the resulting
fires caused alone. In the 1939 account of the 1934 earthquake, fire was possibly
overlooked as a secondary effect of earthquakes as there were no gas containers for
cooking in each residence and there were not widespread power lines and transformers.
These necessary factors for fire ignitions post-earthquake are now relevant to Kathmandu
Valley’s society as a majority of households in the valley have on average two propane or
kerosene containers for cooking (JICA, Ministry of Home Affairs, 2001) and use
electricity.
These developments in society make the possibility of fires occurring post-
earthquake relevant, however, it seems that the Kathmandu Valley has underestimated
the potential risk and damage widespread fire could cause. Initial and preliminary
5. research has suggested that fire brigades are less concerned about fire hazard after
earthquakes than they are about consequences of the earthquake alone (JICA, Ministry of
Home Affairs, 2002). Since fire was not a major factor in the overall damage of the 1934
Bahir-Nepal earthquake, the public and concerned institutions may not be prepared for
fire hazard as a secondary earthquake effect. However, not only has the occurrence of gas
and electricity usage increased since 1934, an increased population represents greater
numbers of housing and congestion in the valley. With the recent (past 80 years)
developments the valley has undergone, potential for fire hazard post-earthquake has
increased; the preparedness and response capacity of the Kathmandu Valley should
reflect these advancements.
In 2001, the Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA) and the Nepal
Ministry of Home Affairs recommended that proper mitigation and funding be outlined
within a government stated, national five-year plan to firmly establish mitigation
measures to protect various facilities listed in their assessment. These continuing national
five-year plans (JICA, Ministry of Home Affairs, 2001), need to be updated to include
future proposals and funding for increasing the capability of Kathmandu Valley’s fire
brigades so that they are at capacity to respond to a widespread fire post-earthquake. In
order to make plans sufficient to fit potential needs, three different research questions
must be answered. The first is what is the possibility of widespread fire instances in the
occurrence of a major earthquake? The second being is the operational capacity of the
Lalitpur fire brigade capable of responding to widespread fire throughout the Patan area
after an earthquake? The third is what other plans by the local community have been
established to handle these possible fire instances if they occur? The assessments made
6. will better establish whether or not Patan, and Kathmandu valley as a whole, have the
need to be prepared for an instance of widespread fire hazard post-earthquake, and in
case of a fire occurrence, how prepared is the area to respond?
Methods
In order to answer these research questions and make a proper assessment of the
fire hazard risk and response capacity of Patan, literary reviews, interviews, and two
detailed area studies were conducted. To answer the first research question, a case study
of one of the largest and most destructive fire disasters post-earthquake in recent history,
the Kobe, Japan earthquake, was made in order to evaluate the factors in which caused
the fires to be so widespread and devastating. Once these main factors have been
recognized, comparisons between Kobe and Patan can be made in areas such as
electricity facilities, building typologies, road width, and gas capacities to determine the
likelihood of a similar fire occurrence post-earthquake in Patan. To answer the second
research question, inquiries as to the current capacity of the fire brigade in terms of
manpower, material, and money (Pokharel, 2013) were investigated. These 3 M’s are
crucial to determining the aptitude of the brigade and any future plans they may have in
handling fire hazards within their jurisdiction. To answer the third research question,
interviews with community tole offices, local municipalities, disaster relief committees
were made.
In addition to the above research protocol, two detailed area studies were
conducted to determine the level of risk for the small areas (20 to 50 houses), and then
this assessment was projected to the general Patan area. This projection is based upon the
7. combination of the detailed area studies, determined capacity of fire brigade, and
assessment of fire-damaged building comparisons from case study.
Under advisement of Dr. Jiba Raj Pokharel of Tribhuvan University Department
of Disaster Studies and along with graduate student Salouna Staphit, who has chosen her
masters thesis on fire hazard in the aftermath of earthquake, these methods were
constructed and performed. Additionally, prior to field study, research protocol such as
interview questions were reviewed and approved by the SIT Local Human Subjects
review board.
Memoirs of the Geological Survey of India Vol. 73 (1939), and The Study on
Earthquake Disaster Mitigation in the Kathmandu Valley Vol I and II (2001 and 2002
respectively) were used to determine likely consequences from major earthquakes in this
region. The latter volumes also give insight into the expected fire hazard and
corresponding capacity of the valley to handle a fire of this expectation. Reading
materials from the Lalitpur fire brigade, the Lalitpur Fire Station Present Scenario and
Patan Durbar Area Fire Service Strength Reinforcement Plan allowed a multitude of
questions (Appendix A) regarding the response capacity and future plans of the brigade
to be answered.
Interviews held with the President of the Hakha Tole in Mangal Bazar, staff of the
Red Cross Lalitpur district, and official of the Lalitpur Sub-Metropolitan city were useful
in gaining information on the preparedness and local perceived risk of fire hazard post-
earthquake in the area. These respective groups were able to provide a sense of the
community-level preparedness and planning for fire hazard both before and after a large
earthquake.
8. A Patan ward map from the Lalitpur Sub-Metropolitan city office gave further
information of the division of Lalitpur county and from there decisions were made about
where to focus field observations. Wards six and twelve covering the Mangal Bazar and
Gwarko areas of Patan consist of old, traditional, Newari wooden and brick structures
and new construction with reinforced cement walls, respectively.
Figure 2. Ward Map for Lalitpur District, with wards twelve and six outlined in red. These
wards are the locations for detailed area studies. Ward twelve is the top left and ward six
is the bottom right section. Ward twelve contains the Mangal Bazar and a large amount
of traditional wooden and brick homes with narrow (less than 2m) alleyways. Ward six
contains the Gwarko neighborhood which is made up of newer construction buildings
with reinforced cement and wider roads (~4m).
The two detailed area studies were conducted assessing the width of streets and
alleys (accessibility), density of housing, positions of transformers and electrical wiring,
9. building typologies and construction materials, and locations of local water sources.
These field observations helped determine the level of risk for the small areas, which then
allowed a general risk projection to be made for Patan.
Parameters Significances Methods
Alley and Road Width The width of alleys and roads
within the selected study areas
will dictate how accessible the
potential at-risk areas are to the
fire brigade and response
organizations. The width of these
alleys and roads also can indicate
how easily a fire could spread
from developments across the
way.
Measure and classify
width of alleys and
roads, set into
classifications: 0-4m, 4-
6m, 6-8m, 8-12m, 14-
16m.
Housing Density The congestion of housing,
especially depending on the
building typologies, can indicate
how easily a fire could spread
from one house to the next.
Make observations
based upon alley and
road width and amount
of houses within
singular courtyards.
Electrical Facilities and
Positioning
Although the electrical wattage in
Nepal is relatively weak,
positioning of electrical wires and
transformers can suggest a
certain level of hazard i.e. wiring
being fed through wooden eaves
or transformers being attached to
wooden poles.
Make observations of
the placements of
electrical wires and
transformers, the
surrounding materials,
and how electricity is
supplied to residences.
Building Typologies and
Construction Materials
Reinforced concrete, brick
masonry, adobe and stone
buildings with mud jointing, and
timber buildings will react
differently to ignition and spread
of fire. Identifying the primary
construction materials for the
buildings in each study area will
denote the risk potential for fire.
Observe construction-
in-progress and note
building materials and
their relationships.
Local Water Source The proximity to a large and
dependable water source is
crucial to the response effort and
extinguishing capacity of the local
community and fire brigade. If
these water sources are
inadequate or unreliable the
ability to effectively put out fires
are greatly diminished.
Note distances and
availability to water
sources such as hitis
and inar, wells and
traditional community
water spots,
respectively.
Table 1.
10. Certain challenges present in the research and field study processes were
translations from Nepali to English, in both literature and interviews, and difficulties of
obtaining pertinent information from the metropolitan offices and response organizations
within the allotted time. Many concepts in the Lalitpur Fire Station Present Scenario and
Patan Durbar Area Fire Service Strength Reinforcement Plan were difficult to evaluate
due to misunderstandings of the English language. Interviews were held exclusively in
Nepali, and while transcriptions were made, not having knowledge of the language or
understanding the conversations as they were happening was problematic. The Lalitpur
Sub-Metropolitan office was not able to finalize their data collected for the Vulnerability
Capacity Assessment for each ward, nor had the Lalitpur District Red Cross finished their
Disaster Risk Response plan, an awareness plan dedicated to earthquake safety. These
community-based preparations of risk assessment and capacity would have been highly
relevant to this study, however, the lack of information readily available through
community organizations were mitigated through the literary reviews and field studies.
Results and Interpretations
The results to this study can best be categorized into both the research question
the information answers and by what method the information was obtained.
Research Question One: What is the possibility of widespread fire instances in the
occurrence of a major earthquake?
The main methods of research in obtaining results for this question were literary
reviews, Kobe case study, and field studies. In 1995, a 7.4 earthquake occurred near
Kobe, Japan. Many houses collapsed and infrastructures thought to be earthquake-proof
were proved inadequate. 35,000 people were injured and 316,000 were left homeless. A
11. large secondary effect of the earthquake was widespread fire due to ruptured underground
gas lines. This posed a problem for Japan as most of their housing is timber and
neighborhoods are dense. Fire spread very easily under these circumstances, and were not
controlled due to the fact that the fire response teams were unable to reach the affected
areas. The only reason the fires were extinguished was due to fire response boats
projecting water from the sea (Kobe Earthquake). The situation in Nepal reflects some of
these factors, such as dense neighborhoods and wooden housings, however, there is no
large source of water for Nepal to rely on such as the Pacific Ocean. Nepal also does not
have gas lines in the roads that would be in danger of rupturing during an earthquake.
The situation in Nepal cannot be compared to the secondary effects of the Kobe
earthquake, as Japanese society in 1995 is entirely different than the current society of
Nepal. For this reason, the case study does not elude to the potential risk for the
Kathmandu Valley as previously speculated.
In The Study on Earthquake Disaster Mitigation in the Kathmandu Valley Vol. I,
JICA along with the Nepal Ministry of Home Affairs created an earthquake scenario of
which they named the Mid-Nepal earthquake. This earthquake would be of magnitude 8.0
and would be set on the seismic gap in Nepal (JICA, Ministry of Home Affairs, 2001).
According to this potential scenario JICA and the Ministry of Home Affairs did not seem
concerned about fire hazard post-earthquake, “Fire broke out in tons of places, most did
not spread due to the primarily inflammable building materials”. In an opposite
viewpoint, Patan Darbar Area Fire Service Strength Reinforcement Plan explains, “…
Nepal is similar to Japan; an earthquake country and Kathmandu valley has faced many
big earthquakes. So the risk of fire accident caused by earthquake is so high”. There are
12. multiple points of debate within these resources of how concerned the valley should be
about fire spread ability and fire ignition within the valley post-earthquake. The
following tables explain the estimated damage to residential buildings, fire stations, water
supply pipelines, and electricity power supply lines.
Scenario Earthquake Heavily Partly Total
Mid-Nepal Earthquake 53,465 (20.9%) 74,941 (29.2%) 128,406 (50.1%)
Table 2. Estimated Damage to Residential Buildings (JICA, Ministry of Home Affairs, 2001).
Scenario Earthquake Heavily Partly Total
Mid-Nepal Earthquake 8% 37% 45%
Table 3. Estimated Damage to Fire Stations (JICA, Ministry of Home Affairs, 2001).
Scenario Earthquake Damage Points
Mid-Nepal Earthquake 588
Table 4. Estimated Damage to Water Supply Pipelines (JICA, Ministry of Home Affairs,
2001).
Scenario Earthquake Damage Length (km)
Mid-Nepal Earthquake 6.2
Table 5. Estimated Damage of Electric Power Supply Lines (JICA, Ministry of Home Affairs,
2001).
Building typologies within the area are mainly reinforced concrete new
construction, or brick masonry with wooden structures (Lalitpur Sub-Metropolitan City,
JICA). Multiple studies (JICA, Ministry of Home Affairs, 2001; Lalitpur Sub-
Metropolitan City, JICA) also suggested that many, if not all, residences within the area
store two weeks supply of tanked cooking fuel at a time, usually near wooden structures.
(Lalitpur Sub-Metropolitan City, JICA) attests to the vulnerability of traditional homes,
especially within the Mangal Bazar area,
“…inside of the buildings such as staircase, partition, beam and column
are consisted of almost wood and also window and door facing outside are
also wood… All materials in opening or eaves on exterior wall are wood
and such part has high risk to cause fire spread easily from neighbor
building fire… Usually most weak points of the wooden building is back
of eaves and the gap of wall and eaves, and it causes sucking draft and
13. such sucking draft sucks the fire inside of building”. (Lalitpur Sub-
Metropolitan City, JICA)
In regard to newer construction, “In 1st case unification between brick and concrete can
be made but in the 2nd case brick wall will collapse down during earthquake if joint
method isn’t used between brick and concrete frame, and the fire will enter from the gap
of concrete and brick in case of fire” (Lalitpur Sub-Metropolitan City, JICA). Another
quantified risk potential from The Study on Earthquake Disaster Mitigation in the
Kathmandu Valley was fire outbreaks from gas stations.
Figure 3. Fire Outbreak Rank by Petrol/ Gas Station- Mid Nepal Earthquake (JICA, Ministry of
Home Affairs, 2001). The outbreak rank is determined by probability of occurrence. ‘A’ being
highly probable, and ‘C’ being not very probable. Both ‘B’ and ‘No Petrol/Gas Station’ appear both
white here and in book, making it difficult to determine moderate risk from no risk.
Another major factor in the ability for fire to spread is road and alley width
between housing. Patan Durbar Area Fire Service Strength Reinforcement Plan found
that only road widths greater than 12 meters could effectively prevent the spreading of
fire.
14. Figure 4. Relation Between Width of Road and the Ratio of the Spread of Fire (JICA, Ministry of
Home Affairs, 2001).
All areas within their study of the World Heritage area, including and around ward
twelve Mangal Bazar, had road widths of less than 7 meters, meaning fire would not be
stopped by road width.
In the field, positioning of electrical wires, road width, construction materials and
building typologies, location of local water source, and housing density were observed
and recorded in the following tables.
Ward Twelve Observations
Positioning of Electrical Wires Power lines were often positioned and run
through wooden eaves of traditional Newari
roofing. Transformer boxes were mostly
secured to metal posts but were placed in
either open areas next to wooden temples or
placed in narrow alleyways near wooden
window and doorframes. Some posts which
upheld transformers or unorganized masses of
electrical wires were unstable and leaning.
Road and Alley Widths Most alleys measured to be less than 2m wide
and most roads were measured at less than
4m wide. Brick and wooden structures walled
many of these roads. The occasional main
road measured in the 4-6m range.
Construction Materials and Building Typologies The buildings were predominantly traditional
style; brick masonry with wooden eaves, stairs,
windows, doors, beams, and partitions.
Location of Local Water Source Many inar, wells, are located within the study
area. 5 were observed, although the quantity of
water within the wells is uncertain. One hiti,
15. communal water pools, is located in Durbar
Square. 1,000 to 5,000-liter water tanks are
often placed near inar. A water station with five
large water tanks of undeterminable volume
(possibly 5,000 liters), spigots, and hoses is
stationed in a community square. The fence
leading to the spigots and hoses is chained
and locked.
Housing Density The housing in ward twelve is extremely dense,
the number of four story houses within one
courtyard could often be as high as eighteen.
Narrow alleys 0-4m wide connected these
dense residential courtyards and there are no
detached or semi-detached houses.
Table 6. Field observations recorded for study of ward twelve, Mangal Bazar area.
Ward Six Observations
Positioning of Electrical Wires Electrical wires were often posted on wooden
posts, sometimes joined with metal posts.
These posts were mainly at corners of 4m
width roads. The two transformers observed
were located near exposed wooden
construction and near open public area. These
wires often ran along houses of reinforced
concrete, but were positioned right above
wooden windowpanes or doorways.
Road and Alley Widths Road widths were greater than in ward twelve.
Most residential roads were around 3-4m in
width, while main roads were up to 8m wide.
The narrow residential roads were often walled
with brick or reinforced concrete.
Construction Materials and Building Typologies A larger percentage of the housing is of
reinforced concrete and brick. However,
wooden eaves as floors and wall partitions are
still used and a classic style of wooden Newari
window and doorframes are popular for
contemporary homes.
Location of Local Water Source 1,000-liter water tanks are positioned in most,
but not all, courtyards. Only two inar were
observed for the whole area and one hiti far
from study area existed.
Housing Density Most homes are attached or semi-detached.
The houses are larger and in most cases not
as tall. Up to thirteen houses sharing one
courtyard. Less dense than ward twelve.
Table 7. Field observations recorded for study of ward six, Gwarko neighborhood.
These results can be interpreted in multiple ways. According to (JICA, Ministry
of Home Affairs, 2001) there is not a high risk for fire as the construction materials, brick
and concrete, in both traditional and newer construction do not burn. However, (Lalitpur
Sub-Metropolitan City, JICA) suggests that these construction materials are not built to
16. code and will collapse or crumble during an earthquake. If these materials fail during
ground movement and expose flammable materials it is entirely possible for fire to spread
across the 1-6m road and alleys in both wards twelve and six. The electrical wires
observed during field study were often positioned near wooden structures, especially in
community squares near wooden temples or Newari housing with wooden eaves.
Although the electrical current in Nepal is not dependable and relatively weak, the
possibility of fire due to downed transformers and circuited electrical lines is possible. A
more likely scenario is the combustion of gas tanks within residences during ground
movement; the ignition of fire from this possibility can easily spread through wooden
rafters and eaves to the attached neighboring house. If the magnitude of the earthquake is
large enough to cause 50% damage to residential buildings (JICA, Ministry of Home
Affairs, 2001) then it seems that the possibility of widespread fire due to ignition of
interior fires and outward exposure of flammable materials is very likely. Ward Twelve is
at higher risk of widespread fire post-earthquake than Ward Six as the area has denser
housing, more wooden structures, and narrower alleys and roads.
Research Question Two: Is the operational capacity of the Lalitpur fire brigade capable
of responding to widespread fire throughout the Patan area after an earthquake?
Methods used to best answer this research question were literary reviews and field
study, as the Lalitpur Fire Brigade did not give an interview. They did, however, provide
the Lalitpur Fire Station Present Scenario and the Patan Durbar Area Fire Service
Strength Reinforcement Plan, which answered most prepared questions (Appendix A).
Answers to these questions found within readings are numbered below.
17. 1. Yes, there is possibility for fire occurrence and spreading post-earthquake,
however, more concern lies with primary earthquake effects such as building
collapse than fires.
2. First response is the Tata Fire Engine (3500L) with one driver and three
firefighters. Second response to same incident if necessary is Isuzu Fire Engine
(2000L) with one driver and three firefighters.
3. No different plans of action were found.
4. Fire Record for 2006-2010
2010- 21 fires within Lalitpur
2009- 46 fires within Lalitpur
2008- 65 fires within Lalitpur
2007- 57 fires within Lalitpur
2006- 63 fires within Lalitpur
5. The Lalitpur Fire Brigade has a staff of fourteen, twelve of whom are over 40
years old. This is not an adequate amount of manpower for widespread fire.
6. No information on training/education for firefighting, pre and post-earthquake
was found, however, minimum requirements to be a firefighter were listed. These
requirements are: 1) Minimum SLC level educational background 2) Height at
least 5’ Chest at least 40” 3) Ability to read and speak general English 4) General
knowledge of fire engine.
7. Two fire engines, 3500L and 2000L, two carbon dioxide extinguishers, ten dry
powder fire extinguishers, thirty foam fire extinguishers, two semi rigid reel hose,
three fire hose reel with semi rigid hose, one small firefighting pump, twenty-one
delivery hose coupling, five handle-held branch pipe, one carbon dioxide high
pressure cylinders, and five end suction fire pumps. However, “almost all the fire
fighting equipments are obsolete and not in working condition” (Lalitpur Fire
Brigade). The types and quantity of equipment necessary to respond to
widespread fires are either not listed or clear.
8. Listed in question 8 are equipments for extinguishing fire chemically.
9. Inar (Wells), Hiti, and the Pokhari Pond are potential water sources within Patan.
The water source that fills the fire engines is the Bhainsepati VDC and Mahankal
Kathmandu. A reservoir tank of 20,000L still needs to be constructed.
10. There is one fire brigade for all of Patan. There are plans to have three sub-
stations in Kwalakhel, Lagankhel, and Balkumari.
11. Not answered.
12. Fire hydrants do exist, although it is unclear how many there are or in what
condition they are in.
In addition to the fire brigade itself having an inadequate supply of equipment and
manpower, the resource of which should be available to them on-site, namely water, is
low. Investigations by the Lalitpur Fire Brigade were performed to check each location of
18. Inar, Hiti, and Pokhari Pond for “water level, water tank, seasonal situation and
maintenance organization” (JICA, Ministry of Home Affairs, 2001).
Figure 5. Location of wells within World Heritage Area, which includes Ward Twelve.
Red dot indicates depth of water level greater than 6m. Yellow dot indicates covered
well. (JICA, Ministry of Home Affairs, 2001)
The fire brigade found that out of the estimated 400 wells within the area, 168 wells are
deeper than 6m, which is the deepest a fire hose can remove water from (JICA, Ministry
of Home Affairs, 2001). This poses a problem for fire response as “In the dry season well
water will be more down which means the well cannot be used by fire engine” (JICA,
Ministry of Home Affairs, 2001). The additional use of Hiti is also not supplementary
19. enough as the water supply is insufficient, especially during dry seasons. It is found
within the Disaster Risk Management for the Historic City of Patan, Nepal that, “… the
biggest water supply Hiti has only 4L/sec an such water doesn’t store in Hiti and water
store vessel is only 10cm depth” (JICA, Ministry of Home Affairs, 2001). The minimum
amount of water per second necessary for a fire hose is 8.3L (JICA, Ministry of Home
Affairs, 2001). The Pokhari Pond also doesn’t possess the proper amount of water or
dependability for a potential water source for the Lalitpur Fire Brigade to rely on it.
During the dry seasons the pond dries, and is not refilled until the next monsoon.
Not only does the shortage of water sources provide a major problem for the
Lalitpur Fire Brigade, but also accessibility to areas in need of response could prove to be
impossible. The width of alleys and roads within both wards would prove difficult for fire
engines even in normal circumstances, additionally, according to The Study on
Earthquake Disaster Mitigation in the Kathmandu Valley Vol. I, “Serious problems were
that buildings along roads and highways collapsed onto the roadway and blocked access
at many places, especially in the recently developed core and commercial areas” (JICA,
Ministry of Home Affairs, 2001). In Ward Twelve, it would be impossible for fire
engines and possibly even small firefighting pumps to access courtyards (up to twenty
houses) through 1.5-3 meter alleys. In Ward Six, the passable roadways could easily
become impassible due to new construction collapse causing road blockage.
These results infer that the Lalitpur Fire Brigade is not functioning at capacity to
respond to or extinguish widespread fire, either pre or post-earthquake. They lack the
necessary equipment, funding, manpower, and resources to accomplish such a goal. The
three potential water sources Inar, Hiti, and the Pokhari Pond cannot be counted on as
20. reliable resources for fires. This means that the only local resource for extinguishing fire
would be the community drinking water, which is already scarce and would leave the
community without any drinking water. This is under the assumption that the local water
tanks would withstand ground movement, but this also cannot be relied upon. Most alleys
and roads within Wards Twelve and Six are barely passable for a fire engine initially,
however, with buildings being built not to code and the certainty of roadblock post-
earthquake, many areas within the study will not be accessible. These external factors
even greater inhibit the Lalitpur Fire Brigade’s response capabilities.
Research Question Three: What other plans by the local community have been
established to handle these possible fire instances if they occur?
In order to obtain information in response to this question, answers to interview
questions with Hakha Tole President, Red Cross staff, and official of Lalitpur Sub-
Metropolitan were combined. The questions and their responses are categorized in the
following table.
Questions Responses
What are the preparedness techniques that
the community has been following to
prevent from fire hazard?
Red Cross Staff- Committee Action for
Disaster Response is a training program
which involves teaching community
members how to use a fire extinguisher or
develop a bucket brigade.
Which organizations (government or
private) are involved and how are their
interventions helping the community
prevent fire hazard?
President of Hakha Tole- The Lalitpur
Municipality office in coordination with
the Red Cross has given the tole one fire
extinguisher. The city provides water to
households on alternate days for only 2-4
hours, otherwise the 250 families within
this tole depend on water tanks of which
they pay for.
Lalitpur Sub-Metropolitan Official-
JICA proposed a detailed master plan for
Patan core area.
What is the role of Lalitpur Sub- Red Cross Staff- Alongside the Red Cross,
21. Metropolitan office in terms of fire safety?
Is there any strategic plan to address the
fire after a major earthquake?
the Lalitpur Sub-Metropolitan office
conducted Vulnerability Capacity
Assessments (VCA) for each ward based
upon Nepal Government guidelines. The
VCA will allow preparedness plans for all
types of disasters to be made.
What are the techniques of preparedness
other than rescue training that should be
provided to locals? Which organization
takes charge of this program?
President of Hakha Tole- With the
coordination of the Lalitpur Municipal
office, trainings regarding rescue
operations during earthquakes are
provided.
Red Cross Staff- Along with local ward
offices, awareness programs regarding
earthquake safety (pre, during, and post),
first-aid training, and rescue techniques are
available to locals. The Red Cross
Community Based Disaster Risk Response
will be formed within wards to administer
first aid and rescue at time of disaster.
Training will be given to 1 in 100 locals as
a dedicated disaster responder. Formation
of the Community Disaster Management
Committee will address disaster at the
community level. The chairman of the
ward will be the Secretary of the CDC and
political leaders will also be involved.
What is the level of preparedness of the
community in case of fire?
President of Hakha Tole- Community
members are aware of fire hazard, but are
more concerned about building collapse
during earthquake. Community is not
prepared for widespread fires.
Table 8.
The Study on Earthquake Disaster Mitigation in the Kathmandu Valley makes
clear the steps of which need to be completed in order for local communities to
effectively prepare for disasters of all types. These three steps are as follows;
1. Clear assignment of responsibilities to ministries, local governments, and other
institutions.
2. Creation and strengthening of sustainable mechanisms for cooperation.
3. Development and implementation of policies and plans.
22. (JICA, Ministry of Home Affairs, 2001)
Although future plans are underway for these local communities, many of the locals
themselves have been uninformed or uneducated about fire hazard post-earthquake. A
problem with these plans and developments is that many of them lack a structured
guideline, so the completion dates of these plans are uncertain. Until these plans can
effectively set a timeline, locals will remain unaware and unprepared for occurrence post-
earthquake.
Discussion
It is evident through debate within literary review that fire hazard post-earthquake
as a secondary earthquake effect is overlooked by citizens and local organizations within
Patan and the Kathmandu Valley as a whole. This general sense of ignorance of the risk
that fire hazard poses to the valley leads to unpreparedness on a national and local level.
The reasons that indicate that Patan has a moderate to high risk of widespread fire
occurrence post-earthquake are:
The population increase within the valley over the last 80 years has caused Patan
to become congested with dense housing communities.
Societal developments, largely being gas and electricity usage, have increased the
risk for ignition of fire within both traditional homes and newer construction.
Buildings are not constructed to sustain ground movement during earthquake,
meaning brick and concrete masonry will fall away during a large earthquake. If
these outer-wall barriers fail and expose wooden inner-wall materials and interior
23. furnishings, fire will easily be able to spread between the dense housing
communities.
The Lalitpur Fire Brigade is undermanned, underfunded, and ill-equipped to be
able to handle widespread fire both before and after a large earthquake.
Road widths in both Wards Twelve and Six are difficult to impossible for fire
engines to pass through. Building material collapse into the road will make
passable roads impassable, further affecting accessibility to areas in need of
response. Road widths are also narrow enough in both wards to allow a 55-85%
chance of fire spreading across the passageway.
The three local water sources that the Lalitpur Fire Brigade depend on, Inar, Hiti,
and the Pokhari Pond, are highly unreliable especially during the dry seasons,
which is most of the year. Even when water does occupy these wells or pooling
areas, the Lalitpur Fire brigade does not have the proper equipment to obtain the
water. Almost half the wells water levels are too deep for the fire hose to extract
and the Hiti does not store water for the brigade to use.
The two most likely sources of fire ignition in Patan during an earthquake are
combustions of gas containers and downed power lines. Both of these utilities are
often positioned near wooden structures. Power lines are fed through wooden
eaves in traditional homes and are attached to wooden poles alongside wooden
window and doorframes in newer construction areas. Gas containers used for
cooking are kept inside, creating the potential for igniting wooden and fabric
furnishings, wooden beams and joint materials.
24. These reasons sufficiently answer this study’s first research question. If these factors
were to be better recognized by local governments and by the Lalitpur Fire Brigade, the
overall preparedness of the Valley would increase. As for the study’s second and third
research questions, the ability of the Lalitpur Fire Brigade and local community to
effectively plan for and respond to a widespread fire post-earthquake is impossible until
the risk for this hazard is realized.
Uncertainties of this study are mostly concerned with the literary reviews, as
many publications and local plans did not include a publication date or a date for which
future developments be completed by. It is possible that information gained from these
sources are irrelevant due to the publications being outdated, or possibly steps within
future development plans have already passed completion. A more complete assessment
of this research could be conducted when the Vulnerability Capacity Assessments and the
Red Cross’ Disaster Risk Response for each ward within Patan plan are completed. Such
information could provide a better understanding of how many houses can be estimated
to be damaged by fire exclusively post-earthquake, which is an important factor to
consider.
Following The Study on Earthquake Disaster Mitigation in the Kathmandu Valley
Vol. I’s expectation of residential building damage for a magnitude 8.0 earthquake,
50.1% of houses are expected be damaged (Table 2). Referring to Figure 1, Patan has a
lower liquefaction hazard than the rest of the Kathmandu Valley, causing reason to
believe that the expectation for damage in Kathmandu and Bhaktapur could be greater
than 50.1%. The amount of damage caused by fire occurrence post-earthquake alone is
difficult to estimate, however, it can be expected that the fire-damages for Patan could be
25. less than Kathmandu and Bhaktapur based off of the assumption that the greater the
ground movement and liquefaction, the greater the exposure of flammable housing
materials and preliminary fire ignitions will be. Although the risk is moderate to high, the
response capacity of the valley is low. Recommendations for better preparedness within
the valley would be to better establish timelines in regard to budget expansion and
organization development. Response education of fire hazard post-earthquake needs to be
included within earthquake response training programs in order to better prepare citizens
within the valley.
Conclusion
Through literary review, field study, and interviews, the moderate to high risk of
fire occurrence post-earthquake in Patan has been assessed. The information regarding
these risks have been used to determine that the Kathmandu Valley as a whole could
greatly benefit from being better equipped to respond to this potential disaster. Fire
brigades within the valley need to receive more funding from the government in order to
expand into substations that can respond to a greater area. These stations also need to be
fitted with the proper equipment and an effective amount of staff. Local communities
need to be educated about this hazard so that they can make community-level plans in
response to fire post-earthquake. Many of these objectives can hopefully be obtained
before the next large earthquake, although there is never certainty with such events. That
is why it is imperative for the Kathmandu Valley to recognize the potential dangers of the
fire hazard as early as possible.
26. Appendix
Appendix A: Questions for Lalitpur Fire Brigade
1. Is the Lalitpur Fire Brigade concerned about fire hazard in the aftermath of
an earthquake?
2. What are the brigades’ ways in dealing with a fire?
3. Does the brigade have a different plan to deal with a fire after an
earthquake as it does currently?
4. How many fires annually does the brigade respond to?
5. Does the brigade have an adequate amount of manpower to handle
widespread fires?
6. What education/training do firefighters undergo? Are there any programs
for the training of fire hazard after earthquake?
7. What equipment does the brigade currently use? What types or amount of
equipment does the brigade feel is still needed to manage widespread fire?
8. Do you have any alternative methods other than water for putting out
fires?
9. Where is the water supplied from?
10. How many fire brigades are in Patan? How many does the brigade plan to
have, if any plans are made?
11. If there was a situation in which there were widespread fires, how do you
prioritize where to respond?
12. Are there fire hydrants in Lalitpur?
Ward Six Field Photos
(1) (2)
31. References
1) Tourism, Travel, & Information Guide to the Royal City of Patan, Nepal:
http://www.patan.com/
(accessed July 29th 2013)
2) Nepal Disaster Report, Policies, Practices, and Lessons, 2011
Government of Nepal Ministry of Home Affairs Open File
3) Why Are We Affected?
http://www.nset.org.np/nset/php/how_and_why.php
(accessed July 29th 2013)
4) 2001, The Study on Earthquake Disaster Mitigation in the Kathmandu Valley,
Kingdom of Nepal Volume I: Japan International Cooperation Agency, Ministry of Home
Affairs, His Majesty’s Government of Nepal
5) Nepal Population Report 2011: Government of Nepal, Ministry of Health and
Population Division, p. 1-4
6) 2002, The Study of Earthquake Disaster Mitigation in the Kathmandu Valley,
Kingdom of Nepal Volume II: Japan International Cooperation Agency, Ministry of
Home Affairs, His Majesty’s Government of Nepal
7) Discussion with Jiba Raj Pokharel, July 20, 2013.
8) Patan Durbar Area Fire Service Strength Reinforcement Plan: Lalitpur Sub-
Metropolitan City, JICA.
9) Lalitpur Fire Station Present Scenario: Lalitpur Fire Brigade
10) Kobe Earthquake
http://www.georesources.co.uk/kobehigh.htm
(accessed July 27th, 2013)