Final_Research_Proposal_MIKLASZ

FINAL RESEARCH PROPOSAL
Andrea C Miklasz
Final Research Proposal
Adler School of Professional Psychology
1

I-Topic within counseling:
Individuals enter into counseling for varied purposes. Some choose to overcome life
adversities, chronic emotional problems, acute individual or familial crises, mental health
disorders, substance abuse aid or other reasons. Some are not voluntarily entered into counseling
and it is thus mandated by a court or other authority.
The counseling profession is a helping resource: not only can it assist clients in the
betterment of their daily lives, but often it can provide a road map of encouraging positive
changes and permanent behavior modifications which the client can employ for a lifetime. It is a
rich science inasmuch as it provides comfort, education, compassion, empathy and learning. The
counselor’s role is often mutli-fold and diverse, and is not constricted to “solving problems.”
Just as the counselor offers the client an objective ear, research into territories within the
field are just as important, as they provide an encourage the science of psychology a jettison for
advanced learning, teaching and treatment. Without the benefit of continuous research, the
advancement of psychology (or any other science) would stalemate. Improvements upon current
theories and practices would be moot, which is why research is an integral component to
counseling psychology.
Occasionally, counselors will intervene on a social level to evaluate and improve
conditions and situations in the community; e.g. the school system. Not only are flaws in the past
and present school systems exposed and studied, but also changes which would benefit students
across all education level boards would be employed. Counseling psychologists utilize a variety
of assessment measures to appraise the present system in order to recommend positive changes.
2

II-Enrichment Opportunities for Gifted Students in Chicagoland Junior High Schools
III- Research Problem:
While there are a multitude of programs, activities and assistance available for special
needs junior high school (7th
and 8th
grades) students who are under-performing or learning
disabled, there is scant enrichment or goal-oriented opportunities for the opposite spectrum, the
gifted students (students who standardize test at or achieve grades at an upper high school or
post-high school level while still in junior high school). The children studied in this research, as
well as their instructors and school administration, were within both private and public schools
within one district in Northwest Cook County, IL. What are the best ways to keep gifted children
challenged and engaged in class when they find the material boring or sophomoric? Do these
children feel a sense of social awkwardness or isolation because they are “different” or “special”
in a way not matched by the special needs learning disabled student? Which spectrum of students
is more widely socially accepted within the school system? What are educators and
administrators doing to further and encourage gifted children?
IV-Research Goals:
The goals of the research into the topic of the enrichment of giftedness in students is to
first, ascertain what programs or activities are in place for these children and secondly, to
evaluate and make suggestions and assist in the development of enrichment programs which
would benefit these children beyond what is beyond taught rhetorically at present in the average
classroom. Suggestions and recommendations for the instructors and administrators in the
sample population would ideally garner improvements in the overall educational system socially,
mentally, and intellectually for the students and provide a long-standing road map for educators
3

on how to approach and develop giftedness in the chosen student range. For such purposes, a
literature review of past and current developments was necessary.
V-Literature Review:
As this researcher suspected, there is far more research available and warranted on under-
achieving students than gifted students at the junior high level which is, admittedly, a narrow
population.
Gifted Child Quarterly is probably the best resource for keeping apprised of
advancements in gifted education and advancements. In a study by Grant & Piechowski, entitled
“Theories and the Good: Toward Child-Centered Gifted Education,” “Formal Theory” and
“Point of View” were contrasted in this dissection as to whether or not intelligence and
giftedness can be pointedly measured and disputes the groundwork of the framing of any
psychological theory which presently exists. It emphasized that practicality and theory do not
often work in tandem to produce concrete evidence citing psychological growth and a dramatic
increase in creativity. The article separated three functions of theories: 1) Depiction: Theory as
Picture. 2) Application: Theory as Engine. 3) Statement of values: Theory as Philosophy of Life.
Superiority and inferiority, as well as IQ, were earmarked by heredity, exposure to educational
resources, personality traits and environment. The authors argued that philosophies of life as
attained by the gifted must contain “world views + values + practical ideas” in testable portions.
Funding for gifted education must be weighed against the practicality of employing the theories
in a fair and neutral manner akin to that of testing phenomena of students of varying abilities.
Moral implications regarding the education of the gifted were also addressed, and child-centered
versus theory-centered tests and results were explained and historically separated by the purpose
4

of the education and the inherent role of the instructor. A child-centered curriculum respects and
concludes the child’s autonomy and unique learning patterns without direct influence or coercion
by the instructor; thereby allowing the student to frame his/her perspectives and initiatives
accordingly. Finally, the article extensively explained Dabrowski’s Theory of Positive
Disintegration, Maslow’s Theory of Self-Actualization and Roeper’s Education for Self-
Actualization and Interdependence.
I found it to be an extremely comprehensive yet opinionated guide towards the purpose
and function of initiatives, strengths and weaknesses of the battery and methodology of
classifying giftedness in children. The article thoroughly explained the difference between
theories which are established and have been widely proven and conjecture which has been
widely accepted in regards to the functionality and purpose of children deemed “gifted.” It was a
startling, informative article which explained in great detail and defended the unique needs of
gifted children via theory and practice, and differentiates that which has been proven and that
which, in practice, is pragmatically sound.
In the British Journal of Special Education, 2007, British researcher Anne Morgan
assessed the efficacy of a "cluster" pilot program in the UK of enrichment and special education
for gifted students aged five to seven, which was based upon the application of 3 theories related
to the education of gifted and talented pupils: 1. Gardner's Theory of Multiple Intelligences
(1999), 2. Bloom's Taxonomy of Levels for Intellectual Behavior (1984) and 3. Renzulli's Three-
Ring Conception of Giftedness (1986). Morgan used multiple research questions, methods and
data analyses with the children involved in the cluster programs as well as their parents and
teachers and concluded that the social/emotional development and adaptation of the children was
5

enhanced, and the children benefited greatly from the experience of having more challenging
academic work which fostered and nurtured their unique talents and intellectualism.
The source was useful inasmuch as it detailed the research methods Morgan utilized
succinctly and included quotes from interviews with the parents, teachers and students involved.
The article was unbiased and explained well the difference between gifted and talented children,
terminology too often cited as one framework but actually quite different. The article called
attention to the idea of "clusters" of student enrichment as a pilot program feasible in multiple
SES educational settings. This source would be valuable in research, especially given the
explanation of the theories of giftedness, of which this researcher was unaware. I would dissect
the analyzing of the cluster subjects and take into account what the participants said, despite the
test subjects of this study being far younger than my target age range for statistical purposes.
In the Roeper Review, Sowa, Sowa & Sowa performed a 1994 study on the social and
emotional adjustment themes across gifted children. Interview and observational data in a
qualitative study were collected to assess common patterns or coping mechanisms which gifted
children employ to stressors in their lives as children of special needs. Social and emotional
adjustment is thought to be unique to the gifted child in terms of psychological/emotional
adjustment and achievement adjustment. Seven children: four girls and three boys were
interviewed from a broad cross-section of SES, race and an age range of 9-14. Those interviewed
were the children, their families, teachers and friends, and were observed at home as well as
extracurricular activities. Broadly, responses from the children indicated that while they were
academically excelling, their emotional development and maturity were actually slightly lower
than expected in such a way that they tended to conspire more in order to serve their own needs.
That said, the children were capable of creating their own challenges, inventing things, and
filling gaps of boredom more effectively than non-gifted students. Teachers reported that the
6

gifted children tended to be more assertive and challenged the educators. Part of their adjustment
was acceptance of themselves and recognition of their abilities. However, the majority felt that
expectations of them were at times unrealistically high. This article was an excellent tool for
research into the emotional cognition which accompanies gifted children without being mere
statistical information. The observations were frank, to the point and would help a researcher
better understand the thinking process of the gifted child apart from testing or academic
achievement. It is a vital tool and expressed much more of what “life is like” for the gifted child
on a daily basis in the school, family and social settings than the other articles I had read.
Finally, on the positive side of reviewing the research available, in the Journal for the Education
of the Gifted, Kunkel, Pittman, Hildebrand and Walling performed a 1994 study on interventions
for the gifted child vis-à-vis summer enrichment programs, often offered by private “gifted
student” facilities or local colleges and universities. They serve as a bridge between the academic
years, alleviate boredom, incite intellectual maturation and consistency in preparation for
advancement in the next grade or the transition to high school. They also allow, perhaps not
available in the standard school setting, a social environment where gifted students can be
exposed to and socialize with like-minded or like-interested other teenagers. On the other hand,
parental pressure to participate in these programs as well simply gaining the prestige of having
attended (regardless of whether or not the enrichment program offers course credit in the next
grade level) seem to be downsides. Research participants were 7th
and 8th
grade students in a
summer enrichment program for the first time. It was an intensive, 8-week exposure to
engineering, business, mathematics, science and computer science (263). Students applied for the
program via essay writing. Qualitative and quantitative methods were employed. Students filled
out a weekly “Reasons for Being Here” inventory. The cluster map included in the article was
helpful in assessing more about why, according to the inventories, the students actually wanted
to be in the enrichment program. Parental influence and specific skill development were the
smallest clusters, while career preparation, specific college preparation, and general preparation
were the largest clusters in the field of mathematics. It would have been helpful if there had been
7

a cluster map for the rest of the subjects that were included in the program. The scales and tables
were confusing but did follow median and standard deviation. There is a clear distinction
between for-profit gifted “centers” and those operated by colleges and universities. This is a
useful tool in exploring gifted students’ motives and results in participating in summer gifted
enrichment programs useful in research and this researcher would want to further explore the
social and emotional ramifications of such a program.
To starkly contrast, a research study on students in the Chicago Public School system was
reviewed within the 2002 American Educational Research Association’s Meeting Call for
Proposals: The Impact of High-Stakes Testing in Chicago on Student Achievement in
Promotional Gate Grades. It was not the type of research (quantitative) that my research study
planned to employ, nor did it exclusively include the population targeted. A mathematical,
statistical overview of the standards and accountability of third, sixth and eighth graders
currently enrolled in Chicago public schools. Critics argued that grade retention due to poor
standardized testing scores “hurts children (334).” Historically, however, Chicago Public
Schools have not seen any significant improvement in test scores over the last decade, despite
extra resources such as the Lighthouse Program, which is encouraged but not mandatory for
retained students. The essential purpose of the Lighthouse Program is to promote four channels:
motivation, instruction, programmatic, and testing effects. What the studies did prove was that
longer and greater instruction time did indeed achieve improvement in the classroom activities.
The caveat of additional instruction time to students apt to be retained threatens the achievement
of students either at their proper grade level or above their grade level. Currently, while CPS’
accountability “provides schools with both incentives and resources, it does not mandate a
specific curricular or pedagogic approach (338).” Special consideration is given to students who
do not speak English as their primary language. Those students, who increase in number every
year, are exempted from the promotional criteria. What is deemed “high stakes testing” in the
CPS system, in fact, has proven to actually lower the third and sixth graders’ overall
standardized scores over the course of the last several years. Eighth graders fared slightly better.
8

This article and its instruments were chiefly used to compare and contrast a fractured
public school system with few resources for gifted students, poor standardized test scores, a high
retention rate and limited resources for mid-range students, much less the gifted. Numbers and
data points overwhelm the article and study and point towards a mean’s end that the Chicago
Public School system is a disservice to the students and their community with very few
exceptions. Completely for contrast purposes would I consider using this article as combative
information regarding the lack of resources and availability of tools and instruction for gifted
children who are unfortunately, according to the study, grossly overlooked by the Chicago Public
School system. Far more attention is given to the children who are retained in grades than do
succeed in their academics.
VI-Methodology:
The research methodology would be qualitative, observational and interview-based.
Research would sample a total of 30 7th
and 8th
grade students (15 from private schools within the
district and 15 from public schools in the district) as well as 50 instructors and/or administrators.
The primary method of research to answer the above questions will be chiefly qualitative,
concentrating on interviewing gifted-range students themselves on their perceptions of challenge,
social acceptance or isolation, and their levels of interest and how those interests are being met
by the instructors; the instructors of the children’s classes, school administration (principals,
counselors, and school psychologists); and, if applicable, district or private school boards of
education. Questions to include in interviewing the instructors and administrators would
concentrate on their aptitude for designing and executing innovative and original enrichment
materials, assigning level-appropriate books and assignments and their perceptions of assessing
9

the giftedness of those children endowed to their care. Research would ascertain whether or not
instructors/administrators or school counselors are solely basing standardized testing on gauging
a student’s potential for giftedness or whether coursework and extracurricular activities are also
being considered.
Since the study encompasses both private and public schools, information gathered will
vary greatly, particularly if some of the private schools are also parochial.
Logically, having one-on-one consultation with the aforementioned population within
each school would prove more beneficial in learning about the programs in place, how they
might be better tweaked, their benefits and limitations. This is both a pro and a con because the
residual results are bound to be more subjective than objective. There is a greater potential for
error based on the interviewee’s response.
On the plus side, anecdotal or personal accounts (from the students in particular) could
provide fertile resource research material for the clinician who is attempting to ascertain the
depths to which the children are bored or feeling not challenged enough. Some may feel more
comfortable answering questions in person and find they warm up to the researcher more than
answering a Q&A form or vice versa. There is more room for reading body language. If the
student can build connection to the therapist and enmesh, the counselor could suggest any
number of great books on the market today about the education of gifted children, as well as
“College for Kids” at Northwestern University, the Center for Giftnedness, and many other
options for children to be educated and challenged outside of the classroom.
Qualitative research overwhelmed qualitative in most of the articles I read while
researching. Students and educators’ roles and responsibilities have changed drastically in the
10

last decade. Purely judging and studying of scores and interpretations paint an incomplete picture
of either the gifted or challenged child. As an example, just because a student scores post-high-
school level on all of his standardized tests does not mean he should skip a grad if he is not
emotionally prepared to do such. At such a crossroads, a qualitative interview with the student
would be encouraged, followed by a visit to the school academic counselor, and other
administration to find out how to keep the child busy, engaged and challenged throughout the
course of junior high in preparation for high school, where there is more opportunity for gifted
children to succeed and drive.
VII-Bibliography:
Cullen, G. R., & Volk, T. L. (2000). Effects of an External Case Study on Environmental Behavior
and Associated Variables in Seventh-and Eighth-Grade Students. The Journal of
Environmental Education, 31(2), 9-15.
Summary: Study revealed promotion of responsible environmental behavior in the ecological and
environmental focuses by virtue of assessing seventh and eighth grade students’ training and
awareness of citizenship skills and problem solving using test and retest instruments in an effort
to assess levels of knowledge between average and above-average-based intelligence framed
students.
Assessment: Investigation and evaluation via test/retest, environmental and ecological behaviors,
and innate knowledge of such mediums as wetlands and terrains were statistically tested and
analyzed by the investigators utilizing percentages and standard deviation scales. Findings
indicated that overwhelmingly, pre and post-test results of the students’ knowledge bases were
not significantly altered based on the instruments used.
11

Reflection: I would not use this case study in my research project, as its limitations and variables
do not directly reflect evidence of giftedness or high achievement within the criteria of
intelligence scales I am assessing.
Grant, B. A., & Piechowsi, M. M. (1999). Theories and the Good: Toward Child-Centered Gifted
Education. Gifted Child Quarterly, 43(4), 4-12. doi: 10.1177/001698629904300102
Summary: “Formal Theory” and “Point of View” are contrasted in this dissection as to whether
or not intelligence and giftedness can be pointedly measured and disputes the groundwork of the
framing of any psychological theory which presently exists. It is emphasized that practicality and
theory do not often work in tandem to produce concrete evidence citing psychological growth
and a dramatic increase in creativity. The article separates three functions of theories: 1)
Depiction: Theory as Picture. 2) Application: Theory as Engine. 3) Statement of values: Theory
as Philosophy of Life. Superiority and inferiority, as well as IQ, are earmarked by heredity,
exposure to educational resources, personality traits and environment. The authors argue that
philosophies of life as attained by the gifted must contain “world views + values + practical
ideas” in testable portions. Funding for gifted education must be weighed against the practicality
of employing the theories in a fair and neutral manner akin to that of testing phenomena of
students of varying abilities. Moral implications regarding the education of the gifted are also
addressed, and child-centered versus theory-centered tests and results are explained and
historically separated by the purpose of the education and the inherent role of the instructor. A
child-centered curriculum respects and concludes the child’s autonomy and unique learning
patterns without direct influence or coercion by the instructor; thereby allowing the student to
frame his/her perspectives and initiatives accordingly. Finally, the article extensively explains
Dabrowski’s Theory of Positive Disintegration, Maslow’s Theory of Self-Actualization and
Roeper’s Education for Self-Actualization and Interdependence.
Assessment: An extremely comprehensive yet opinionated guide towards the purpose and
function of initiatives, strengths and weaknesses of the battery and methodology of classifying
giftedness in children. Thoroughly explains the difference between theories which are
12

established and have been widely proven and conjecture which has been widely accepted in
regards to the functionality and purpose of children deemed “gifted.”
Reflection: A startling, informative article which explains in great detail and defends the unique
needs of gifted children via theory and practice, and differentiates that which has been proven
and that which, in practice, is pragmatically sound. I would definitely use this article as part of
my research project, as it addresses multiple aspects of guiding the gifted child.
Kunkel, M. A., Pittman, A. M., Hildebrand, S. K., & Walling, D. D. (1994). Expectations of
Gifted Junior High Students for a Summer Enrichment Program: A Concept Map.Journal
for the Education of the Gifted, 17(3), 260-275.
Summary: Interventions for gifted students often include summer enrichment programs, often
offered by private “gifted student” facilities or local colleges and universities. They serve as a
bridge between the academic years, alleviate boredom, incite intellectual maturation and
consistency in preparation for advancement in the next grade or the transition to high school.
They also allow, perhaps not available in the standard school setting, a social environment where
gifted students can be exposed to and socialize with like-minded or like-interested other
teenagers. On the other hand, parental pressure to participate in these programs as well simply
gaining the prestige of having attended (regardless of whether or not the enrichment program
offers course credit in the next grade level) seem to be downsides. Research participants were 7th
and 8th
grade students in a summer enrichment program for the first time. It was an intensive, 8-
week exposure to engineering, business, mathematics, science and computer science (263).
Students applied for the program via essay writing. Qualitative and quantitative methods were
employed. Students filled out a weekly “Reasons for Being Here” inventory.
Assessment: The cluster map included in the article was helpful in assessing more about why,
according to the inventories, the students actually wanted to be in the enrichment program.
Parental influence and specific skill development were the smallest clusters, while career
preparation, specific college preparation, and general preparation were the largest clusters in the
field of mathematics. It would have been helpful if there had been a cluster map for the rest of
13

the subjects that were included in the program. The scales and tables were confusing but did
follow median and standard deviation. There is a clear distinction between for-profit gifted
“centers” and those operated by colleges and universities.
Reflection: This is a useful tool in exploring gifted students’ motives and results in participating
in summer gifted enrichment programs I would definitely use this in my research and would
want to further explore the social and emotional ramifications of such a program.
Morgan, A. (2007). Experiences of a gifted and talented enrichment cluster for pupils aged five to
seven. British Journal of Special Education, 34(3), 144-153.
Summary: British researcher Anne Morgan assessed the efficacy of a "cluster" pilot program in
the UK of enrichment and special education for gifted students aged five to seven, which was
based upon the application of 3 theories related to the education of gifted and talented pupils: 1.
Gardner's Theory of Multiple Intelligences (1999), 2. Bloom's Taxonomy of Levels for
Intellectual Behavior (1984) and 3. Renzulli's Three-Ring Conception of Giftedness (1986).
Morgan used multiple research questions, methods and data analyses with the children involved
in the cluster programs as well as their parents and teachers and concluded that the
social/emotional development and adaptation of the children was enhanced, and the children
benefited greatly from the experience of having more challenging academic work which fostered
and nurtured their unique talents and intellectualism.
Assessment: The source is useful inasmuch as it details the research methods Morgan utilized
succinctly and includes quotes from interviews with the parents, teachers and students involved.
The article is unbiased and explains well the difference between gifted and talented children,
terminology too often cited as one framework but actually quite different. The article calls
attention to the idea of "clusters" of student enrichment as a pilot program feasible in multiple
SES educational settings.
Reflection: I would use this source, especially given the explanation of the theories of giftedness,
of which I was unaware. I would dissect the analyzing of the cluster subjects and take into
account what the participants said.
14

Pong, S., & Pallas, A. (n.d.). Class Size and Eighth-Grade Math Achievement in the United
States and Abroad. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 23, 251-273. doi:
10.3102/01623737023003251
Summary: A large concern in the increase in class size over the last decade (particularly in public
schools in urban environments) has raised issue with whether or not the ratio of teacher to
student interaction is detrimental to the mathematical achievement of students in the United
States. Other countries were studied, both densely and sparsely populated. Studies show that this
makes a larger difference in the lower grades than in the upper grades, in which the students have
more student autonomy and require less supervision to stay on task, particularly if they have a
good grasp of the material being taught. Children in lower SES populations are frequently placed
in more crowded classrooms, while higher SES children receive more one-on-one attention and
instruction, as well as resources and enrichment from their instructors. Often, smaller classes are
either remedial or advanced, placing average students at a disadvantage in class size. One
advantage of smaller class sizes is that they promote an advancement of material being covered
over the course of the school year, rather than falling behind in instruction because there are too
many students to tend to. Parts of the authors’ research in other countries depended on whether
or not education was mandated and controlled by the government rather than by individual
communities or entities. Converse to the United States, large Asian countries have far more
students per instructor ratios, yet on average score consistently higher—in the top range—on
mathematical achievement tests. TIMMS data and analyses are provided in the article.
Assessment: Topic of mathematics alone is too narrow to gauge student achievement and this
research project will attempt to concentrate more so on the United States (though I have used
examples of other countries in other articles).
Reflection: Interesting but not compelling enough to include in research on gifted education in
the United States.
15

Roderick, M., Jacob, B., & Bryk, A. (2002). American Educational Research Association 2002
Annual Meeting Call for Proposals. The Impact of High-Stakes Testing in Chicago on
Student Achievement in Promotional Gate Grades, 24(4), 333-357. doi:
10.3102/0013189X030004026
Summary: A mathematical, statistical overview of the standards and accountability of third, sixth
and eighth graders currently enrolled in Chicago public schools. Critics argue that grade
retention due to poor standardized testing scores “hurts children (334).” Historically, however,
Chicago Public Schools have not seen any significant improvement in test scores over the last
decade, despite extra resources such as the Lighthouse Program, which is encouraged but not
mandatory for retained students. The essential purpose of the Lighthouse Program is to promote
four channels: motivation, instruction, programmatic, and testing effects. What the studies did
prove was that longer and greater instruction time did indeed achieve improvement in the
classroom activities. The caveat of additional instruction time to students apt to be retained
threatens the achievement of students either at their proper grade level or above their grade level.
Currently, while CPS’ accountability “provides schools with both incentives and resources, it
does not mandate a specific curricular or pedagogic approach (338).” Special consideration is
given to students who do not speak English as their primary language. Those students, who
increase in number every year, are exempted from the promotional criteria. What is deemed
“high stakes testing” in the CPS system, in fact, has proven to actually lower the third and sixth
graders’ overall standardized scores over the course of the last several years. Eighth graders
fared slightly better.
Assessment: This article and its instruments were chiefly used to compare and contrast a
fractured public school system with few resources for gifted students, poor standardized test
scores, a high retention rate and limited resources for mid-range students, much less the gifted.
Numbers and data points overwhelm the article and study and point towards a mean’s end that
the Chicago Public School system is a disservice to the students and their community with very
few exceptions.
16

Refection: Completely for contrast purposes would I consider using this article as combative
information regarding the lack of resources and availability of tools and instruction for gifted
children who are unfortunately, according to the study, grossly overlooked by the Chicago Public
School system. Far more attention is given to the children who are retained in grades than do
succeed in their academics.
Sowa, C., Sowa, J., & Sowa, A. (1994). Social and Emotional Adjustment Themes Across
Gifted Children. Roeper Review, 17(2), 95-98.
Summary: Interview and observational data in a qualitative study was collected to assess
common patterns or coping mechanisms which gifted children employ to stressors in their lives
as children of special needs. Social and emotional adjustment is thought to be unique to the
gifted child in terms of psychological/emotional adjustment and achievement adjustment. Seven
children: four girls and three boys were interviewed from a broad cross-section of SES, race and
an age range of 9-14. Those interviewed were the children, their families, teachers and friends,
and were observed at home as well as extracurricular activities. Broadly, responses from the
children indicated that while they were academically excelling, their emotional development and
maturity was actually slightly lower than expected in such a way that they tended to conspire
more in order to serve their own needs. That said, the children were capable of creating their own
challenges, inventing things, and filling gaps of boredom more effectively than non-gifted
students. Teachers reported that the gifted children tended to be more assertive and challenged
the educators. Part of their adjustment was acceptance of themselves and recognition of their
abilities. However, the majority felt that expectations of them were at times unrealistically high.
Assessment: This article is an excellent tool for research into the emotional cognition which
accompanies gifted children without being mere statistical information. The observations were
frank, to the point and would help a researcher better understand the thinking process of the
gifted child apart from testing or academic achievement.
17

Reflection: I will definitely be using this as part of my research. It is a vital tool and expresses
much more of what “life is like” for the gifted child on a daily basis in the school, family and
social settings than the other articles I have read thus far.
Tunks, J. (2001). The Effect of Training in Test Item Writing on Test Performance of Junior High
Students. Educational Studies, 27(2), 130-142. doi: 10.1080/03055690120050374
Summary: Tunks begins with a history of mandated school standardized testing as had begun in
Europe and its subsequent shift into the curricula in the United States; in particular, “high stakes
testing.” High stakes testing is defined as states and school districts awarding merit pay to
teachers who have raised standardized test scores in their districts. (130). The purpose of the
study was “to examine the effect of training in test item writing on test performance of junior
high students.” (130). Contrasts and comparisons were drawn regarding students who prepped
for tests utilizing traditional methods and alternative methods. Her hypotheses were that total
score means in reading and writing would increase if students utilized alternative test preparation
methods and that their levels of anxiety in test taking would decrease. Concerns are raised in the
article regarding high stakes testing: challenging theories of constructivism and metacognition,
reduction of the curriculum, the influence of media and politics, and the use of tests and scores
for the purposes of such things as selling real estate to clientele who wish to place children in
high-achieving school districts. The aforementioned concerns are thought to raise anxiety levels
in junior high test takers. The author found numerous negative consequences as a result of
mandated high stakes testing. Acceptable and unacceptable test preparation practices are
addressed and what ethically acceptable prep strategies are and are not. Methods of instruction,
constructivist principles and alternate test preparation strategy focus the student on
comprehending the test material thoroughly. It was called TICM, based on Wittrock’s generative
teaching model of 1991. Subjects were 7th
and 8th
graders in a large metro area in north central
Texas. The author cites the percentile medians of the test subjects. The downside of the TAAS
(Texas Assessment of Academic Skills) criterion referenced testing held ramifications of not
only student retention but also potential for teacher demotion or dismissal. The assessment was
18

strictly an experimental post-test only control group design. A Test Anxiety Inventory was also
used to gauge student anxiety frequency in test taking. Methods in the TICM (Test Item
Construction Model) allowed students 12 instructional sessions during which to prepare. The
tests were multiple choice and related to reading and language arts. Author states a “content
analysis of students’ portfolios intimated that students actively participated in the learning
process at a high level” (139).
Assessment: This article was more educator-related than student-related, although it did evaluate
the performance of the students who were assessed for their actual comprehension and can make
connections when new material is presented to them. The test taking tools related to the overall
long-term achievement of the students, though the article did not solely address scores of high-
achieving students.
Reflection: This article is a possibility for use in my research because it does promote studying,
test preparation, student anxiety, and broached the idea of students beginning to actually write
their own standardized tests eventually, which would be a huge breakthrough in American
education.
Valverde, G. A., & Schmidt, W. H. (2000). Greater expectations: Learning from other
nations in the quest for 'world-class standards' in US school mathematics and science.
Journal of Curriculum Studies, 32(5), 651-687.
Summary: The authors strongly suggest that students in the United States are lagging behind
students in foreign countries in the areas of school mathematics and science. Lower standards of
academic achievement and education endanger what students in the US are capable of
accomplishing, while other countries invest greatly in advancing the global market by educating
students at a higher level. As of the publication of this article in 2000, a research study, the Third
International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS) provided evidence to support the authors’
hypotheses. Potential educational systems were weighed against existing educational systems.
More than half a million school children in five grades in 41 countries participated in TIMSS
(655). Authors provide statistics of how the US students compared to those of other countries.
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Cross-cultural demands on student achievement were addressed. Goals and expectations of
curriculum reform were presented in an effort for the students in the US to “measure up” to those
in other countries (679).
Assessment: TIMSS could be outdated, being almost 14 years old. It should be revised and
weighed again, giving consideration to advancements in the use of computers, the internet, more
specific standardized testing procedures and content and advanced educator training. The authors
incorporated extremely detailed analyses and charts of how the participating countries measured
up to the US scores, which accounted for more than half of the content of the article, which
harshly assessed the United States in terms of producing generations of under-achievers.
Reflection: This article is too biased against the United States educational system to be of really
great use in a research paper, but it does break down students who achieved A’s or A+’s (e.g.
gifted students) in the tested subjects, so it may be worthy of some merit for further exploration.
Wong, E. H., Wiest, D. J., & Cusick, L. B. (2002). Perceptions of Autonomy Support, Parent
Attachment, Competence an Self-Worth As Predictors of Motivational Orientation and
Academic Achievement: An Examination of Sixth-and Ninth-Grade Regular Education
Students. Adolescence, 37(146), 256-266.
Summary: This study concludes that positive relations between parents, educators and students
foster higher achievement in sixth to ninth grade students. Intra and interpersonal variables and
motivations (256) are investigated regarding the students’ confidence and competence. Evidence
is presented that continued healthy attachment and interactions between parents and their
children into adolescence (between elementary school and junior high) allows children to
transition more smoothly and eliminates some degree of extenuating peer pressure. The parents
are said to “buffer” (257) some of the anxiety the children face during these transitional years.
Further, academic performance is studied and analyzed in terms of motivation and competence if
the children’s instructors allow more autonomous learning. The authors state that junior high
teachers are more controlling than elementary teachers, which could be detrimental to the
students’ social and educational motivation. The methodology studied 135 sixth graders in a
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large California school district. Measures (259) were the 1) Origin Climate Questionnaire, 2)
Inventory of Parent Peer Attachment, 3) Self-Perception Profile for Children and 4) A Scale of
Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic Orientation in the Classroom. Iowa Test of Basic Skills score percentiles
were obtained and analyzed. Stepwise regression analyses were performed on students in the
ninth grade, but the authors only obtained approximately 75% of the subsequent ITBS scores,
skewing the results, which are statistically listed in the article.
Assessment: The discussion of the article provides evidence that students who are encouraged
with a “you can do it!” attitude from involved parents and educators fare better than those who
are detached, while indicating the difference between the autonomous teaching approach to this
age range of students and the involvement of the students in the younger age range. Academic-
based outcomes are motivationally oriented. While not going into great self-detail about any
student in particular, and provides no case studies of individuality, the statistics are meritous.
Reflection: As this study focuses on “regular” education students, it might be a good
compare/contrast to the other articles focusing on giftedness, but I found it a bit ambiguous and
simplistic in its overall findings.
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