This document provides information on various insect pests that affect plants. It discusses the taxonomic classification of insects, focusing on the orders Thysanoptera, Hemiptera, Homoptera, and Lepidoptera. For each order, key insect pests are described, including their life cycles, feeding behaviors, impacts on plants, and potential management strategies. The document emphasizes the importance of properly classifying insect species and understanding insect-plant interactions to effectively address pest issues.
a) Methods used in sampling, extraction of motile stages and cysts,
b) Different groups of plant parasitic nematodes found in soil samples,
c) Calculate the ratio of eggs and cysts in soil samples as well as number of nematodes in a 100ml of soil,
d) Effects of plant parasitic nematodes on a susceptible and resistant variety of fodder radish.
Kitchen gardening beneficial insects ad other biological control 5 By Mr Al...Mr.Allah Dad Khan
Kitchen gardening beneficial insects ad other biological control 5 By Mr Allah Dad Khan Agriculture Consultant KPK Pakistan In Training of Kitchen Gardening
Bioeradication:research and insights on five common invasive plants in centr...Richard Gardner
This presentation will discuss the effects of native organism systems on five common invasive non-native plants, i.e. bioeradication. Research over the last several years has shown that native organism systems are beginning to eradicate various invasive non-native plants from local ecosystems in central Pennsylvania and nearby states. This is very different than the magic bullet approach of biocontrol in that it relies on mutualistic native systems instead of a single non-native organism. The concept is based on Darwinian evolution over the (extended) period of time it takes a system to develop. Naturally, this approach is slower than biocontrol. However, instead of “control” with all the potential consequences of introducing another non-native into an ecosystem, the goal is extinction of the target non-native with lower ecosystem risk and lower negative environmental impact.
Ecto and endomycorrhizae and their significanceRitaSomPaul
A part of Botany (Hons) syllabus in Mycopathology illustrates the basic differnces in ectomycorrhizae and endomycorrhizae as well as their significance
a) Methods used in sampling, extraction of motile stages and cysts,
b) Different groups of plant parasitic nematodes found in soil samples,
c) Calculate the ratio of eggs and cysts in soil samples as well as number of nematodes in a 100ml of soil,
d) Effects of plant parasitic nematodes on a susceptible and resistant variety of fodder radish.
Kitchen gardening beneficial insects ad other biological control 5 By Mr Al...Mr.Allah Dad Khan
Kitchen gardening beneficial insects ad other biological control 5 By Mr Allah Dad Khan Agriculture Consultant KPK Pakistan In Training of Kitchen Gardening
Bioeradication:research and insights on five common invasive plants in centr...Richard Gardner
This presentation will discuss the effects of native organism systems on five common invasive non-native plants, i.e. bioeradication. Research over the last several years has shown that native organism systems are beginning to eradicate various invasive non-native plants from local ecosystems in central Pennsylvania and nearby states. This is very different than the magic bullet approach of biocontrol in that it relies on mutualistic native systems instead of a single non-native organism. The concept is based on Darwinian evolution over the (extended) period of time it takes a system to develop. Naturally, this approach is slower than biocontrol. However, instead of “control” with all the potential consequences of introducing another non-native into an ecosystem, the goal is extinction of the target non-native with lower ecosystem risk and lower negative environmental impact.
Ecto and endomycorrhizae and their significanceRitaSomPaul
A part of Botany (Hons) syllabus in Mycopathology illustrates the basic differnces in ectomycorrhizae and endomycorrhizae as well as their significance
Present perfect and present perfect continuous Asmae Azzamouri
Academic Level: First Bac Level (High School )
Age range: 15 - 17
Integrated lessons:
Formation of verbs + ING
Stative verbs ≠ Dynamic verbs
Simple past Vs Present Perfect
Fresh cut vegitation a non-generic name, are any of 47 species of.pdfsudheerforce
Fresh cut vegitation:
a non-generic name, are any of 47 species of leaf-chewing ants belonging to the two genera Atta
and Acromyrmex. These species of tropical, fungus-growing ants are all endemic to South and
Central America, Mexico, and parts of the southern United States. Leafcutter ants can carry more
than 5000 times their body weight and cut and process fresh vegetation (leaves, flowers, and
grasses) to serve as the nutritional substrate for their fungal cultivars.
Acromyrmex and Atta ants have much in common anatomically; however, the two can be
identified by their external differences. Atta ants have three pairs of spines and a smooth
exoskeleton on the upper surface of the thorax, while Acromyrmex ants have four pairs and a
rough exoskeleton.
Ants:
Ants are eusocial insects of the family Formicidae and, along with the related wasps and bees,
belong to the order Hymenoptera.Ants form colonies that range in size from a few dozen
predatory individuals living in small natural cavities to highly organised colonies that may
occupy large territories and consist of millions of individuals. Larger colonies consist mostly of
sterile, wingless females forming castes of \"workers\", \"soldiers\", or other specialised groups.
Nearly all ant colonies also have some fertile males called \"drones\" and one or more fertile
females called \"queens\". The colonies are described as superorganisms because the ants appear
to operate as a unified entity, collectively working together to support the colony. Ants have
colonised almost every landmass on Earth. The only places lacking indigenous ants are
Antarctica and a few remote or inhospitable islands.
Actinobacter:
Actinobacteria is a phylum of gram-positive bacteria. They can be terrestrial or aquatic. They
are of great economic importance to humans because agriculture and forests depend on their
contributions to soil systems. In soil, they behave much like fungi, helping to decompose the
organic matter of dead organisms so that the molecules can be taken up anew by plants. In this
role the colonies often grow extensive mycelia, like a fungus would, and the name of an
important order of the phylum, Actinomycetales
Fertilizers:
Bio-fertilizers provide \"eco-friendly\" organic agro-input. Bio-fertilizers such as Rhizobium,
Azotobacter, Azospirilium and blue green algae (BGA) have been in use a long time.
Rhizobiuminoculant is used for leguminous crops. Azotobacter can be used with crops like
wheat, maize, mustard, cotton, potato and other vegetable crops. Azospirillum inoculations are
recommended mainly for sorghum, millets, maize, sugarcane and wheat. Blue green algae
belonging to a general cyanobacteria genus, Nostoc or Anabaena or Tolypothrix or Aulosira, fix
atmospheric nitrogen and are used as inoculations for paddy crop grown both under upland and
low-land conditions. Anabaena in association with water fern Azolla contributes nitrogen up to
60 kg/ha/season and also enriches soils with organic matter
A.
PHYTOPHAGOUS MITES AND BENEFICIAL MITES OF AGROECOSYSTEM.pptxSabyasachi Ray
Mites are the tiny organism belongs to the Acari group. The are very small invisible under naked eye. They causes significant losses in agriculture. So that proper identification is needed for best management practices. As they are very tiny, study of their bio ecology is very difficult. Sometimes damage symptoms of mites in plant are very much complex and confusing. In this slide all the identifying characters, classification of mites, their bio ecology and damage symptoms, predatory and other beneficial mites and management of phytophagous mites are briefly presented.
Insect order collembola are also known as Springtails. here the detail about this order mentioned like what are its families and what are its economic importances.
Order Neuroptera
Haseeb Kamran | Mphil Wildlife and Ecology GIS & Remote Sensing Lab | University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Lahore (Ravi Campus).
00923486311164
Thrips (order Thysanoptera) are minute (mostly 1 mm long or less), slender insects with fringed wings and unique asymmetrical mouthparts. Different thrips species feed mostly on plants by puncturing and sucking up the contents, although a few are predators. Entomologists have described approximately 6,000 species.
Content:
Introduction
Importance of Host Plant Resistance
Historical perspectives
Advantages and Disadvantages of HPR
Mechanisms of Resistance
Adaptation of Resistance in Plant to Insect
Morphological
Anatomical
Biochemical
Assembly of plant species - Gene Pool
Behavior in Relation to Host Plant Factor
CHAPTER 15Smith, T. M., & Smith, R. L. (2015). Elements of Ecolo.docxcravennichole326
CHAPTER 15
Smith, T. M., & Smith, R. L. (2015). Elements of Ecology (9th ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson.
15.1 Parasites Draw Resources from Host Organisms
Parasitism is a type of symbiotic relationship between organisms of different species. One species—the parasite—benefits from a prolonged, close association with the other species—the host—which is harmed. Parasites increase their fitness by exploiting host organisms for food, habitat, and dispersal. Although they draw nourishment from the tissues of the host organism, parasites typically do not kill their hosts as predators do. However, the host may die from secondary infection or suffer reduced fitness as a result of stunted growth, emaciation, modification of behavior, or sterility. In general, parasites are much smaller than their hosts, are highly specialized for their mode of life, and reproduce more quickly and in greater numbers than their hosts.
The definition of parasitism just presented may appear unambiguous. But as with predation the term parasitism is often used in a more general sense to describe a much broader range of interactions (see Section 14.1). Interactions between species frequently satisfy some, but not all, parts of this definition because in many cases it is hard to demonstrate that the host is harmed. In other cases, there may be no apparent specialization by the parasite or the interaction between the organisms may be short-lived. For example, because of the episodic nature of their feeding habits, mosquitoes and hematophagic (blood-feeding) bats are typically not considered parasitic. Parasitism can also be used to describe a form of feeding in which one animal appropriates food gathered by another (the host), which is a behavior termed cleptoparasitism (literally meaning “parasitism by theft”). An example is the brood parasitism practiced by many species of cuckoo (Cuculidae). Many cuckoos use other bird species as “babysitters”; they deposit their eggs in the nest of the host species, which raise the cuckoo young as one of their own (see Chapter 12 opening photograph). In the following discussion, we use the narrower definition of parasite as given in the previous paragraph, which includes a wide range of organisms—viruses, bacteria, protists, fungi, plants, and an array of invertebrates, among them arthropods. A heavy load of parasites is termed an infection, and the outcome of an infection is a disease.
Parasites are distinguished by size. Ecologically, parasites may be classified as microparasites and macroparasites. Microparasites include viruses, bacteria, and protists. They are characterized by small size and a short generation time. They develop and multiply rapidly within the host and are the class of parasites that we typically associate with the term disease. The infection generally lasts a short time relative to the host’s expected life span. Transmission from host to host is most often direct, although other species may serve as carriers.
Macroparasite ...
Climate Change All over the World .pptxsairaanwer024
Climate change refers to significant and lasting changes in the average weather patterns over periods ranging from decades to millions of years. It encompasses both global warming driven by human emissions of greenhouse gases and the resulting large-scale shifts in weather patterns. While climate change is a natural phenomenon, human activities, particularly since the Industrial Revolution, have accelerated its pace and intensity
Characterization and the Kinetics of drying at the drying oven and with micro...Open Access Research Paper
The objective of this work is to contribute to valorization de Nephelium lappaceum by the characterization of kinetics of drying of seeds of Nephelium lappaceum. The seeds were dehydrated until a constant mass respectively in a drying oven and a microwawe oven. The temperatures and the powers of drying are respectively: 50, 60 and 70°C and 140, 280 and 420 W. The results show that the curves of drying of seeds of Nephelium lappaceum do not present a phase of constant kinetics. The coefficients of diffusion vary between 2.09.10-8 to 2.98. 10-8m-2/s in the interval of 50°C at 70°C and between 4.83×10-07 at 9.04×10-07 m-8/s for the powers going of 140 W with 420 W the relation between Arrhenius and a value of energy of activation of 16.49 kJ. mol-1 expressed the effect of the temperature on effective diffusivity.
UNDERSTANDING WHAT GREEN WASHING IS!.pdfJulietMogola
Many companies today use green washing to lure the public into thinking they are conserving the environment but in real sense they are doing more harm. There have been such several cases from very big companies here in Kenya and also globally. This ranges from various sectors from manufacturing and goes to consumer products. Educating people on greenwashing will enable people to make better choices based on their analysis and not on what they see on marketing sites.
"Understanding the Carbon Cycle: Processes, Human Impacts, and Strategies for...MMariSelvam4
The carbon cycle is a critical component of Earth's environmental system, governing the movement and transformation of carbon through various reservoirs, including the atmosphere, oceans, soil, and living organisms. This complex cycle involves several key processes such as photosynthesis, respiration, decomposition, and carbon sequestration, each contributing to the regulation of carbon levels on the planet.
Human activities, particularly fossil fuel combustion and deforestation, have significantly altered the natural carbon cycle, leading to increased atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations and driving climate change. Understanding the intricacies of the carbon cycle is essential for assessing the impacts of these changes and developing effective mitigation strategies.
By studying the carbon cycle, scientists can identify carbon sources and sinks, measure carbon fluxes, and predict future trends. This knowledge is crucial for crafting policies aimed at reducing carbon emissions, enhancing carbon storage, and promoting sustainable practices. The carbon cycle's interplay with climate systems, ecosystems, and human activities underscores its importance in maintaining a stable and healthy planet.
In-depth exploration of the carbon cycle reveals the delicate balance required to sustain life and the urgent need to address anthropogenic influences. Through research, education, and policy, we can work towards restoring equilibrium in the carbon cycle and ensuring a sustainable future for generations to come.
WRI’s brand new “Food Service Playbook for Promoting Sustainable Food Choices” gives food service operators the very latest strategies for creating dining environments that empower consumers to choose sustainable, plant-rich dishes. This research builds off our first guide for food service, now with industry experience and insights from nearly 350 academic trials.
Prevalence of Toxoplasma gondii infection in domestic animals in District Ban...Open Access Research Paper
Toxoplasma gondii is an intracellular zoonotic protozoan parasite, infect both humans and animals population worldwide. It can also cause abortion and inborn disease in humans and livestock population. In the present study total of 313 domestic animals were screened for Toxoplasma gondii infection. Of which 45 cows, 55 buffalos, 68 goats, 60 sheep and 85 shaver chicken were tested. Among these 40 (88.88%) cows were negative and 05 (11.12%) were positive. Similarly 55 (92.72%) buffalos were negative and 04 (07.28%) were positive. In goats 68 (98.52%) were negative and 01 (01.48%) was recorded positive. In sheep and shaver chicken the infection were not recorded.
1. 15/07/29 Clint Willemse
Plant Protection A
ND: Horticulture
Dr F Nchu
Plant Pest:
Abstract
Here in contains information captured for the topic of researched insects for Plant Protection A,
using taxonomic order and the interaction with host plants. No reference to any specific plant specie
is made. A look into the phylum 'Arthropoda', Sub-phylum 'Hexapoda', Mandibulata, Insecta super
groups will be made, with the orders being Thysanoptera, Hemiptera, Homoptera and Lepidoptera.
Insects
There are many plant pests known to man which ravish plant stock in all environmental habitats.
Plants that come in contact with insects beyound physical control are referred to as an 'infested
plant'. This is detrimental in crop production whereby, Infected plants may display gradual
'necrotic'*1
symptoms leading to death through various methods that insects deposit through its
interaction with plants. Insects are referred to as an 'vector'*2
carrier, whereby pathogens, viruses,
bacteria etc. are often a result of this contact. Insects may too be beneficial to an garden
environment like the common 'Centepede' class 'Diplopoda', sub-phylum Myriapoda. Insects are
commonly found a hindrance in greenhouses, ornamental displays in landscapes, turf culture,
vegetable and herb production etc. As more species of insects co-exist compared to any other group
of animals and plants put together.*3
In order to better understand species of all kinds, naming systems are studied to ensure proper
classification of insects belonging to the phylum Arthropods. Figure 2 shows the largest class of
insects with 30 million species and are the most successful of all animals. See Figure 1. There are
750 000 recorded species in the phylum Arthropods consist of nine orders, of which we are
discussing the four (beetles, flies, butterflies, bees, true bugs) pg. 666 'Biology 8th
Edition' Raven,
Johnson, Logos, Mason, Singer; Mc Graw Hill 2008. All arthropods have an strong cuticle
exoskeleton made of chitin*4
- a tough resistant nitrogen containing polysaccharide that forms the
cell walls of certain fungi, exoskeleton of arthropods, and the epidermal cuticle of other
invertebrate’s. Insects typically possess three regions; a thorax, head and abdomen usually with
antennae.
Thysanoptera:
Are usually garden pests that attack all types of vegetation as “Thrips” and possess a minute
characteristic, slender shape with brightly coloured at larvae stage and yellow, brown or black at
maturity with asymmetrical mouth parts and narrowed set of wings. Refer to figure 3. Damaging
crops is typified in its feeding in multitudes. Thrips may position itself underside a leaf, in vegetable
crop or in between flower petals, carrying potentially tomatoe spotted wilt virus, etc. Distributed
worldwide in both harshful dessert and arctic regions this species cause galls on plants, while others
are found in decomposed plant material. “Thrips population may increase dramatically in a short
space of time when particularly abundant in wheat and Lucerne crop” further investigation revealed
how, “they rasp the tissues of plants to suck sap” (Diseases and Pest of Ornamental Plants: 5th
Ed.
1907). It remains an serious pest in cultivated cosmopolitan crop (readily utilized vegetables) and
transmit virus and disease whilst feeding on plant tissue*5
*7
. The order Thysanoptera comprises of
8 sub-orders with an paler appearance; naming a number of thrips; Thripidae, Aeolothripidae,
Heterothripidae and Merothripidae compared to the darker brown to black appendages on
Phlaeothripidae in the sub-order Tubulifera. According to online citation from “World
Thysanoptera” Phlaeothripidae feed on fungal hyphae, whereby transportation of fungus onto crop
maybe eminent and maybe be found in flowers.*6
2. 15/07/29 Clint Willemse
Apart of causing spotting on leaves and flowers many as 12 different viruses (eg. Iris yellow spot
virus) are transmitted by 'Eabaci' thrips on cosmopolitan crop (onions, tobacco, tomatoes, cotton
etc) in Southern Africa. Onion thrips (Thrips tabaci) damage onion leaves with spotting by piercing
and sucking as well as cucumber leaves and carnation petals*8
. Causing much of the blemishes on
citrus fruits are the Indigenous 'Citrus thrips' Scirtothrips aurantii, which feed on superficial cells
around the stem end of still growing pea shaped green fruit*7
.
Hemiptera:
This class of half membranous insect is best equiped with 2 pair of wings whereby the fore wings
are thickened at base and are comprised by doing damage with its piercing and sucking mouth parts
eg. Aphids, lace bugs, chinch bug, waterboatmen*9
. According to 'Insects of Southern Africa', the
structure of the mouthparts render efficient for extracting liquidified content from plants or animals
(obtaining amino acids from vascular tissue)*10
. The secretions left behind by a majority of Scale
and Aphids (Hemiptera Coccoidea and Aphidoidea); a by product of sap feeding habit known as
'honey dew' is exudated. This honey dew is an sybiotic process shared with ants, whereby ants
forage the exudates for reproduction. Homopterans are protected by ants in this regard. ('Insects of
Southern Africa: Scholtz C.H, Holm E, 1986). With this secretions comes intracellular bacterial
symbionts and as much as 78% of amino acids incorporated with nitrogenous wastes that may be
transformed from non essential amino acids to essential amino acids to the vascular tissue.
However because of the periodic nature of this parasite that continually feed on the vascular tissues
of the xylem and phloem, the aphid will regulate the amino acid composition from the non essential
to essential by secreting honey dew in quantity it can handle*11
. Also determined as aphids saliva is
belived to be linked to gall, necrosis, chlorotic lesions and morphological changes. This also
determines the phloem composition with an increase in amino acid concentration in the leaf tissue
causing senesence and increased translocation of amino acids resulting from break down of leaf
proteins*11
. Figure 5.
The most familiar types of aphid are 'potatoe aphid' Macrosiphum euphorbiae or 'rose aphid'
Macrosiphum rosae which attack early spring and former aphids migrate during summer to other
plants eg. Aster, cosmos, dahlias, gladiolus, hollyhock, iris, sweet pea, zinnia etc.*12
A clear
understanding of aphids breeding is not misunderstood as mentioned in ''Diseases and Pests of
Ornamental plants; 5th
Edition'' (1907) [pg 61], 'dark-green to black eggs are layed on the tips of the
rose bush leaves over winter, but a spray of lime sulphur kills least resistant eggs since it is difficult
to kill'...'a usual spray of malathion in summer will aid recovery of an infected plant'. 'Root aphids'
Brachycaudus spp, typically attack roots of ornamentals eg. Browallia, buttercup, calendula,
primrose, cosmos, dahlia, aster, sweet pea'. Some species live through summer on host plant as fir,
then migrated by ants to roots of plant. Autumn ants gather eggs and keep them over winter caring
for them and are returned to surface in spring to stems and leaves. Application of Diazinon will be
necessary.
Homoptera is an sub-order to Hemiptera (very similar and close to Thysanoptera) but belongs to
Exopterygota group meaning outside crawling with an gradual metamorphosis. The young are
called nymphs and the papal stage is not an metamorphic attribute.*13
Homoptera:
This leafhopper group finds itself varied with more aphids, leafhopper, cicadas, white flies, psyllids,
mealybug, scale; distinguished by 4 wings and well adapted mouthparts for piercing and sucking.
The species of scale maybe armoured or unarmoured (soft scale)- emerging two weeks before
spring compared to armoured crawlers. Many of the insects in this group cover themselves with
white waxy secretion, under which young develop, while some members deposit its eggs into the
host.*14
3. 15/07/29 Clint Willemse
As mentioned in 'Diseases and Pests of Ornamental Plants’ Firth Ed on page 57 pertaining to the
honey dew secretions by aphids and scale may result in growth of black mould on leaves and stems.
“Many carry viruses; whereby introduced as food is sucked out”.
*14
The 'citrus mealybug', Planococcus citri is one which damage citrus plants. It is broadly
elliptical in shape with short bristles or filamentts all around the margin. The female deposits 300
eggs in a compact, cotton waxy sac hatching within 10 days. See figure 6. Young are at first smooth,
later developing leg like marginal filaments. Pseudococcus longispinus, easily distinguished by two
long and some what shorter appendages. Long tailed mealybug is covered with a mass of wooly
substance and does not move about so often like the short tailed variation. Infestation depends upon
proximity and amount on host plant, but do contribute to loss of plant vigor in weakening or loss of
leaves, buds and flowers (sucking up plant tissue)*15
. Honey dew is secreted as shared in the
members of 'Hemiptera'. Unlike apids mealy bugs/ scale is not host specific. Pseudococcus fragilis
'citrophilus mealybugs' latch onto shrubs and trees, while others are known to attack roots
(underground parts). Scale may not display any body parts or appendages in its design. Application
of organic based phosphates malathion provides effective control.
Lepidoptera:
This unique order from Hymenoptera comprises of butterflies (Rhopalocera) and moths
(Heterocera) and have adapted as flowers did so are crucial for pollination. Wings and the body are
surrounded by dust-like scale. However these majestic creatures are injurious to plants at a young
stage, caterpillars and not at the adult stage. The mouth parts suck sap and borers may live inside
plant tissue (stem and leaf blades). The eggs are attached on leaves and stems but caterpillars are
highly destructive.*17
Eg cutworms, tent caterpillars, leaf rollers, and leaf tiers. The antennae
distinguishes the butterflie from the moths where the butterflies antennae is clubbed and thinned.*16
There are considerable traits in solving infestation when it comes to insects for example usage of
Cedar and Juniper woods or lavender may repel moths. 'White fly' Trialeurodes vaporariorum
plagues ornamentals like Fuchsia, Lantana, Coleus and may be delt with an synthetic pyrethroid,
Resmethrin. 'Cutworms' Peridroma saucia and Agrotis ipsolon lay eggs atop grass and weed
surfaces then burrow into the ground for winter. Moths emerge in June, July or August. When they
are fully grown they form pupae in the soil. However the destruction Is at night as they are
nocturnal feeders in turf culture. This results in wilted plants, quick destruction of flowers and
foliage; plant results in eventual death. Application spray of Diazinon, Dursban, Dyloz, Proxol and
Sevin.
Conclusion:
Understanding Biodiversity through the study of plants, ecology or insects alike is so importantly
diverse and broad that it leads Horticultaralists, Entomologist, Foragers etc, to the appreciation of
all insects and the role insects play in keeping the interconnected quality in nature in mind. As we
noted the symbiotic connection with Aphids and Ants with the connection being hony dew, or the
flying insects that act as pollinators shows one the grattitude we should all hold. The plague of
crops; invasive insects are ones carefully mitigated with organic practices or daily observations as
one cannot forget the harshful implications of inorganic practices.
References:
• *1
Resulting from Necrosis; mechanism of 'apoptosis'. “Cells that die due to injury typically
swell and burst, releasing their contents into the extracellular fluid.” This form of cell death
is called 'necrosis', in contrast, “cells programmed to die shrivel and shrink in a process
called apoptosis, meaning falling away, and their remains are taken up by surrounding
cells” pg. 388 ['Biology 8th
Edition' Raven, Johnson, Logos, Mason, Singer; Mc Graw Hill
2008]
4. 15/07/29 Clint Willemse
• *2 “
Allows propagation of recombinant DNA in a host which it is introduced.” ['Biology 8th
Edition' Raven, Johnson, Logos, Mason, Singer; Mc Graw Hill 2008]
• *3
Citation: pg 50 “Diseases & Pests of Ornamental Plants 5th
Edition”, Pascal P. Pirone 1907
• *4
G4, Glossary 'Biology 8th
Edition' Raven, Johnson, Logos, Mason, Singer; Mc
Graw Hill 2008
• *5
pg 177 “Insects of South Africa”, Scholtz, C,H., Holm, E. Butterworths, Durban 1986
• *6
“World Thysanoptera” Online citation 7/8/2015
http://anic.ento.csiro.au/thrips/identifying_thrips/Phlaeothripidae.htm
• *7
pg 177; 178 “Insects of South Africa” Clark H Scholtz. Erik Holm, Butterworths Durban,
1986
• *8
pg 207, 212 “Principles of Horticulture” 5th
Edition C.R Adams, K.M Bamford and M.P
Early 2008
• *9
Pg 54, Pirone P,P., 1907, ‘Diseases and Pests of Ornamental Plants’ Firth Ed. Publication
of, The New York Botanical Garden.
• *10
Quotation: pg 112 “Insects of South Africa”, Scholtz, C,H., Holm, E. Butterworths,
Durban 1986
• *11
Online Article- Arthropod-Plant Interaction (2011) “Aphid-host plant interaction: Does
aphid honey dew exactly reflect the host plant amino acid composition”. Springer
Science+Business Media B.V. 2011
• *12
Pirone P,P., 1907, ‘Diseases and Pests of Ornamental Plants’ Firth Ed. Publication of, The
New York Botanical Garden.
• *13
Wikipedia Online reference: 10/08/2015 Exopterygota
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exopterygota
• *14
Pg 62 Pirone P,P., 1907, ‘Diseases and Pests of Ornamental Plants’ Firth Ed.
Publication of, The New York Botanical Garden.
• *15
Online Mealybug reference: 10/08/2015 “American Orchid society”
https://www.aos.org/Default.aspx?id=511
• *16
Difference between moths and butterflies: Online citation
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moth
• *17
Page 63 Pirone P,P., 1907, ‘Diseases and Pests of Ornamental Plants’ Firth Ed.
Publication of, The New York Botanical Garden.
Picture and Diagram References:
Figure 1
Arthropoda’s 9 orders pg 666 'Biology 8th
Edition' Raven, Johnson, Logos, Mason, Singer; Mc
Graw Hill 2008
5. 15/07/29 Clint Willemse
Figure 2: “Classification of the arthropods and their allies sensu Snodgrass (1938).”
Online reference : 08/082015 Enhancement Chapter: Raven and Johnsons, 6th
Edition
http://www.mhhe.com/biosci/genbio/raven6b/graphics/raven06b/enhancementchapters/raven43_enh
ancement.html
Figure 3:
“Life stage of Gladiolus thrips” Ent 462 Order Of Hexapoda
http://entomology.osu.edu/bugdoc/Shetlar/462/462InsectOrders/Orders25.htm
Figure 4: Tomatoe spotted virus on potatoe emphasis on the dark broad chlorotic spots
Cornell University: Vegetable MD online Department of Plant Pathology
http://vegetablemdonline.ppath.cornell.edu/PhotoPages/Tomatoes/Tom_SpWilt/Tom_SpWiltFS15.h
tm
6. 15/07/29 Clint Willemse
Figure 5:
Left- Scale supplying nutritious honey dew to Argentinian ant
“Ornamental and Turf: Department of Entomology Insect Note, NC State University”
https://www.ces.ncsu.edu/depts/ent/notes/O&T/trees/note140/note140.html
Right-Ant milking aphid
"Ms. Taylor's Ecology Class at Wolcott High School” http://ctayloreco.weebly.com/gallery.html
Figure 6: 'Citrus mealubug' Planococcus citri
Emphasis on the fir created by female and the tiny scale eminating from
underwww.flickr.com/photos/gellerfipeter/4922289215/in/photostream/
7. 15/07/29 Clint Willemse
Figure 5:
Left- Scale supplying nutritious honey dew to Argentinian ant
“Ornamental and Turf: Department of Entomology Insect Note, NC State University”
https://www.ces.ncsu.edu/depts/ent/notes/O&T/trees/note140/note140.html
Right-Ant milking aphid
"Ms. Taylor's Ecology Class at Wolcott High School” http://ctayloreco.weebly.com/gallery.html
Figure 6: 'Citrus mealubug' Planococcus citri
Emphasis on the fir created by female and the tiny scale eminating from
underwww.flickr.com/photos/gellerfipeter/4922289215/in/photostream/