Fibrous Capsule HCC Imaging

Fibrous Capsule Essay
Doctors may use the terms cancer, malignancy, lump, neoplasm, growth and tumour
interchangeably. The tumour is often multifocal i.e. there are several tumour nodules present within
the liver. We do not know if this is because it starts off as one tumour that then spreads within the
liver via blood vessels, or if several separate tumours start to grow at the same time. Once the
tumour cells get into the blood circulation, HCC can spread to the lungs, bones and nearly any other
part of the body. Tumour cells can also travel along the lymph vessels to the lymph glands (also
called lymph nodes) at the base of the liver. HCC is the most common primary hepatic tumor and
one of the most common cancers worldwide. HCC is a primary malignancy of hepatocellular origin.
The radiologic characteristics of HCC ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Typical features of expansive type HCC include tumor capsule and internal mosaic architecture.
Most expansive HCC lesions have a well–developed fibrous capsule. The fibrous capsule is
demonstrated by CT as a hypoattenuating rim, and enhances in the delayed phase. The different
components may show various attenuation indexes on CT images, particularly if areas of well–
differentiated tumor with different degrees of fatty metamorphosis are present. Internal septa show
delayed enhancement, similar to that of the fibrous capsule. HCC has a typical tendency to produce
small or minute satellite nodules ("daughter" lesions), frequently located in the vicinity of the main
tumor. These nodules, representing intrahepatic metastases usually developed via the portal vein
branches, show the same CT appearance of the main tumor. In the case of multicentric development,
multiple small tumors may exhibit a different enhancement pattern on CT, reflecting different
degrees of tumor
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Ovarian Fibrothecoma
Stromal tumors of the ovary include thecoma and fibroma, yet as differentiation between these two
types may be difficult, the term fibrothecoma has emerged. The exact incidence of fibrothecoma is
unknown, although they have been described as rare ovarian neoplasms1. Here we present an
unusual clinical manifestation of ovarian fibrothecoma with abdominal distension in a young
female. Grossly, the resected left ovarian mass measured 16x16x10 cm and right ovarian mass
measured 3.5x2x0.4 cm. Cut surface of both was firm, grayish white fascicular pattern with few
yellow areas (Fig.1). No normal ovarian tissue was identified. Fibrothecomas are round, oval or
lobulated solid tumors that cast stripy shadows and are associated with fluid in the pouch of
Douglas, and most manifest minimal to moderate vascularization. A fibrothecoma with atypical
ultrasound appearance may be ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Microscopic features of ovarian fibrothecoma include round and spindle shaped nuclei without
atypia or myxoid change. No mitotic figures were observed. On microscopy, the ovarian mass was
composed of spindle stromal cells which were randomly distributed or arranged in fascicles. The
stroma was characterized by thecal cells which were oval to polyhedral with moderate to abundant
vacuolated cytoplasm (Fig.2 &3). The nuclei were round to oval and exhibit little or no atypia. The
fibromatous component could be seen separating the sheets of theca cells. Since the differentiation
between thecomas and fibromas is occasionally imprecise, some have used the designation
"fibrothecoma" 1. The ovarian mass in the present case demonstrated both spindle cells and lipid
containing cells with a box–in–appearance which indicate fibroma and thecoma, respectively.
Edema may be observed in fibrothecoma1, 2, and it can be massive if it is induced by a stasis of
lymphatic

What Is Potential Therapeutic Targets?
Therefore, a cancer that involves a mutation in these BRAC1 and BRAC2 genes (BRCAness) can be
effectively treated with PARP1 inhibitors, which may represent very efficient therapies for TNBC
because of the high sensitivity of these tumours to the inhibitor and moreimportantly, it is devoid of
harmful effects on the remaining healthy cells. This contrasts with conventional chemotherapies,
which are highly toxic to all cells and can provoke DNA damage in healthy cells that may further
lead to secondary cancer generation (Bryant et al., 2005) At present various PARP1 inhibitors are
under development in different phases of clinical trial but, as yet, no major breakthrough has been
achieved(Jamdade et al.,2015)
2. Potential Therapeutic Targets ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The additive efficacy and toxicity of PI3K inhibition in this patient population will be compared
with the available data on enzalutamide monotherapy in TNBC and five partial responses were
observed(Tiffany et al.2015),Interestingly, an androgen–driven gene signature denoted Dx+, which
seemed to predict a superior clinical outcome, was defined by gene profilingThe proposed signature
is of potential clinical relevance, but requires formal validation in independent series of patients.(
Bianchini et al.2017)
EGFR inhibition– Overexpression of EGFR is common in patients with TNBC and is seen in up to
60% of basallike breast cancers. It is associated with lower response to chemotherapy and poor
overall survival (Nielsen, et al. 2004) the role of EGFR immunostaining in defining basal–like
breast cancer, it follows that agents antagonizing this moiety have been assessed in the setting of
TNBC. As stated BL–2 and MSL subtypes of TNBC have been found to have higher expression of
EGFR pathway genes. Trials have not targeted these specific subtypes with EGF R inhibition, and
results have been disappointing in several published abstracts(Carey, et

Symptoms And Treatment Of The Hemangioblastoma
gene. One of these tumors is the hemangioblastoma. These tumors most commonly occur in the
retina, cerebellum, and spinal cord. Hemangioblastomas are well–circumscribed, benign neoplasms
containing capillary vessels. They do not invade or metastasize but do cause symptoms from
increased pressure and hemorrhage. In the retina, they occur in the periphery or the juxtapapillary
region and they can result in vision loss from tumor edema, exudation, and/or traction. Hemorrhage
can also result in glaucoma, retinal detachment and vision loss. Retinal capillary hemangioblastomas
occur by age 60 in up to 70% of von Hippel Lindau patients.1
These CNS tumors have complex morphological features with many sources citing that the
histiogenesis is uncertain about their cells of origin. The 2006 text Tumors of the Eye and Ocular
Adenexa states that these tumors are capillary hemangiomas and are "endothelium–lined capillaries
interspersed with pale, vacuolated stromal cells" and that these stromal cells are "believed to be
astrocytes that have imbibed plasma lipids."2 In 2008, the Intraocular Tumors: An Atlas Textbook
2nd Edition reports that "[t]here is little information available about the pathology of this rare
neoplasm. It is a diffuse vascular mass composed mostly of small–caliber vessels believed to be
derived from endothelial cells of uveal blood vessels."3 The 2011 Eye Pathology: An Atlas and Text
2nd Edition, states that these retinal hemangioblastomas are "composed of capillaries

Myeloproliferative Neoplasms
Myeloproliferative neoplasms (MPNs) are a clonal disease of myeloid stem cells that are
characterized by myeloid cell proliferation, bone marrow (BM) fibrosis, and symptoms associated
with the accompanying peripheral blood cell abnormalities. The World Health Organization (WHO)
provides diagnostic criteria for the following MPN subtypes: chronic myelogenous leukemia; BCR–
ABL1–positive; polycythemia vera (PV); essential thrombocythemia (ET); primary myelofibrosis
(PMF); chronic neutrophilic leukemia; chronic eosinophilic leukemia, not otherwise specified;
mastocytosis; and MPN–unclassifiable (MPN–U).1 Common molecular events in MPNs are the
V617F mutation in the JAK2 gene, mutations of exon 10 of the MPL gene (mainly involving codon
W515), and ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
At least 20 metaphases were analyzed whenever possible. Clonal abnormalities were defined as two
or more cells with the same chromosomal gain or structural rearrangement or at least three cells with
the same chromosome deletion. Karyotypes were recorded according to the International System for
Human Cytogenetic Nomenclature (ISCN) 2013.14
In addition, fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) was performed in most cases (n = 158). The
following commercial FISH probes were used in subset of patients: a BCR/ABL dual–color, dual–
translocation probe (n = 158); the 13q14 SpectrumOrange probe (n = 66); the LSI D20S108 (20q12)
probe (n = 77); the LSI EGR1 (5q31) probe (n = 27); the LSI D7S522 (7q31) probe (n = 18); the
CEP 8 probe (n = 23); and the LSI 1p32/1q25 probe (n = 21) (all from Abbott Molecular, Des
Plaines, IL). Slides were stained with FISH probes and counterstained with DAPI, and the
fluorescence signals were analyzed by fluorescent microscopy (Zeiss, Göttingen, Germany). FISH
results were recorded according to the ISCN

Granulosus Case Study
The echinococcus granulosus has been described as the most frequent cause of the hydatid cysts.
Humans are the incidental intermediate host. Larvae emerge from the eggs in the intestine; and after
invasion to the blood vessels, they can migrate into almost every part of the body.The usual
destination is the liver via the portal tract, but sometimes the larvae pass through the liver barrier
and reach the lungs and all the other viscera, where they transform into small cysts.The cyst of
echinococcus is a rare finding in pelvic sites.Dissemination via lymphatic or systemic circulation
has been implicated as a possible route to produce primary hydatid diseases outside the liver and
lung.. In our case the ovarian hydatid cyst is most probably a secondary one, due to a spontaneously
or iatrogenic rupture of the hepatic cyst removed 3 years earlier. Pelvic echinococcosis
symptomatology is non–specific and can include abdominal tumefactions, abdominal pain,
menstruation irregularities, infertility and urinary disturbances. Ovarian echinococcosis can simulate
either polycystic disease or malignancy.. On USG, it mimics cystic ovarian disease or a solid
ovarian mass.A high grade of suspicion or a preoperative diagnosis of echinococcus cyst makes it
possible to avoid an intraoperative iatrogenic rupture, and when available, to administer previously
an ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Serological tests like immunoglobulin G antibody detection by ELISA and indirect
hemagglutination tests are also used which have 85% sensitivity .Hydatid cyst has three layers –
pericyst, germinal layer and laminated membrane. A thick pericyst is present in the liver &spleen
but it is extremely thin in a peritoneal hydatid cyst. Hydatid cysts expand slowly and
asymptomatically, and thus, may be large at

Research Paper On Hodgkin Lymphoma
Lymphoma comes in two types Hodgkin's and non–Hodgkin's Both types are a cancer based disease
of the cells. The body constantly makes new cells to help us grow, replace worn–out tissue and heal
injuries.Cancer occurs when the cells don't grow, divide and die in the usual way. This then causes
blood of lymph fluid in the body to become abnormal, or form a lump called a tumour. These types
of tumors are the Benign tumor which the cells are confined into one area and are not able to spread
to other parts of the body Although this is not known as a cancer. The one known as a cancer is
Malignant tumor which have the ability to spread by traveling through the bloodstream.
Hodgkin's lymphoma is a type of lymphoma in which is a general term for cancers

The Importance Of Immuno-Oncology
As immuno–oncology takes the spotlight in cancer therapeutics and pharma companies race to
develop new treatments, improvements in the detection of cancers may be just as impactful. Liquid
biopsies, top ten technology MIT Technology Review 2015 breakthroughs, are diagnostic tests to
detect cancer biomarkers in the blood, urine, and now saliva.
Liquid biopsies have been recent blood based tests that analyze circulating tumor DNA (ctDNA) or
circulating tumor cells (CTCs) in lieu of the standard tissue biopsy. However, exosomes appear to be
the 'next big thing' in liquid biopsy and cancer diagnostics. These are nanoscopic membranous
messengers that are continually released from all cells into every biofluid in your body (Balaj).
From ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
While JP Morgan analysts expect demand for liquid biopsies to shoot from $580 million in 2016
(marketsandmarkets.com) to $20 billion per year by 2020 (Standaert), former CEO of Illumina
biotech, Jay Flatley says depending on the speed of research findings the number could be closer to
a staggering $100 to $200 billion (gov_archives 2016 – this is insufficient, address?).
Historically, cancer research has focused on finding "a cure" for what has been thought of as a single
disease with rogue cells dividing madly, but research and technologies have exposed how complex
cancers really are with intricate genetic differences demonstrating patients are much less alike than
we once thought. Genetic and environmental facts have provided myriad different tumor types with
unique biological pathways insights.
Although traditional chemotherapy and radiation is still common, the race is on to develop targeted
therapies to precisely combat pathways unique to the genetic footprint of a specific patient's tumor.
Individualized therapies are meant to block tumor growth rather than radiate all rapidly dividing
cells, healthy or cancerous, or apply indiscriminately destructive chemotherapeutics (Mullane).
Oddly, it is diagnostics that have proven to be among our biggest challenges (Ciardiello) in the
targeted therapies and precision medicine world. Biopsy procedures, the leading

Malignant Neoplasm Essay
What is a Malignant Neoplasm?
A malignant neoplasm is a tumor composed of poorly differentiated cells. "Neo" means new and
"plasm" refers to cells. The word neoplasm refers to abnormal overgrowth of cells rather than
healthy new cell growth. It is often used interchangeably with words such as tumor and cancer. It is
a cancerous tumor that grows, proliferates, infiltrates and metastasizes to other parts of the body. It
can spread to surrounding tissues, through lymph nodes or through the bloodstream. It often requires
surgical removal. If it is left untreated, it can result in death.
Characteristics of Malignant Neoplasms
Fixed mass
Irregular shaped with no capsule
Cells multiply very rapidly
Almost always spreads to other sites ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The tumor becomes larger and may possibly invade surrounding tissues or spread to other parts of
the body via the lymphatic system or the bloodstrem. If a vital organ such as the brain or liver or
multiple organs are extensively damaged by the cancer, then death will occur. The treatments
available for treating malignant cancer include surgery and chemotherapy. However, once metastasis
has occurred, the prognosis is poor and treatment is very complicated.
Some of the main types of cancer are described below:
Leukemia – This affects the tissues that make blood, such as the bone marrow. Large numbers of
abnormal cells are produced in the bone marrow, which then spread to the bloodstream
Carcinoma – This begins in the skin or tissues that line organs.
Lymphoma – Originates in the immune system
Sarcoma – This develops in blood vessels, muscle, cartilage, bone or other types of connective
tissue
Cancer of the central nervous system – Originates in the tissues of the brain and spinal

Diffuse Low Grade Gliomas
Gliomas are the most common type of primary brain tumor, accounting for 10–20% of its total.
(5,19–21). Histopathology pattern is the most important feature in glioma classification. (22) The
2007 WHO classification of tumors of the central nervous system divides gliomas into four main
types, with increasing degree of malignancy (from I–IV). Low–grade gliomas are defined a grade I
and grade II, in opposition to the "high–grade gliomas", WHO grade III and IV. The so–called
"diffuse low–grade gliomas" integrate 2007 WHO II class, and include diffuse astrocytomas,
oligodendroglioma and oligoastrocytoma (mixed glioma) (19). There are some pertinent critics to
this grading system, such as the great inter–variability among neuropathologist experts. More
importantly, 2007 WHO grading doesn't contemplate the continuum between grade II and III. In
fact, many DLGG has an "intermediate" behavior, with some more aggressive microfoci lodged in
the core of the neoplasm (19,23,24). Hence, the term diffuse low–grade glioma is preferred in this
article.
In fact, DLGG is slower ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
(16,18,25) Rigau et al (2011) point to a slight predominance in men, referring a male/female ratio of
about 1.32. (13) Exposure to ionizing radiation is, to date, the only confirmed environmental risk
factor. None of the other risk factors once considered (chemicals, mobile phones, etc) have ever
been demonstrated with significant association. Nevertheless, these tumors are more common in
patients with neurofibromatosis Type 1 and Li–Fraumeni syndrome. Interestingly, there is also a
probable inverse relationship between allergies (namely, IgE levels) and risk of developing a glioma
(23). Furthermore, recent molecular data enabled a better understanding of the biology of DLGG.
Despite sharing clinical, radiological, and pathological presentation, there is still heterogeneity in
the behavior and prognosis of DLGG in each patient.

Methotrexate
Methotrexate is an antimetabolite of folic acid that blocks the formation of thymine within the cell,
rendering it incapable of DNA replication. As a chemotherapeutic agent, it is also employed as an
alternative treatment for psoriasis and rheumatoid arthritis when they are unresponsive to
conventional therapies. Methotrexate (MTX) induces an effect similar to 5–fluorouracil (5–FU) by
interrupting the formation of thymine within the cell, which leads to the inability to replicate DNA.
Unlike 5–FU, which inhibits the action of thymidylate synthetase, MTX binds tightly to
dihydrofolate reductase (DHFR) and blocks the formation of tetrahydrofolate, leading to the
depletion of associated folate co–factors (126).
Methotrexate (MTX) is indicated ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
temperature of 37˚C and phosphate–buffered saline, (PBS; pH of 7.4, composed of disodium
hydrogen phosphate 1.38 g, potassium dihydrogen phosphate 0.19 g, sodium chloride 8.0 g, and
purified water q.s. 1000 mL (165), with a pH of 7.4). A new assembly was designed for these
studies. Briefly, our system was consisted of two Franz cells as the donor and receptor phase
containers separated by a dialysis membrane (Dialysis Tubing Cellulose Membrane, D9527–100FT,
size: 43 mm×27 mm, Sigma–Aldrich, USA) with a pre–determined surface area. The vessels were
double–jacketed with 37˚C water circulating between the jacket walls throughout the study (Fig. 2.1
and Fig. 2.2). In each experiment a free drug solution (20 µg in 23 ml PBS; pH of 7.4), was used as
the donor phase. As the receptor phase, the same volume of PBS was added to the receptor
compartment and aliquots (about 100 µl) of the release medium (i.e. receptor phase) was withdrawn
at predetermined time points. The amount of MTX in the release medium was quantified using the
developed HPLC method. After each measurement, the same volume of fresh PBS was put back into
the receptor compartment. All the drug release experiments were repeated three

Neoplasm Essay
The neoplasm is assumed to have a nonaggressive nature; however, data regarding the course in
HIV immunocompromised persons is scant. A case of orolabial bowenoid papulosis caused by
HPV–32is noted.[63]
Histopathology: reveals features of an intraepithelial carcinoma. Secondary amyloid deposition has
been reported histologically in one case of BP.[64]
Differential diagnosis Lichen planus, common warts, seborrhoeic warts, naevi and condylomata lata.
A biopsy is indicated in instances where the clinical diagnosis is uncertain.
Treatment and follow up Treatment depends on many factors. Circumcision removes a major risk
factor for cancer and provides extensive tissue for histology. Topical 5–fluorouracil as a 5% cream is
a well established conventional option for the treatment of BP,[65–67] but there have not been any
clinical trials. Other treatments include cryosurgery, curettage and electrocautery, excisional surgery,
glans resurfacing, Mohs micrographic surgery, laser and photodynamic therapy.[ 65–69]
Radiotherapy should be avoided. Topical imiquimod may help some patients.[70–72] Patients
presenting with these conditions should be counselled and screened for HPV and other sexually
transmitted diseases, including HIV infection. They should stop smoking. Sexual ... Show more
content on Helpwriting.net ...
Only 25% are extraocular and the majority of these appear on the head and neck. One–half of
periocular tumors arise from Meibomian glands. The neoplasm appears as a firm, skin–colored, or
yellowish papule that slowly grows into a nodule. Metastasis occurs in 14 to 25% of patients.
Several cases reported in HIV–infected patients achieved unusually large sizes and were not present
on the

Prolactinoma Essay
Prolactinoma is usually a benign tumor that appears as a result of the monoclonal expansion of a cell
line of adenohypophysis lactotrope cells [1].
Pituitary tumors represent the most common intracranial neoplasms accompanying serious
morbidity through mass effects, and inappropriate secretion of pituitary hormones [2]. Prolactin–
secreting tumor (prolactinomas) is the most frequently occurring pituitary tumor. Prolactinomas
(PRLoman) are thought to have a prevalence of 100/million population [3]. However, series of
radiological and autopsy studies suggest a prevalence as high as up to 22.5% [2]; furthermore,
population–based studies [4.5] had shown a higher four to five fold increased prevalence of
PRLomas, and pituitary adenomas (Pas) than that previously thought. Prolactinoma was ... Show
more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Moreover, a study reported a high recurrence rate of hyperprolactinemia in patients with
macroprolactinoma after cabergoline withdrawal [6].
Despite massive researches, the pathogenesis of pituitary adenomas remains unclear and poorly
understood [7]. Although PRLomas were considered by many as a benign monoclonal proliferation,
their clinical spectrum is diverse and has various degrees of invasiveness which suggesting multiple
steps and mechanisms [1]. Pituitary tumorigenesis appears to be a complex process with extrinsic
and intrinsic factors involved [8].
On the other hand, Vitamin D plays an important role in the regulation of serum calcium levels and
bone homeostasis [9]. Yet, during the last decades, researchers reported pleiotropic effects on
different types of cells [10]. The active metabolite of vitamin D ( 1,25–dihydroxyvitamin D3
[1,25(OH)2D3]) modulates cellular proliferation and differentiation, and has potent anti–cancer
activities both in vitro and in vivo

Nanotechnology Case Study
Biotechnological solutions to a variety of illnesses, surgical procedures, genetic exploits and a
myriad of other things are now in the form of nanotechnology. Big pharmaceutical companies now
refer to many of their medications, in fact, as nanomedicines, which alludes to the
nanotechnological inputs in pills that improve delivery methods and even deploy nanoparticles for
specific purposes on occasion. A new study actually illustrates how attaching RNA nanoparticles
that masquerade as antibodies to microvesicles capable of delivering RNA therapeutics to cancer
cells.
Scientists applied RNA nanoparticles, regulating their orientation to make microscopic, extracellular
vesicles bearing the nanoparticles–small interfering RNA (siRNA). The ... Show more content on
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"We're working now to translate this technology into clinical applications."
Another study conducted by researchers at Tel Aviv University–published in Nature
Communications–hones in on the inverse correlation between the expression of oncosuppressor
microRNA and a pre–established oncogene–a cancer development gene. The study says that this
explains prolonged survival of pancreatic cancer, and the findings may very well yield future
cultivation of effective drug cocktails for fighting not only multiple cancer types but also several
other mortal diseases.
Lead study author, Ronit Satchi–Fainaro, chairs the Department of Physiology and Pharmacology at
TAU, and he collaborated with Dr. Shay Eliyahu and Hadas Gibori among others on the study.
Pancreatic cancer is widely considered by experts to be one of the most aggressive cancers; most
patients last less than a year after diagnosis. "Despite all the treatments afforded by modern
medicine, some 75% of all pancreatic cancer patients die within 12 months of diagnosis, including
many who die within just a few months," according to Satchi–Fainaro. "But around seven percent of
those diagnosed will survive more than five years. We sought to examine what distinguishes the
survivors from the rest of the patients."
Satchi–Fainaro adds that his team figured they could develop new therapeutic strategies if

Clonal Heterogeneity
Cancer is a systemic disease and advanced cancers can be locally advanced or metastatic. Generally,
the metastatic potential is through to be due to tumor heterogeneities which origin from the
differences generated in the evolution process of cancer itself as well as host microenvironment. The
capability of invasion and metastasis is closely related to cell motility and requires the cytoskeleton
that is essential during mitoses[18]. Since malignancy criteria are mainly related to the phenotype of
actively proliferating cells, metastatic deposits genetically match well–differentiated areas of
primary and invasive areas[19]. These factors need attention when planning the evaluation of
intratumoral heterogeneity and detailed specification would be necessary to pinpoint the
intratumoral location, to assess selective process and to analyze pathways[18, 20]. These biological
foundations would improve the therapeutic design and patient's management base on heterogeneity.
The connection between initial stages ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
However, it should be noted that this approach could only be reliable only where the genetic
compositions of primary and metastatic tumors are similar. In addition, elucidating the key
difference between early and late origin of metastasis–initiating cells is pivotal for determining the
therapeutic strategies that target tumor invasion. The question of clonal heterogeneity within
metastases remains unexplored, and, moreover, clonal heterogeneity within primary tumors has
limited direct therapeutic relevance. It should be noted that primary tumors can be successfully
removed by surgery in most cases, but this is most often not the case for metastatic outgrowths.
Therefore, elimination of metastatic clones has to rely on adjuvant therapies, and it is likely that the
success of these therapies will depend on the extent of the heterogeneity of these tumor cell

Essay On Choroidal Melanoma
Choroidal melanoma is the most common intraocular (inside the eye) tumor in adults. Choroidal
melanoma is the most common cancer of the eye. It originates from the pigmented cells of the
choroid of the eye, it is not like other tumors that starts in other parts of the body and then spreads to
the eye.
Choroidal melanoma is malignant; it can metastasize and eventually spread to other parts of the
body. In COMS (The Collaborative Ocular Melanoma Study) states that choroidal melanoma
initially appearing as a small freckle beneath the retina, choroidal melanoma can grow in height and
diameter, and may eventually spread to other organs of the body, causing death. Since choroidal
melanoma is an intraocular tumor, and therefore usually not seen, patients with this disease often do
not recognize the presence of this tumor until it grows to a size such that it decreases vision either
by obstruction , retinal detachment, bleeding or other complications. Pain usually does not occur
except with large tumors.
In Eye Cancer states that most of the choroidal melanoma patients has no symptoms, the best way to
detect this lesion early is to perform periodic evaluations of the retina under dilatation. Patients
suffering from melanoma have blurry vision caused if the tumor is ... Show more content on
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Small or suspicious melanomas (those with a height less than 3 mm) are kept under close
observation for growth before treatment is started. Medium–sized tumors (those between 3 and 6
mm in height) can be treated with either radiation therapy or enucleation; it has been determined that
both treatments prevent the spread of cancer. In large–sized tumors (those greater than 6 mm in
height), the treatment of choice is usually enucleation. This is because the eye would not be able to
tolerate the amount of radiation that will need to treat a tumor of this size. The COMS study showed
no benefit in administering radiation prior to

Sweat Gland Neoplasm Essay
Sweat gland neoplasms are extremely rare neoplasms. They can be classified into benign and
malignant variety. The benign variety have been sub divided into subtypes such as nodular, apocrine
and clear cell based on their histo–pathological presentation. The malignant form or sweat gland
carcinomas are those that possess an infiltrative and/or metastatic potential. They are generally
classified into two groups. The first group comprises malignant tumours that closely mimic their
benign counterparts while tumours in the second group do not have a benign counterpart1. Nodular
hidradenomas are usually seen in third to fifth decade of life and are twice more common in
females2. Clinically the tumour usually presents as an asymptomatic, solitary, 0.5 to 6 cm sized,
skin coloured intra–dermal nodule, slightly elevated above the surrounding skin 3,4. Occasionally
brown, blue or red discoloration and surface erosions or ulceration may be observed. It is a slow
growing tumour and rapid growth may represent trauma, haemorrhage or a malignant change. ...
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Histopathology shows both solid and cystic components in varying proportions. The tumour has
tubular lumina lined by cuboidal or columnar cells and variably sized cystic spaces. The solid
portions contain two types of cells: polyhedral cells with basophilic cytoplasm and glycogen
containing pale or clear cells with a clear cytoplasm and a round nucleus.The histology of malignant
hidradenoma resembles that of its benign counterpart. The criteria for malignancy include poor
circumscription, presence of nuclear atypia and mitotic activity, predominantly solid cell islands,
infiltrative growth pattern, areas of necrosis and angio–lymphatic

Stereotactic Radiosurgery
Stereotactic radiosurgery works the same as all other forms of radiation treatment. It does not
remove the tumor or lesion, but is distorts the DNA of the tumor cells. The cells then lose their
ability to reproduce and retain fluids. The tumor reduction occurs at the rate of normal growth for
the specific tumor cell. In lesions such as AVMs (a tangle of blood vessels in the brain), radiosurgery
causes the blood vessels to thicken and close off. The shrinking of a tumor or closing off of a vessel
occurs over a period of time. For benign tumors and vessels, this will usually be 18 months to two
years. For malignant or metastatic tumors, results may be seen in a few months, because these cells
are very fast–growing.
Pinpoint accuracy is critical

Paraganglioma Case Study
Paraganglioma is a rare neoplasm of neuroendocrine origin which may develop at many different
anatomical sites including head and neck, thorax, and abdomen. The occurrence of paraganglioma in
lower spine is rare, but well established as one of the differential. The investigation of choice pre–
operatively is magnetic resonance imaging4, which usually shows a very well circumscribed
partially cystic mass which is iso– or hypointense to spinal cord on T1–weighted images, and
hyperintense on T2–weighted images4. These MRI features are similar to other cauda equine tumors
such as ependymoma2. However sometimes MRI may show serpentine congested ectatic blood
vessels with "cap sign" (a low intensity signal rim) on T2–weighted images which are considered
diagnostic for paragangliomas2,7.
There have been quite a few instances where paragangliomas, ependymomas, and/or other cauda
equine tumor diagnosis has been difficult to differentiate. In fact the first case of paraganglioma was
published in 1970, even though it was initially thought to be an ependymoma4. Some authors have
also suggested co–existence of paragangliomas and ependymomas1, as well as having overlapping
histology with ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Zellballen can also be seen on cytology, described as nest–like clusters of uniform, round–to–
polygonal chief cells surrounded by richly vascular tissue and sustentacular (type2) cells2,5.
Cytological features of ependymomas– myxopapillay ependymomas are usually the predominant
type of ependymomaas in cauda equine region9. The cytological findings include round to spindle–
shaped cells, arranging as loose clusters with papillary branching9. The cells have indistinct
boundaries, and the cytoplasm is tapering, looks fragile and

Essay On Radiotherapy
Pediatric low–grade gliomas (pLGG) are the most common pediatric brain tumor and account for
35% of central nervous system tumors in children (1–4). pLGG includes a range of histologic
types with WHO grade I pilocytic astrocytoma being the most frequent (3). Clinically, pLGGs are
generally slow growing lesions that can occur throughout the central nervous system and are
surgically removedwhen possible.Complete surgical resection is the most significant predictor of
improved survival in pLGG (5). However, the extent of resection is often dependent on tumor
location and hence, only feasible for a subset of cases. For example, tumors arising in the posterior
fossa can be completely resected and thereby boast an excellent progression free ... Show more
This results in the N–terminal regulatory domain of BRAF being replaced, leading to constitutively
enhanced kinase activity (21). Five separate KIAA1549–BRAF fusion configurations were
originally described including between exons 16;9, 15;9, 16;11, 18;10, and 19;9 in order of
prevalence (19). Fusions involving FAM131B and SRGAP3 with BRAF resulting in similar kinase
activation have also been described, although at significantly lower frequencies (21, 22). Subsequent
findings showed that RAS–MAPK activation through BRAF fusions are present in both grade I and
grade II malignancies, although significantly less frequent in the latter (21, 23–27). The presence of
BRAF fusion events in pLGG has been shown to aid in tumor diagnosis (28), predict clinical
outcome (29, 30), and dictate the most appropriate therapeutic approach (31–33), and, as such,
represents a critical factor in the management of pLGG. Besides BRAF, additional fusions such as
those involving FGFR1, MYB/MYBL1, QKI, and NTRK2/3 have also been described in pLGG
(34–37). As is seen in the BRAF fusions, kinase activation is the resultant effect. Due to their size
and location, pLGG biopsies are generally processed as formalin–fixed paraffin–embedded (FFPE)
tissue samples. As such, the use of these tissue samples for the purposes of BRAF fusion detection
requires specially designed and validated assays that tolerate the

Primary Brain Tumors Essay
According to PubMed، brain tumors are expressed by a collection of neoplasms which are arising
from different cells, both from within the brain parenchyma and from systemic tumors that have
metastasized and spread to the brain. Throughout history, malignant brain tumors constitute such a
small percentage of overall cancer incidence; therefore, little training has been provided for these
tumors. Most these tumors are responsible for the majority of deaths from primary brain cancers. To
date, primary brain tumors, whether malignant or nonmalignant, have devastating consequences
(1). Primary brain tumors (Gliomas) are thought to derive from neuroglial stem or progenitor cells.
Gliomas originate from neuroglial stem or progenitor cells. An ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
when it was reported that hordes of children died from cancer In 1979, resided more often in homes
thought of being exposed to higher EMF than what healthy control children did(4); cancer was
associated with exposure to electromagnetic fields (EMF) for a long time. The risks were recorded
as high as 2.2 for all cancers, 2.4 for brain cancer and 3.0 for leukemia. The third source of radiation
is using cellular telephones and radio–frequency (RF) have denoted as a large effect of this type of
radiation. Early studies have shown that there is a relationship between using cellular telephones
and the growth of brain tumors. Moreover, unfortunately even under laboratory conditions direct
exposures to high energy of RF is difficult to quantify(5). Doctors use the words nonmalignant or
malignant, when they describe tumors. In case, anyone should have been done with medical
examinations periodically and even if a patient have been detected with nonmalignant tumors, he or
she most knows that benign tumors may produce a substantial morbidity and can be occasionally
fatal rabidly. Currently, there is recent findings conclude that patients with brain cancer could
present for care with a diversity of indications and

Benign Tumors
Benign cell is used to describe both medical conditions tumors an usually refers to a process that's
not especially dangerous. For instance uterine fibroid are common benign tumors. Benign is not
cancerous, will not cause death. There are different types of benign tumors the most frequent tumor
in women is perimenopausal. The benign tumor can be deadly if it grows in an enclosed space such
as the skull, or in regions of the body where their presence can damage vital organs they can be
dangerous.
Malignant tumors are cancerous cells that can spread to other regions of the body. Depending on
what type of cancer cell it is some can be treated with radiation, chemo therapy, they can grow in
size and metastasize to other areas. We can do

Overexpression Case Study
p16INK4a overexpression in pre–malignant lesions
Several pieces of evidence suggested that the ability to bypass senescence is the main molecular
mechanism involved in the progression of pre–malignant to malignant cells (Braig 2005; Collado
2007). This hypothesis is based on the concept of oncogene–induced senescence, which was
established after demonstration of p53– and p16Ink4a – mediated senescent–like arrest in response
to expression of oncogenic Ras in normal primary cells (Collado 2007). This event (OIS) has been
considered as highly possible mechanism to prevent proliferation of incipient cancer cells (Sinha
2015). Consistent with this concept, senescent cells have been shown in a number of different
benign lesions, including ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
p16INK4a methylation could thus have a diagnostic application; it can be used in the differential
diagnosis from pre–malignant and malignant lesions (Feng 2015).
OIS is emerging as a potent cancer–protective response to oncogenic events, serving to eliminate
early neoplastic cells from the proliferative pool. Kuilman et al. (2008) reported a unique role of
interleukin–6 (IL–6) in OIS of cancer cells. Using combined genetic and bioinformatic analysis,
they found that OIS was linked specifically to the activation of an inflammatory transcriptome.
Induced genes included IL–6, which upon secretion by senescent cells acted mitogenically in a
paracrine fashion (Kuilman 2008). IL–6 was also required for the execution of OIS, but in a cell–
autonomous fashion. Its depletion caused the inflammatory network to collapse and abolished
senescence entry and maintenance. They also demonstrated that C/EBPβ cooperated with IL–6 to
amplify the activation of the inflammatory network, including IL–8. In human colon adenomas, IL–
8 specifically colocalized with arrested, p16INK4a–positive epithelium. They proposed a model in
which the context–dependent cytostatic and pro–mitogenic functions of interleukins contribute to
connect senescence with an inflammatory phenotype and cancer. The role of role of IL–6 in OIS has
been confirmed by later studies

Therapeutic Picture Division Essay
Division is the technique, separating a photo into areas with comparative properties such as dark
level, shading, surface, shine, and difference [22]. The inspiration driving division is to subdivide
the items in an image; Just if there should arise an occurrence of therapeutic picture division the
point is to: Study anatomical structure, build up an Area of Interest i.e. discovers neoplasm (tumor),
injury and distinctive variations from the norm, live tissue volume to live development of neoplasm
(likewise diminish in size of neoplasm with treatment) and encourage in treatment arranging before
radiation therapy; in radiation dosage estimation. Programmed division of medicinal pictures is a
hard assignment as therapeutic pictures are mind boggling ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net
...
Curios inside of MR and CT pictures will be separated into three classes on the reason of picture
handling strategy required to redress them: (i) antiquities requiring proper sifting procedure. Case in
point, commotion relic, helplessness antiquity and vicinity of non sharp edges inside of the picture
(ii) relic requiring suitable picture reclamation approaches, for instance movement curios and (iii)
ancient rarity requiring particular calculation are; fractional volume, force inhomogeneity. In spite of
the fact that an assortment of calculations are arranged inside of the field of medicinal picture
division, therapeutic picture division is still a testing and muddled issue. Distinctive analysts have
done the arrangement of division strategies in one or differently. At present, from the medicinal
picture handling point of view few characterization on the reason of dim level based generally (e.g.
Sufficiency Division In light of Histogram highlight, Edge Based Division, District based Division
and so on.) and textural highlight based procedures

Essay on Salivary Gland Tumors
INTRODUCTION: Salivary gland tumors are a morphologically diverse group of neoplasms, which
may present considerable diagnostic and management challenges for the pathologist and surgeon.
Salivary gland tumors are rare with an overall incidence in the western world of about 2.5 to 3.0 per
100,000 per year. About 80% of all lesions are benign; hence salivary malignancies are particularly
rare, comprising less than 0.5% of all malignancies and about 5% of cancers in the head and neck.
(1) Most of the studies on salivary gland tumors are in reference to western population and to the
best of our knowledge this study is the first of its kind in Indian population. In this study, salivary
gland neoplasms were retrospectively studied ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Immunohistochemical analysis for smooth muscle actin (SMA) was done and the intensity of
staining and staining location were considered. RESULTS: A total of 1855 biopsy specimens were
accessioned at our biopsy services during the study period (2002 – 2006). In this period, 37 cases
were salivary gland neoplasms accounting to 1.99% of all biopsy specimens accessioned. Of 37
cases, 11 were benign neoplasms (29.72%) and 26 were malignant (70.27%). The common tumors
overall was Pleomorphic adenoma (PA) and Muco–epidermoid carcinoma (MEC) (Table 1). Of 37
cases, 9 cases occurred in major salivary glands, with eight occurrences in the parotid region – 1 PA,
1 Adenolymphoma 6 Acinic cell adenocarcinoma (AcADCC) and one in submandibular region– 1
Polymorphous low grade adenocarcinoma (PLGA). Of 37 cases, 28 cases occurred in minor salivary
glands, with palate being the most commonly affected site by both benign (63.63%) and malignant
tumors (58%). Males represented 54% of the affected patients, and certain tumors showed a strong
male predilection, like MEC (6/10), PLGA (2/2), Adenoid cystic carcinoma (ACC) (5/8),
Adenolymphoma (1/1); in contrast, some tumors such as PA (7/10), Acinic cell carcinoma (4/6)
showed a female predilection. The mean age for malignant tumors in females (40.6 years) was lower
than

Brain Tumor Research Paper
Brain tumor
Clinical feature
A brain tumor is an abnormal development of tissue in the brain or central spine, which is
accountable for appropriate brain functionality. Brain and spinal cord tumors are atypical growths of
tissue found inside the skull or the bony spinal column, which are the chief constituents of the
central nervous system (CNS). Benign tumors are noncancerous and malignant tumors are
cancerous. The central nervous system (CNS) is accommodated within rigid, bony quarters (i.e., the
skull and spinal column), so any uncharacteristic growth, whether benign or malignant, can place
burden on sensitive tissues and damage function. Tumors that instigate in the brain or spinal cord are
called primary tumors.
Causes
Most primary tumors are triggered by out–of–control growth amid cells that surround and support
neurons. In a trifling number of individuals, primary tumors might arise from particular genetic
ailment (e.g., neurofibromatosis, tuberous sclerosis) or from exposure to radiation or cancer–causing
compounds. The reason of most primary tumors remains unidentified. They are not transmissible
and, at this time, not avoidable.
Symptoms ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
However, some tumor can't be surgically removed owing to their position in the brain. In those
circumstances, chemotherapy and radiation therapy are both choices for killing and shrinking the
tumor. Since treatment for cancer also can damage healthy tissue, it is significant to discuss possible
side and long term effects of whatsoever treatment is being used with your doctor. There are three
standard kinds of treatment for malignant tumors: surgery, chemotherapy, and radiation therapy.
New treatments are continually being researched and used in clinical trials throughout the globe. For
some patients, clinical trials are the finest choice of treatment. Rehabilitation could encompass
working with diverse therapies such

Why Does Gectin-8 Regulate Cell Adhesion?
Two of the main functions of galectin–8 are cell adhesion and cell growth. These functions also
occur in the protease–resistant form of galectin–8. Galectin–8 is a type of protein that is secreted.
When it is secreted, is serves a modulator for cell adhesion [3]. When the protein is stopped, it
promotes cell adhesion. This occurs by ligation and gathering of a select group of integrin receptors
[3]. Recall that galectin–8 is a sugar binding protein. Therefore, when there is a formation between
galectin–8 and integrins, it activates integrin–mediated signaling [3]. When there are large amounts
of galectin–8 present, it negative regulates cell adhesion with it forms a complex with integrins. Cell
adhesion depends on the interactions between galectin–8 ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net
...
The expression of galectin–8 is found in many different types of tumors [4]. Galectin–8 is found in a
lot of prostate–related tumors. For example there are high secretions of it in human prostate
carcinoma, early prostate cancer, and prostatic intraepithelial neoplasia; galectin–8 is not found on a
normal prostate or in benign prostatic tissues [3]. In addition to prostate–related cancers, galectin–8
was also found in high–levels on human lung carcinoma cells, in central nervous system
astrocytoma and glioblastoma, cutaneous T–cell lymphoma, and the middle ear cholesteatoma
[3].By quantifying the presence of galectin–8, the malignancy of human colon lung cancer could be
diagnosed [5]. Differential diagnosis is still a prime concern in tumor pathology, and Gal–8 could
be of great value in some types of primary and secondary tumors [4]. In terms of the galectin
family, galectin–8 is the most complicated in terms of its expression in cancer and tumor cells and
tissues [5]. Further studies and experiments are needed to determine the relevance of galectin–8 in
tumors and cancer. In the future, galectin–8 could ultimately be used as a weapon against certain
types of cancer

Myeloproliferative Neoplasm Essay
plastic/myeloproliferative neoplasms
In the 2008 WHO Classification of myeloid neoplasms [1], the myelodysplastic/myeloproliferative
neoplasm (MDS/MPN) category are principally characterized by features overlapping between
Myelodysplastic Syndrome (MDS) and Myeloproliferative Neoplasms (MPN) [2]. This category
includes the following disease entities: chronic myelomonocytic leukemia (CMML), atypical
chronic myeloid leukemia, BCR–ABL1 negative (aCML), juvenile myelomonocytic leukemia
(JMML), Myelodysplastic/myeloproliferative neoplasm with ring sideroblasts and thrombocytosis
(MDS/MPN–RS–T) and myelodysplastic/myeloproliferative neoplasm, unclassifiable (MDS/MPN,
U) (Table 1.). A provisional entity within the MDS/MPN, U group – refractory anemia ... Show
more content on Helpwriting.net ...
In MDS/MPN cases, either normal karyotype or MDS–related chromosome abnormalities have been
reported. A high percentage of MDS/MPN patients harbor identifiable mutations in genes
recurrently mutated across myeloid neoplasms when undergoing either targeted–panel mutation
analysis or whole–exome sequencing with next–generation sequencing technology but no disease
defining mutations have been reported [9]. Mutation analysis has emerged as an important ancillary
test to accompany a diagnosis of MDS/MPN; especially in the absence of cytogenetic chromosome
abnormalities because these may serve as a critical clonality marker confirming its neoplastic nature
essential for the diagnosis of a myeloid neoplasm. CMML, among the most well–documented in this
group, harbor mutations in genes that include SRSF2, TET2, and ASXL1 in up to 50% of cases,
respectively[9, 10]. Mutations in ASXL1 have also been reported as an independent prognostic
factor along with other clinicopathologic parameters in a multivariable model [10]. Mutation
analysis including these genes can greatly facilitate the diagnosis and prognostic stratification of
CMML [11]. However, a more conservative approach toward the mutation analysis results is
warranted in older individuals lacking definitive evidence of a myeloid neoplasm, since it is known
the presence of mutations in similar set of genes can be identified in such patients [12,

Papillomatosis: Radial Scars
Radial scars are benign pseudo infiltrative lesions of uncertain significance. They are characterized
by a fibro elastotic core with entrapped ducts, surrounded by radiating ducts and lobules displaying
variable epithelial hyperplasia, adenosis, duct ectasia, and papillomatosis. Some authors have
suggested using the term radial scar for lesions measuring was reserved for lesions measuring 1
cm or larger. (Guray and Sahin,2006) Radial scars may serve for the development of atypical
epithelial proliferations, including atypical intraductal hyperplasia, atypical lobular hyperplasia,
lobular carcinoma in situ, and DCIS . (Guray and Sahin,2006) Intraductal Papilloma and
Papillomatosis: Intraductal papilloma is a discrete benign tumor of the ... Show more content on
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Microscopically . Microcalcifications inside dilated acini have been described; numerous tiny,
punctuate, and irregular microcalcifications are prominent on mammography and ultrasonography .
(Guray and Sahin ,2006) Nipple Adenoma Nipple adenoma, also known as florid papillomatosis of
the nipple ducts or erosive adenomatosis, is a benign tumor of the ductal epithelium that often
clinically mimics Paget's disease and pathologically may be misinterpreted as an adenocarcinoma.
(Guray and Sahin,2006) Typically, nipple adenoma presents as a discrete, palpable tumor of the
papilla of the nipple. Erosion of the nipple and nipple discharge are usually seen. (Guray and Sahin
,2006) Hamartoma: A well–circumscribed, usually encapsulated nodule consisting of all breast
tissue components, often with an abnormal proportion (malformation). Grossly , a well demarcated,
sometimes lobulated mass, often rubbery greyish–white to yellow cut surface, resembling
fibroadenoma or lipoma. (Moinfar, 2007) Microscopically, the morphology varies depending on the
proportion of fibroadipose and glandular components within the lesion. The lesion often gives the
impression of breast within breast, there is a pseudocapsule of compressed breast tissue.

Candida Infection
Dr. Tullio Simoncini conducted research on Candida and cancer and found that 79 to 97 percent of
all cancer patients also have Candida infection. Now here's the rationale behind this whole
dubious idea: Dr. Simoncini's explanation how Candida is linked to cancer: 1.Candida roots itself in
your deep connective tissue in various organs. 2.As a result, this evokes an organic defensive
reaction as the connective tissue of your invaded organ attempts to encyst the fungin colonies
through cellular hyper–production, which results in the formation of tumors 3.Growths continue as
the fungi spreads, both in your surrounding tissue, and remotely (aka metastatis). It is still always
the same Candida attacking different tissues, but due to its ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net
...
There are several factors can cause the candida population to get out of control: Eating a diet high in
refined carbohydrates and sugar Consuming a lot of alcohol Taking oral contraceptives (birth
control) Eating a diet high in beneficial fermented foods like Kombucha, sauerkraut and pickles
(Even though this foods are healthy the bad bacteria feed of this kinds of foods.) Antibiotics (killed
all the bacteria both good and bad) Here are 10 common candida symptoms 1.Skin and nail fungal
infections (such as athlete's foot or toenail fungus) 2.Feeling tired and worn down or suffering from
chronic fatigue or fibromyalgia 3.Digestive issues such as bloating, constipation, or diarrhea
4.Autoimmune disease such as Hashimoto's thyroiditis, Rheumatoid arthritis, Ulcerative colitis,
Lupus, Psoriasis, Scleroderma or Multiple sclerosis 5.Difficulty concentrating, poor memory, lack of
focus, ADD, ADHD and brain fog 6.Skin issues such as eczema, psoriasis, hives, and rashes
7.Irritability, mood swings, anxiety, or depression 8.Vaginal infections, urinary tract infections,
rectal itching or vaginal itching 9.Severe seasonal allergies or itchy ears 10.Strong sugar and refined
carbohydrate

LAM Lung Disease
LAM lung disease, also known as lymphangioleiomyomatosis, is a rare degenerative disease. LAM
was first discovered in the early 1990's. Because the symptoms of LAM so closely relates to
symptoms such as asthma and emphysema, the disease took some time to develop medical opinion.
In 1994, a particular event took place to create an official organization to battle the new disease.
After LAM was officially diagnosed in Sue Byre's 22–year old daughter, she launched the LAM
Foundation in 1995 and dedicated her time and funds to researching the growing threat. LAM is
almost exclusively found in women, with only four reported cases found within men. There are
confirmed diagnoses of 2,000 women, with an estimate of as many as 300,000 women worldwide ...
A computed tomography has been shown to be the most effective in spotting this illness. LAM is
typically a slowly progressing disease, but victims can suffer spontaneous collapses or lung failure.
Inevitably, a final drastic measure will include a lung transplant, however that is only temporary.
There is no known cure for this disease. There are however methods to placate symptoms. Aside
from bilateral transplant, oxygen therapy can be used to further slow or abate the neoplastic
development. Experimental suggestions such as hormones have been implemented. Due to the
strong belief that estrogen plays a role in LAM development, there are hopes that hormone therapy
can aid the fight on the condition. So far with trials, there are no known supporting results from this
method. Women who have been diagnosed with this disease were given a timeframe of a typical 5–
10 years for survival rate. Although seemingly hopeless, some patients had been shown to extend
that duration to roughly 20 years. There just may be hope in this battle against this disease. Drug
trials are in effect and some promise may be showing from data thus

Solid Pseudopapillary Neoplasm
Solid pseudopapillary neoplasm (SPN) of the pancreas is a rare cystic tumor that is endocrine in
origin, therefore, typically found in the head and/or body of the pancreas. SPN constitutes about 1%
of all pancreatic neoplasms, but advancements in diagnostic imaging have led to an increase in
findings. Patients with SPN are usually asymptomatic and those with symptoms report generalized
abdominal discomfort. Lab values used to evaluate the pancreas are usually within normal limits.
Because these neoplasms are typically asymptomatic they grow undetected and masses in the head
will produce symptoms associated with obstruction and pancreatitis. A 14 year old female with no
known history of pancreatitis, alcoholism, diabetes, or biliary disease presented for an abdominal
sonogram. Her only symptom was generalized upper abdominal pain with no history of nausea,
vomiting, weight loss, or appetite changes. Ultrasound images showed a well circumscribed, round,
hypoechoic 14–mm lesion within the head of the pancreas and another lesion in the body. Color
Doppler analysis showed no internal or peripheral vascularity associated with the lesions. The main
pancreatic duct was dilated, measuring at 4 mm. The ultrasound examination was followed by an
MRI which demonstrated a 12 mm mass in the pancreatic body that correlated to the ... Show more
Characteristic findings include a well encapsulated mass with varying amounts of hemorrhage,
necrosis and cystic changes, which allow for differentiation from other pancreatic neoplasms. The
majority of SPNs are benign, but because of the chance of malignancy, the course of treatment is
surgical resection of the tumor along with pancreatectomy, splenectomy or pancreatico–
duodenectomy. Because sonography is becoming an initial imaging test to investigate vague
abdominal pain, sonographers should be aware of SPN as a differential diagnosis, especially in
young female

Glioma Fibroma Research Paper
Tumors are abnormal mass of tissue that is filled with fluid or is solid and are also called neoplasm.
Tumors has three different stages–benign, pre–malignant and malignant. Benign is a tumor that is
not cancerous, pre–malignant is a pre–cancerous tumor, and malignant is a cancerous tumor. Three
types of tumors I am going to discuss are glioma, lipoma, and fibroma. These three tumors are
classified as benign tumors.
Glioma is a tumor that occurs in the brain and different parts of the nervous system including the
spinal cord that comes from glial cells. Glial cells are brain cells that turns into tumors. There are
many types of gliomas and each type has different symptoms. Determining the type of glioma tumor
depends on the location of the

Dysphagia Case Study Essay
To the best of our knowledge, this is the first case of a HCC extending into gastroesophageal
junction presenting as dysphagia reported in English literature. Hepatocellular carcinoma is the most
common hepatic malignancy. Extrahepatic metastasis of liver cancers occurs through three routes
including hematogenous, lymphogenous, and direct invasion1–3. Direct serosal invasion by
contiguous neoplasm was the major mode of GI tract involvement with unusual clinical
presentations. The presumed mode of direct involvement of the GI tract is initiated by the adhesion
of the serosal side of the adjacent organ with a bulky, exophytic tumor. Direct invasion or extrinsic
compression of the GI tract by HCC is uncommon 4,5,6,. The most common site of invasion ...
The mode of metastasis was presumed to be haematogenous spread in 2 patients and direct invasion
in 5 patients (invasion to stomach in one and of the duodenum in four), but was undetermined in the
remaining one patient, in whom the stomach was involved 4..
Upper GI tract obstruction Tanaka et al. [8]reported that in 19 of the 29 patients, in whom HCC
involved directly the upper GI tract; initial endoscopic assessment revealed an ulcerative
hemorrhagic tumor protruding into the lumen of the stomach or duodenum [9], in most of these
cases were very advanced HCCs like in our case. There is no effective therapy for patients with
HCC diagnosed in the late stages of the disease. Surgically treated late stage patients usually die of
metastatic disease, while most medically treated patients died of GI or tumor bleed .10 The median
survival after the diagnosis of gastrointestinal involvement was 1 month (2 weeks–4 months). An
active surveillance program of the high risk or relative hepatitis B viral infection groups may aid in
earlier detection at a time when patients are better candidates for

Myeloproliferative Neoplasms
Introduction
With current developments in science, devices and processes have been created to discover and treat
new illnesses. One type of these newly discovered illnesses is Myeloproliferative Neoplasms. These
are a form of cancer that is caused by the overproduction of red blood cells. The incidence of MPNs
is estimated at 6–10 per 100 000 individuals (Geyer Orazi, 2016). According to the National
Institute of Cancer (2017),these individuals suffer from sharp and excruciating pains in their bones
and joints Nonetheless, there are ongoing studies that have been and are being done to find the
causes, long term effects, and treatments for the illness (National Cancer Institute (n.d.), 2017).
Causes and Treatment Options. Myeloproliferative Neoplasms are caused due to an increase in the
red blood cell production (a mutation in the JAK2 gene) ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Forms of MPNs, including polycythaemia vera can evolve into these forms of myelofibrosis (Tonkin
et al., 2012). But, with well–managed essential thrombocythaemia, the life expectancy of a patient is
increased to 20 years after their diagnosis (Tonkin et al., 2012). The primary myelofibrosis is
categorized by a proliferation of primarily granulocytic and megakaryocytic lineage cells with
reductions in erythroid precursors, which cause problems in the white blood cell functions and
normal clotting of blood (Geyer Orazi, 2016). According to Ye, Chen, Zheng, Zhu, Fu, and Huang
(2017), with one cycle of decitabine (a myelodysplastic treatment drug) the blasts in a patient's bone
marrow decreased to 0.5%. After ten cycles, the mutation in the JAK2 decreases from 60.63%
(average patient) to 0.01% (Ye et al.,

The Importance Of Genetic Advancements In Oncology
WEfforts over the past decade to characterize the genetic alterations in human cancers have led to a
better understanding of molecular drivers of this complex set of diseases. Although we in the cancer
field hoped that this would lead to more effective drugs, historically, our ability to translate cancer
research to clinical success has been remarkably low1. Sadly, clinical trials in oncology have the
highest failure rate compared with other therapeutic areas. Given the high unmet need in oncology,
it is understandable that barriers to clinical development may be lower than for other disease areas,
and a larger number of drugs with suboptimal preclinical validation will enter oncology trials.
However, this low success rate is not ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Thus, it takes many years before the clinical applicability of initial preclinical observations is
known. The results of preclinical studies must therefore be very robust to withstand the rigours and
challenges of clinical trials, stemming from the heterogeneity of both tumours and patients.
Confirming research findings
The scientific community assumes that the claims in a preclinical study can be taken at face value –
that although there might be some errors in detail, the main message of the paper can be relied on
and the data will, for the most part, stand the test of time. Unfortunately, this is not always the case.
Although the issue of irreproducible data has been discussed between scientists for decades, it has
recently received greater attention (see go.nature.com/q7i2up) as the costs of drug development
have increased along with the number of late–stage clinical–trial failures and the demand for more
effective therapies.
Over the past decade, before pursuing a particular line of research, scientists (including C.G.B.) in
the haematology and oncology department at the biotechnology firm Amgen in Thousand Oaks,
California, tried to confirm published findings related to that work. Fifty–three papers were deemed
'landmark' studies (see 'Reproducibility of research findings'). It was acknowledged from the outset
that some of the data might not hold up, because papers were deliberately selected that described
something completely new, such as fresh

Neoplasm Research Paper
A malignant neoplasm is the medical terminology for Cancer, there are many types of cancers,
however, they all are comprised of unregulated cells that show growth or a change. These cells that
are cancerous, grow at a hasty rate and will take over other parts of the body, whether being another
organ or tissue surrounding the compromised body part. This can also involve the lymph nodes, as
well as travel through the bloodstream. There are many influences that contribute to the chance of
developing cancers, some of these factors include tobacco use, being overweight and not physically
active, exposures to chemicals, and poor nutrition and dietary selections, ones with mutagens in
foods, continued or excessive consumption of alcohol, eating foods which are high in fats, and red
meat just to name of few. Other types of cancer may be factored by family history, known as a
genetic risk, as well as certain viruses that ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
A neoplasm that can spread to many parts throughout the body, and can lead to death.
1. Carcinomas are the most common cancer, these develop first in the epithelial tissue of the skin, or
nearby tissue that surrounds internal organs. Carcinoma in Situ is the beginning, invasive is when it
has started to grow and possibly spread to nearby tissue or organs, and metastic is when it has
travelled to more distal sites from the original site of origin. This form of cancer will usually spread
through the lymphatic system.
2. Sarcomas are cancers that are in the connective tissue of the body. There are two main groups for
this classification of cancer and those are osteosarcoma and soft tissue sarcomas.
3. Another classification of cancer that is one of the most common is Leukemia. Leukemia is cancer
of blood forming tissue. When this type of cancer develops it will affect the immune system by
minimizing its ability to fight infection.
Grading: Highlight this area and type your information

Malignant Lymphoma Research Paper
Malignant lymphoma (lymphosarcoma) is a group of neoplasms that originate from lymphoreticular
cells. Lymphoma is the most common hematopoietic tumor that occurs in dogs. It can be found in
various sites throughout the body but is significantly more commonly located among the lymphoid
tissues, including lymph nodes, spleen, and bone marrow. Lymphomas are most commonly found in
middle aged and older dogs. Multicentric lymphoma, which is the most common kind of lymphoma
that makes up 84 percent of lymphomas found in dogs, presents itself with a vast array of
symptoms. The primary symptom of multicentric lymphoma is enlarged peripheral lymph nodes, the
mandibular and prescapular lymph nodes in particular. Other symptoms include but are not limited
to, lethargy, anorexia, weight loss, emaciation, fever, vomiting, diarrhea, polyuria, dyspnea,
polydipsia and ascites. There are 5 stages of lymphoma in domestic animals, which are further
classified into having systemic signs and not showing any systemic signs. Stage I is when the tumor
is limited to a single node or ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
However, there are a few speculations. Certain Environmental factors may increase the risk of a dog
developing lymphoma. One study found that dogs whose owners use 2, 4–Dichlorophenoxyacetic
acid based herbicides on their lawn are twice as likely to develop malignant lymphoma, particularly
when these herbicides are applied four or more times a year. Another study found an increased risk
of lymphoma among dogs exposed to strong magnetic fields, although the association was very
weak. Another finding related to causation indicates that dogs with impaired immune systems may
be more likely to develop lymphomas. In addition, another report stated that there was an
association with dogs with atopic dermatitis being more likely to develop T–Cell lymphoma.
However, it is unknown if this is due to the disease or the treatments

PEB Chemotherapy: A Case Study
The average tumor size on imaging was 10.2x10.4 cm and ranged from 5x6cm to 16x13cm. Older
children had comparatively larger tumor sizes. In malignant GCTs, no significant reduction in the
average tumor size was noticed post neoadjuvant chemotherapy. On gross examination the tumors
were heterogenous, lobulated with cystic and solid areas and occasional calcification. Histology
revealed 9 (75%) as mature teratomas and 3 (25%) as immature teratomas. The immature teratomas
presented with raised αFP but responded well to PEB chemotherapy. This must have been due to the
presence of foci of endodermal sinus tumor in these patients.
Follow up and Outcomes
All except one patient had a complete excision of tumor. There were no major surgical
complications. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The 3 patients with malignant GCT completed 4 courses of PEB chemotherapy. None of the patients
had tumor recurrence. All the patients were alive during the last follow up. One patient who had
residual disease was relieved of respiratory symptoms post surgery ans is under close follow up.
Table 1 summarizes the management and outcomes of these patients with giant mediastinal GCTs.
S.N0. AGE (months)/
SEX LOCATION αFP (ng/ml) NEO–ADJUVANT CHEMO (courses) PRIMARY RESECTION
TUMOR SIZE (cmxcm) SURGICAL APPROACH ADJUVANT CHEMO (courses) PATHOLOGY
FOLLOW UP (months) OUTCOME
1 10/F Anterior mediastinum 15.26 No Yes 6x5 Right Thoracotomy No Mature teratoma 60 Alive
2 7/M Anterior Mediastinum 46.8 No Yes 8x6 Left Thoracotomy No Mature teratoma 48 Alive
3 12/M Anterior mediastinum + Pericardium 8.6 No Yes 6x9.5 Left Thoracotomy No Mature
teratoma 48 Alive
4 12/M Anterior mediastinum 21.7 No Yes 7x8 Left Thoracotomy No Mature teratoma 67 Alive
5 121/M Anterior mediastinum 1.27 No Yes 12x9 Median sternotomy No Mature Teratoma 48 Alive
6 96/M Posterior mediastinum +retroperitoneum 28 No Yes 16x13x7 7x6x8 Left thoracotomy +
laparotomy No Mature teratoma 67

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