This document provides information about the fourth edition of the textbook "Exploring Lifespan Development" by Laura E. Berk. It includes details about the author, contents of the book, references, and copyright information. The book covers theories and research in human development from conception through death, including biological and environmental foundations, prenatal development through infancy and toddlerhood.

1. Exploring Lifespan
Development
F O U R T H E D I T I O N
Laura E. Berk
Illinois State University
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2. IN
Text Font: Times
Cover Art: Harold Gregor, “Bright, Autumn Bright,” 2012
Cover Photo and About the Author Photo: Courtesy of Ken
Kashian
Copyright © 2018 by Laura E. Berk. Copyrights © 2014, 2011,
2008 by Pearson Education, Inc.
All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America.
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Berk, Laura E., author.
Title: Exploring lifespan development / Laura E. Berk, Illinois
State
University.
Description: Fourth Edition. | Boston : Pearson, [2018] |
Revised edition of
the author’s Exploring lifespan development, 2014. | Includes
bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2017013903| ISBN 9780134419701 | ISBN
0134419707 |
ISBN 9780134420714 | ISBN 0134420675 | ISBN
9780134420677
Subjects: LCSH: Developmental psychology--Textbooks.
Classification: LCC BF713 .B466 2017 | DDC 155--dc23

3. LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2017013903
Dedication
To David, Peter, and Melissa, with love
Student Edition
ISBN 10: 0-13-441970-7
ISBN 13: 978-0-13-441970-1
Instructor’s Review Edition
ISBN 10: 0-13-442071-3
ISBN 13: 978-0-13-442071-4
À la Carte Edition
ISBN 10: 0-13-442067-5
ISBN 13: 978-0-13-442067-7
https://lccn.loc.gov/2017013903
Laura E. Berk is a distinguished professor of psychol -
ogy at Illinois State University, where she has taught child,
adolescent, and lifespan development for more than three
decades. She received her bachelor’s degree in psychology
from the University of California, Berkeley, and her mas-
ter’s and doctoral degrees in child development and educa-
tional psychology from the University of Chicago. She has been
a visiting scholar at Cornell
University, UCLA, Stanford University, and the University of
South Australia.
Berk has published widely on the effects of school
environments on children’s devel-
opment, the development of private speech, and the role of
make-believe play in develop-

4. ment. Her empirical studies have attracted the attention of the
general public, leading
to contributions to Psychology Today and Scientific American.
She has also been featured
on National Public Radio’s Morning Edition and in Parents
Magazine, Wondertime, and
Reader’s Digest.
Berk has served as a research editor of Young Children, a
consulting editor for Early
Childhood Research Quarterly, and as an associate editor of the
Journal of Cognitive
Education and Psychology. She is a frequent contributor to
edited volumes, having written
the article on social development for The Child: An
Encyclopedic Companion and the
article on Vygotsky for The Encyclopedia of Cognitive Science.
She is coauthor of the chap-
ter on make-believe play and self-regulation in the Sage
Handbook of Play in Early Child-
hood and the chapter on psychologists writing textbooks in
Career Paths in Psychology:
Where Your Degree Can Take You, published by the American
Psychological Association.
Berk’s books include Private Speech: From Social Interaction to
Self-Regulation;
Scaffolding Children’s Learning: Vygotsky and Early Childhood
Education; Landscapes
of Development: An Anthology of Readings; and A Mandate for
Playful Learning in Pre-
school: Presenting the Evidence. In addition to Exploring
Lifespan Development, she is
author of the best-selling texts Development Through the
Lifespan, Child Development, and
Infants, Children, and Adolescents, published by Pearson. Her

5. book for parents and teachers
is Awakening Children’s Minds: How Parents and Teachers Can
Make a Difference.
Berk is active in work for children’s causes. She serves on the
governing boards of
the Illinois Network of Child Care Resource and Referral
Agencies and of Artolution, an
organization devoted to engaging children, youths, and families
in collaborative public art
projects around the world as a means of promoting resilience
and relief from trauma. Berk
has been designated a YWCA Woman of Distinction for service
in education. She is a fel-
low of the American Psychological Association, Division 7:
Developmental Psychology.
About
the Author
iv
S O C I A L I S S U E S : H E A L T H
The Pros and Cons of Reproductive Technologies 42
The Nurse–Family Partnership: Reducing Maternal Stress and
Enhancing Child Development Through Social Support 73
A Cross-National Perspective on Health Care and Other Policies
for
Parents and Newborn Babies 82
Does Child Care in Infancy Threaten Attachment Security and
Later

6. Adjustment? 161
Lesbian, Gay, and Bisexual Youths: Coming Out to Oneself and
Others 310
Childhood Attachment Patterns and Adult Romantic
Relationships 390
Partner Abuse 397
The Silver Lining in Life’s Adversities 425
Grandparents Rearing Grandchildren: The Skipped-Generation
Family 447
Interventions for Caregivers of Older Adults with Dementia 477
Elder Suicide 497
S O C I A L I S S U E S : E D U C AT I O N
Baby Learning from TV and Video: The Video Deficit Effect
126
Magnet Schools: Equal Access to High-Quality Education 262
Media Multitasking Disrupts Learning 323
How Important Is Academic Engagement in College for
Successful
Transition to the Labor Market? 374
B I O L O G Y A N D E N V I R O N M E N T
Resilience 8
The Tutsi Genocide and Epigenetic Transmission of Maternal
Stress
to Children 57
The Mysterious Tragedy of Sudden Infant Death Syndrome 85
“Tuning In” to Familiar Speech, Faces, and Music: A Sensitive

7. Period
for Culture-Specific Learning 111
Infantile Amnesia 130
Parental Depression and Child Development 149
Development of Shyness and Sociability 153
Autism and Theory of Mind 193
Transgender Children 224
Children with Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder 246
Bullies and Their Victims 280
Two Routes to Adolescent Delinquency 349
Telomere Length: A Marker of the Impact of Life
Circumstances on
Biological Aging 357
Anti-Aging Effects of Dietary Calorie Restriction 416
What Factors Promote Psychological Well-Being in Midlife?
441
What Can We Learn About Aging from Centenarians? 462
Experience Corps: Promoting Retired Adults’ Physical and
Mental
Health and Children’s Academic Success 514
Music as Palliative Care for Dying Patients 530
C U L T U R A L I N F L U E N C E S
The Baby Boomers Reshape the Life Course 10
Immigrant Youths: Adapting to a New Land 26
Cultural Variation in Infant Sleeping Arrangements 99
Social Origins of Make-Believe Play 134
Why Are Children from Asian Cultures Advanced in Drawing
Skills? 179
Children in Village and Tribal Cultures Observe and Participate
in

8. Adult Work 188
Ethnic Differences in the Consequences of Physical Punishment
215
The Flynn Effect: Massive Generational Gains in IQ 254
Impact of Ethnic and Political Violence on Children 289
Identity Development Among Ethnic Minority Adolescents 333
Is Emerging Adulthood Really a Distinct Stage of
Development? 385
Cultural Variations in Mourning Behavior 539
A P P LY I N G W H AT W E K N O W
Do’s and Don’ts for a Healthy Pregnancy 74
Reasons to Breastfeed 101
Signs of Developmentally Appropriate Infant and Toddler Child
Care 137
Helping Toddlers Develop Compliance and Self-Control 165
Signs of Developmentally Appropriate Early Childhood
Programs 198
Positive Parenting 217
Signs of High-Quality Education in Elementary School 259
Helping Children Adjust to Their Parents’ Divorce 286
Handling Consequences of Teenagers’ New Cognitive
Capacities 319
Supporting Healthy Identity Development 334
Preventing Sexual Coercion 369
Resources That Foster Resilience in Emerging Adulthood 384
Strategies That Help Dual-Earner Couples Combine Work and
Family
Roles 407
Managing Stress 422

9. Relieving the Stress of Caring for an Aging Parent 450
Increasing the Effectiveness of Educational Experiences for
Older
Adults 486
Fostering Adaptation to Widowhood in Late Adulthood 507
Suggestions for Resolving Grief After a Loved One Dies 538
Features at a Glance
Contents
A Personal Note to Students xiii
Preface for Instructors xiv
P A R T I
THEORY AND RESEARCH IN
HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
c h a p t e r 1
History, Theory, and Research
Strategies 1
A Scientific, Applied, and Interdisciplinary Field 3
Basic Issues 3
Continuous or Discontinuous Development? 4
One Course of Development or Many? 4
Relative Influence of Nature and Nurture? 5
The Lifespan Perspective: A Balanced Point of View 5
Development Is Lifelong 5
Development Is Multidimensional and Multidirectional 6

10. Development Is Plastic 6
Development Is Influenced by Multiple, Interacting Forces 7
■ BIOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENT Resilience 8
Scientific Beginnings 9
Darwin: Forefather of Scientific Child Study 9
■ CULTURAL INFLUENCES The Baby Boomers Reshape the
Life
Course 10
The Normative Period 11
The Mental Testing Movement 11
Mid-Twentieth-Century Theories 11
The Psychoanalytic Perspective 11
Behaviorism and Social Learning Theory 13
Piaget’s Cognitive-Developmental Theory 14
Recent Theoretical Perspectives 16
Information Processing 16
Developmental Neuroscience 17
Ethology and Evolutionary Developmental Psychology 17
Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory 18
Ecological Systems Theory 19
Comparing Theories 21
Studying Development 21
Common Research Methods 21
General Research Designs 25
■ CULTURAL INFLUENCES Immigrant Youths: Adapting to a
New
Land 26

11. Designs for Studying Development 28
Ethics in Lifespan Research 31
Summary 32
Important Terms and Concepts 34
P A R T I I
FOUNDATIONS OF DEVELOPMENT
c h a p t e r 2
Genetic and Environmental
Foundations 35
Genetic Foundations 36
The Genetic Code 36
The Sex Cells 37
Boy or Girl? 37
Multiple Offspring 37
Patterns of Gene–Gene Interactions 38
Chromosomal Abnormalities 40
Reproductive Choices 41
Genetic Counseling and Prenatal Diagnosis 41
■ SOCIAL ISSUES: HEALTH The Pros and Cons of
Reproductive
Technologies 42
Adoption 44
Environmental Contexts for Development 45
The Family 45

12. Socioeconomic Status and Family Functioning 47
Poverty 47
Affluence 48
Beyond the Family: Neighborhoods and Schools 48
The Cultural Context 50
Understanding the Relationship Between Heredity and
Environment 53
The Question, “How Much?” 53
The Question, “How?” 54
■ BIOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENT The Tutsi Genocide and
Epigenetic
Transmission of Maternal Stress to Children 57
Summary 58
Important Terms and Concepts 59
c h a p t e r 3
Prenatal Development, Birth,
and the Newborn Baby 60
Prenatal Development 61
Conception 61
Germinal Period 62
Period of the Embryo 63
Period of the Fetus 64
Prenatal Environmental Influences 66
Teratogens 66
Other Maternal Factors 71
■ SOCIAL ISSUES: HEALTH The Nurse–Family Partnership:
Reducing Maternal Stress and Enhancing Child Development
Through

13. Social Support 73
The Importance of Prenatal Health Care 73
v
vi Contents
Childbirth 75
The Stages of Childbirth 75
The Baby’s Adaptation to Labor and Delivery 76
Assessing the Newborn’s Physical Condition: The Apgar Scale
76
Approaches to Childbirth 77
Natural, or Prepared, Childbirth 77
Home Delivery 77
Medical Interventions 78
Fetal Monitoring 78
Labor and Delivery Medication 78
Cesarean Delivery 79
Preterm and Low-Birth-Weight Infants 79
Preterm versus Small-for-Date Infants 79
Consequences for Caregiving 79
Interventions for Preterm Infants 80
The Newborn Baby’s Capacities 81
Reflexes 81
■ SOCIAL ISSUES: HEALTH A Cross-National Perspective on
Health
Care and Other Policies for Parents and Newborn Babies 82

14. States of Arousal 83
■ BIOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENT The Mysterious Tragedy of
Sudden Infant Death Syndrome 85
Sensory Capacities 86
Adjusting to the New Family Unit 88
Summary 89
Important Terms and Concepts 90
P A R T I I I
INFANCY AND TODDLERHOOD:
THE FIRST TWO YEARS
c h a p t e r 4
Physical Development in Infancy
and Toddlerhood 91
Body Growth 92
Changes in Body Size and Muscle–Fat Makeup 92
Changes in Body Proportions 92
Individual and Group Differences 92
Brain Development 93
Development of Neurons 94
Measures of Brain Functioning 94
Development of the Cerebral Cortex 96
Sensitive Periods in Brain Development 97
Changing States of Arousal 98
■ CULTURAL INFLUENCES Cultural Variation in Infant

15. Sleeping
Arrangements 99
Influences on Early Physical Growth 100
Heredity 100
Nutrition 100
Malnutrition 102
Learning Capacities 103
Classical Conditioning 103
Operant Conditioning 103
Habituation 104
Imitation 104
Motor Development 106
The Sequence of Motor Development 106
Motor Skills as Dynamic Systems 106
Fine-Motor Development: Reaching and Grasping 108
Perceptual Development 109
Hearing 109
Vision 110
■ BIOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENT “Tuning In” to Familiar
Speech, Faces, and Music: A Sensitive Period for Culture-
Specific
Learning 111
Intermodal Perception 114
Understanding Perceptual Development 115
Summary 116
Important Terms and Concepts 117
c h a p t e r 5

16. Cognitive Development in Infancy
and Toddlerhood 118
Piaget’s Cognitive-Developmental Theory 119
Piaget’s Ideas About Cognitive Change 119
The Sensorimotor Stage 120
Follow-Up Research on Infant Cognitive Development 122
Evaluation of the Sensorimotor Stage 125
■ SOCIAL ISSUES: EDUCATION Baby Learning from TV and
Video:
The Video Deficit Effect 126
Information Processing 127
A General Model of Information Processing 127
Attention 129
Memory 129
Categorization 130
■ BIOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENT Infantile Amnesia 130
Evaluation of Information-Processing Findings 132
The Social Context of Early Cognitive Development 132
Individual Differences in Early Mental Development 133
Infant and Toddler Intelligence Tests 134
■ CULTURAL INFLUENCES Social Origins of Make-Believe
Play 134
Early Environment and Mental Development 135
Early Intervention for At-Risk Infants and Toddlers 138
Language Development 139
Theories of Language Development 139

17. Getting Ready to Talk 140
First Words 141
The Two-Word Utterance Phase 141
Individual Differences 141
Supporting Early Language Development 142
Summary 143
Important Terms and Concepts 144
Contents vii
c h a p t e r 6
Emotional and Social Development
in Infancy and Toddlerhood 145
Erikson’s Theory of Infant and Toddler Personality 146
Basic Trust versus Mistrust 146
Autonomy versus Shame and Doubt 146
Emotional Development 147
Basic Emotions 147
Understanding and Responding to the Emotions of Others 148
■ BIOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENT Parental Depression and
Child
Development 149
Emergence of Self-Conscious Emotions 150
Beginnings of Emotional Self-Regulation 150
Temperament and Development 151
The Structure of Temperament 151
Measuring Temperament 152

18. Stability of Temperament 152
■ BIOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENT Development of Shyness
and
Sociability 153
Genetic and Environmental Influences 154
Temperament and Child Rearing: The Goodness-of-Fit Model
155
Development of Attachment 155
Bowlby’s Ethological Theory 156
Measuring the Security of Attachment 157
Stability of Attachment 158
Cultural Variations 158
Factors That Affect Attachment Security 158
Multiple Attachments 160
■ SOCIAL ISSUES: HEALTH Does Child Care in Infancy
Threaten
Attachment Security and Later Adjustment? 161
Attachment and Later Development 162
Self-Development 163
Self-Awareness 163
Categorizing the Self 164
Self-Control 164
Summary 166
Important Terms and Concepts 167
M I L E S T O N E S Development in Infancy and
Toddlerhood 168
P A R T I V

19. EARLY CHILDHOOD:
TWO TO SIX YEARS
c h a p t e r 7
Physical and Cognitive Development
in Early Childhood 170
PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT 171
A Changing Body and Brain 171
Skeletal Growth 171
Brain Development 171
Influences on Physical Growth and Health 174
Heredity and Hormones 174
Nutrition 174
Infectious Disease 175
Childhood Injuries 176
Motor Development 177
Gross-Motor Development 177
Fine-Motor Development 177
Individual Differences in Motor Skills 178
■ CULTURAL INFLUENCES Why Are Children from Asian
Cultures
Advanced in Drawing Skills? 179
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT 180
Piaget’s Theory: The Preoperational Stage 180
Advances in Mental Representation 180
Make-Believe Play 180
Symbol–Real-World Relations 181
Limitations of Preoperational Thought 182

20. Follow-Up Research on Preoperational Thought 183
Evaluation of the Preoperational Stage 185
Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory 186
Private Speech 186
Social Origins of Early Childhood Cognition 187
Vygotsky’s View of Make Believe Play 187
Evaluation of Vygotsky’s Theory 187
■ CULTURAL INFLUENCES Children in Village and Tribal
Cultures
Observe and Participate in Adult Work 188
Information Processing 189
Executive Function 189
Memory 190
The Young Child’s Theory of Mind 192
■ BIOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENT Autism and Theory of
Mind 193
Early Childhood Literacy 194
Early Childhood Mathematical Reasoning 194
Individual Differences in Mental Development 195
Home Environment and Mental Development 195
Preschool, Kindergarten, and Child Care 196
Educational Media 197
Language Development 199
Vocabulary 199
Grammar 200
Conversation 201
Supporting Language Development in Early Childhood 201
Summary 202

21. Important Terms and Concepts 204
c h a p t e r 8
Emotional and Social Development
in Early Childhood 205
Erikson’s Theory: Initiative versus Guilt 206
Self-Understanding 207
Foundations of Self-Concept 207
Emergence of Self-Esteem 207
viii Contents
Emotional Development 208
Understanding Emotion 208
Emotional Self-Regulation 208
Self-Conscious Emotions 209
Empathy and Sympathy 209
Peer Relations 210
Advances in Peer Sociability 210
First Friendships 211
Peer Relations and School Readiness 212
Parental Influences on Early Peer Relations 212
Foundations of Morality and Aggression 213
The Psychoanalytic Perspective 213
Social Learning Theory 214
■ CULTURAL INFLUENCES Ethnic Differences in the
Consequences
of Physical Punishment 215

22. The Cognitive-Developmental Perspective 216
The Other Side of Morality: Development of Aggression 217
Gender Typing 220
Gender-Stereotyped Beliefs and Behavior 220
Biological Influences on Gender Typing 221
Environmental Influences on Gender Typing 221
Gender Identity 222
Reducing Gender Stereotyping in Young Children 223
■ BIOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENT Transgender Children 224
Child Rearing and Emotional and Social Development 225
Styles of Child Rearing 225
What Makes Authoritative Child Rearing Effective? 226
Cultural Variations 227
Child Maltreatment 227
Summary 230
Important Terms and Concepts 231
M I L E S T O N E S Development in Early Childhood 232
P A R T V
MIDDLE CHILDHOOD:
SIX TO ELEVEN YEARS
c h a p t e r 9
Physical and Cognitive Development
in Middle Childhood 234
PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT 235
Body Growth 235

23. Health Issues 235
Nutrition 236
Overweight and Obesity 236
Illnesses 238
Motor Development and Play 239
Gross-Motor Development 239
Fine-Motor Development 239
Sex Differences 239
Games with Rules 240
Shadows of Our Evolutionary Past 241
Physical Education 241
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT 242
Piaget’s Theory: The Concrete Operational Stage 242
Concrete Operational Thought 242
Limitations of Concrete Operational Thought 243
Follow-Up Research on Concrete Operational Thought 243
Information Processing 245
Executive Function 245
■ BIOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENT Children with Attention-
Deficit
Hyperactivity Disorder 246
Memory Strategies 247
Knowledge and Memory 248
Culture and Memory Strategies 248
The School-Age Child’s Theory of Mind 248
Cognitive Self-Regulation 249
Applications of Information Processing to Academic Learning
249

24. Individual Differences in Mental Development 250
Defining and Measuring Intelligence 250
Other Efforts to Define Intelligence 251
Explaining Individual and Group Differences in IQ 53
■ CULTURAL INFLUENCES The Flynn Effect: Massive
Generational
Gains in IQ 254
Language Development 256
Vocabulary and Grammar 257
Pragmatics 257
Learning Two Languages 258
Learning in School 259
Educational Philosophies 259
Teacher–Student Interaction and Grouping Practices 260
Teaching Children with Special Needs 261
■ SOCIAL ISSUES: EDUCATION Magnet Schools: Equal
Access to
High-Quality Education 262
How Well Educated Are U.S. Children? 263
Summary 265
Important Terms and Concepts 267
c h a p t e r 1 0
Emotional and Social Development
in Middle Childhood 268
Erikson’s Theory: Industry versus Inferiority 269
Self-Understanding 269

25. Self-Concept 269
Self-Esteem 270
Influences on Self-Esteem 270
Emotional Development 273
Self-Conscious Emotions 273
Emotional Understanding 274
Emotional Self-Regulation 274
Moral Development 274
Moral and Social-Conventional Understanding 275
Understanding Individual Rights 275
Understanding Diversity and Inequality 276
Contents ix
Peer Relations 277
Peer Groups 277
Friendships 278
Peer Acceptance 279
■ BIOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENT Bullies and Their Victims
280
Gender Typing 281
Gender-Stereotyped Beliefs 281
Gender Identity and Behavior 281
Family Influences 282
Parent–Child Relationships 283
Siblings 283
Only Children 283
Divorce 284
Blended Families 286

26. Maternal Employment and Dual-Earner Families 287
Some Common Problems of Development 288
Fears and Anxieties 288
■ CULTURAL INFLUENCES Impact of Ethnic and Political
Violence
on Children 289
Child Sexual Abuse 290
Fostering Resilience in Middle Childhood 290
Summary 291
Important Terms and Concepts 293
M I L E S T O N E S Development in Middle Childhood 294
P A R T V I
ADOLESCENCE:
THE TRANSITION TO ADULTHOOD
c h a p t e r 1 1
Physical and Cognitive Development
in Adolescence 296
PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT 297
Conceptions of Adolescence 297
Puberty: The Physical Transition to Adulthood 298
Hormonal Changes 298
Body Growth 298
Motor Development and Physical Activity 299
Sexual Maturation 300
Individual Differences in Pubertal Growth 300

27. Brain Development 302
The Psychological Impact of Pubertal Events 303
Reactions to Pubertal Changes 303
Pubertal Change, Emotion, and Social Behavior 304
Pubertal Timing 304
Health Issues 306
Nutritional Needs 306
Eating Disorders 306
Sexuality 307
■ SOCIAL ISSUES: HEALTH Lesbian, Gay, and Bisexual
Youths:
Coming Out to Oneself and Others 310
Sexually Transmitted Infections 311
Adolescent Pregnancy and Parenthood 311
Substance Use and Abuse 313
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT 314
Piaget’s Theory: The Formal Operational Stage 315
Hypothetico-Deductive Reasoning 315
Propositional Thought 315
Follow-Up Research on Formal Operational Thought 316
An Information-Processing View of Adolescent Cognitive
Development 317
Scientific Reasoning: Coordinating Theory with Evidence 317
How Scientific Reasoning Develops 318
Consequences of Adolescent Cognitive Changes 318
Self-Consciousness and Self-Focusing 318
Idealism and Criticism 319

28. Decision Making 319
Learning in School 320
School Transitions 320
Academic Achievement 321
■ SOCIAL ISSUES: EDUCATION Media Multitasking Disrupts
Learning 323
Dropping Out 324
Summary 325
Important Terms and Concepts 327
c h a p t e r 1 2
Emotional and Social Development
in Adolescence 328
Erikson’s Theory: Identity versus Role Confusion 329
Self-Understanding 330
Changes in Self-Concept 330
Changes in Self-Esteem 330
Paths to Identity 331
Identity Status and Psychological Well-Being 331
Influences on Identity Development 332
■ CULTURAL INFLUENCES Identity Development Among
Ethnic
Minority Adolescents 333
Moral Development 334
Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development 334
Are There Sex Differences in Moral Reasoning? 336
Coordinating Moral, Social-Conventional, and Personal

29. Concerns 336
Influences on Moral Reasoning 337
Moral Reasoning and Behavior 338
Religious Involvement and Moral Development 338
Further Challenges to Kohlberg’s Theory 339
The Family 340
Parent–Adolescent Relationships 340
Family Circumstances 341
Siblings 341
Peer Relations 342
Friendships 342
Cliques and Crowds 344
Dating 345
x Contents
Problems of Development 346
Depression 346
Suicide 347
Delinquency 348
■ BIOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENT Two Routes to Adolescent
Delinquency 349
Summary 350
Important Terms and Concepts 351
M I L E S T O N E S Development in Adolescence 352
P A R T V I I

30. EARLY ADULTHOOD
c h a p t e r 1 3
Physical and Cognitive Development
in Early Adulthood 354
PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT 355
Biological Aging Is Under Way in Early Adulthood 355
Aging at the Level of DNA and Body Cells 355
Aging at the Level of Tissues and Organs 356
■ BIOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENT Telomere Length: A
Marker of the
Impact of Life Circumstances on Biological Aging 357
Physical Changes 358
Cardiovascular and Respiratory Systems 358
Motor Performance 358
Immune System 360
Reproductive Capacity 360
Health and Fitness 361
Nutrition 362
Exercise 363
Substance Abuse 364
Sexuality 365
Psychological Stress 369
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT 370
Changes in the Structure of Thought 370
Epistemic Cognition 370
Pragmatic Thought and Cognitive-Affective Complexity 371
Expertise and Creativity 372

31. The College Experience 373
Psychological Impact of Attending College 373
Dropping Out 374
■ SOCIAL ISSUES: EDUCATION How Important Is Academic
Engagement in College for Successful Transition to the Labor
Market? 374
Vocational Choice 375
Selecting a Vocation 375
Factors Influencing Vocational Choice 375
Vocational Preparation of Non-College-Bound Young Adults
377
Summary 378
Important Terms and Concepts 379
c h a p t e r 1 4
Emotional and Social Development
in Early Adulthood 380
A Gradual Transition: Emerging Adulthood 381
Unprecedented Exploration 381
Cultural Change, Cultural Variation, and Emerging Adulthood
383
Risk and Resilience in Emerging Adulthood 384
■ CULTURAL INFLUENCES Is Emerging Adulthood Really a
Distinct Stage of Development? 385
Erikson’s Theory: Intimacy versus Isolation 386
Other Theories of Adult Psychosocial Development 387
Levinson’s Seasons of Life 387

32. Vaillant’s Adaptation to Life 387
The Social Clock 388
Close Relationships 388
Romantic Love 389
■ SOCIAL ISSUES: HEALTH Childhood Attachment Patterns
and Adult Romantic Relationships 390
Friendships 391
The Family Life Cycle 393
Leaving Home 393
Joining of Families in Marriage 394
Parenthood 396
■ SOCIAL ISSUES: HEALTH Partner Abuse 397
The Diversity of Adult Lifestyles 400
Singlehood 400
Cohabitation 401
Childlessness 402
Divorce and Remarriage 402
Varied Styles of Parenthood 403
Career Development 405
Establishing a Career 405
Women and Ethnic Minorities 405
Combining Work and Family 406
Summary 408
Important Terms and Concepts 409
M I L E S T O N E S Development in Early Adulthood 4 1 0

33. P A R T V I I I
MIDDLE ADULTHOOD
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Physical and Cognitive Development
in Middle Adulthood 412
PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT 413
Physical Changes 413
Vision 414
Hearing 414
Contents xi
Skin 415
Muscle–Fat Makeup 415
Skeleton 415
Reproductive System 415
■ BIOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENT Anti-Aging Effects of
Dietary
Calorie Restriction 416
Health and Fitness 418
Sexuality 419
Illness and Disability 419
Hostility and Anger 421
Adapting to the Physical Challenges of Midlife 422
Stress Management 422
Exercise 423
Hardiness 424

34. Gender and Aging: A Double Standard 424
■ SOCIAL ISSUES: HEALTH The Silver Lining in Life’s
Adversities 425
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT 424
Changes in Mental Abilities 425
Cohort Effects 426
Crystallized and Fluid Intelligence 426
Information Processing 427
Speed of Processing 427
Executive Function 428
Memory Strategies 429
Practical Problem Solving and Expertise 430
Creativity 430
Adult Learners: Becoming a Student in Midlife 431
Characteristics of Returning Students 431
Supporting Returning Students 431
Summary 432
Important Terms and Concepts 433
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Emotional and Social Development
in Middle Adulthood 434
Erikson’s Theory: Generativity versus Stagnation 435
Other …