During the 1400s and 1500s, European explorers set sail on voyages of discovery inspired by desires for wealth, trade routes, glory and spreading religion. Advances in navigation technologies like the compass and shipbuilding allowed the Portuguese and Spanish to establish the first colonies in the Americas, conquering native empires like the Aztecs and Incas through alliances, technology and disease. Other European powers soon joined the exploration and colonization efforts.

1. During the 1400s and 1500s European explorers—inspired by greed, curiosity, and the desire for glory, and aided by new technologies—sailed to many previously unknown lands.

2. Renaissance spirit of discovery and innovation in Europe Spirit led Europeans to set sail on voyages of discovery Period is sometimes called the Age of Exploration Foundations of Exploration Search for wealth Europeans desired expensive luxury goods Flow of goods controlled by Italian merchants Charged high prices for these rare goods Drive to Explore Hoped to find new, faster routes to Asia to gain trade foothold Wealth not only goal Some set out to find fame, glory Hoped making great discoveries would bring honor to their names New Routes Other explorers hoped to spread their faith into new lands Another motive—simple curiosity Writings like Marco Polo’s very popular in Europe, intrigued many with tales of exotic lands, peoples Faith, Curiosity

3. Navigation Sailors needed precise means to calculate location Compass, let know sailors know which direction was north at any time Europeans learned to use astrolabe from Muslims Navigators could chart location based on sun, stars in relation to horizon Advances in Technology Whatever reasons for exploring, Europeans could not have made voyages of discovery without certain key advances in technology Some advances made in Europe during Renaissance Others borrowed from people with whom Europeans had contact, especially Chinese, Muslims

4. Improvements Just as important as advances in navigation were advances in shipbuilding Europeans learned to build ships that rode lower in water than earlier ships Deep-draft ships could withstand heavier waves; also had larger cargo holds Popular for Exploratory Voyages Caravel would also be equipped with weapons, including cannons Ships could face off against hostile ships at sea Maneuverability, defensive ability made caravel most popular for exploring Caravels Caravel , light, fast sailing ship; two features made it highly maneuverable Steered with rudder at stern, rather than with side oars Also lateen, triangular, sails; could be turned to catch wind from any direction Shipbuilding

5. As a result of their location facing the Atlantic Ocean, Portugal and Spain were well suited to kicking off the Age of Exploration. Explorers from Portugal and Spain Portugal was first country to launch large-scale voyages of exploration Begun largely due to efforts of Prince Henry, son of King John I of Portugal Often called Henry the Navigator , not himself explorer Patron, supporter of those who wished to explore The Portuguese Early 1400s, Henry established court to which he brought sailors, mapmakers, astronomers, others Expeditions sent west to islands in Atlantic, south to explore western coast of Africa Portuguese settled Azores, Madeira Islands, learned more about Africa’s coast Navigation Court

6. Water Route to India Prince Henry’s ultimate goal—find water route around Africa to India Died before goal accomplished; attempts to find such a route not abandoned 1488, Bartolomeu Dias became first to sail around southern tip of Africa Lucrative Trade da Gama’s trip inspired another expedition to India, led by Pedro Cabral Sailed west; sighted, claimed land that became known as Brazil Portugal established trading centers; became rich, powerful European nation da Gama 1497, Vasco da Gama set out for India, stopped at several African ports Learned Muslim merchants actively involved in trade Journey took more than 10 months, eventually reached Calicut in India Exploration Attempts

7. Columbus’ First Voyage Columbus reached island in Caribbean after about two months at sea Thought he had reached Asian islands known as Indies; called people living there Indians 1493, returned to Spain with exotic items, including parrots, jewels, gold, plants unknown in Europe Spanish believed Columbus found new route to Asia, hailed him as hero Italian Sailor Spain also eager to seek out new routes to riches of East 1492, Spanish rulers agreed to pay for voyage by Italian sailor Christopher Columbus Columbus believed he could sail west from Spain, reach China Correct in theory, but figures he presented about earth’s size wrong Also had no idea the Americas lay across Atlantic The Spanish

8. Columbus — three more voyages to Americas Still believed he had reached Asia Error not realized until about 1502 Explorer Amerigo Vespucci sailed coast of South America, concluded it was not Asia Mapmakers later named land America in his honor Knowing they had found new land, Spanish set out to explore it 1513, N úñe z de Balboa led expedition across Isthmus of Panama After more than three weeks of travel, Balboa became first European to see Pacific Ocean Results of Voyages

9. Vasco Núñez de Balboa: 1513, crossed the Isthmus of Panama to the Pacific Ocean, 1 st European to See/Reach Pacific Spanish realized they needed to cross another ocean to reach Asia. West Around World Daring adventurer, Ferdinand Magellan decided to sail west around world 1519, Magellan set out for Spain with five ships, 250 men Perilous Voyage Journey long, difficult; some men mutinied, rebelled Magellan killed in fight with Philippine natives; his men sailed on (Juan Sebastian de Elcano) 1522, 18 survivors of original fleet arrived back in Spain, first to circumnavigate world Ferdinand Magellan

10. Spanish and Portuguese did not remain alone in their efforts. By early 1500s the English and French were exploring northern parts of the Americas. Dutch later joined in explorations. The English 1497, first major English voyage of discovery launched John Cabot sailed to Atlantic coast of what is now Canada Tried to repeat voyage; fleet vanished, presumably sunk Sir Francis Drake English realized they had reached a new land, not Asia Queen sent Sir Francis Drake out, Sea Captain or Pirate, Knighted Eliz 1 After stop in what is now California, Drake sailed north to seek route around North America The weather was too cold, and headed west to get back to England (2 nd circumnavigate) Explorers from the Rest of Europe

11. Henry Hudson England wanted to find shorter route to Asia than Magellan found 1607, Hudson set out to north to find Northeast Passage around Europe Found nothing but ice, returned to England Two more voyages for English, one for Dutch The French Also wanted to find passage to Asia Sent explorers to look for Northwest Passage 1534, Jacques Cartier sailed past Newfoundland into St. Lawrence River, Claimed land as province of New France, now Canada The Dutch By 1600s Netherlands powerful trading nation, hoped to find new products, trading partners 1609, Henry Hudson set out to find Northwest Passage, Again Did not find passage, Crew Mutiny, Cast Adrift Henry Hudson

12. The countries of Europe established colonies in the lands they had discovered but, in some cases, only after violently conquering the native people who lived there .

13. Scramble to establish colonies and empires in new lands Spain first to successfully settle in the Americas Eventually conquered native empires, the Aztecs and Incas Spain in Caribbean First areas settled by Spanish, Caribbean islands, Hispaniola, Cuba Columbus hoped to find gold, did not Spanish introduced encomienda system there Colonist given land and Native Americans to work the land Required to teach native workers about Christianity Millions Died Disastrous system for Native Americans Mistreatment, overwork took toll on population Europeans spread new diseases Spain Builds an Empire

14. Conquistador Some Spaniards moved from Caribbean to mainland to set up colonies Hernán Cortés led expedition to Mexico, ended with conquest of Aztecs Cortés a conquistador , military leader fought against Native Americans Cortes Marches on Capital Moctezuma II , Aztec emperor at time of Spanish arrival in Mexico Aztecs powerful, ruled much of Mexico; unpopular with conquered Cortés joined by thousands of those who wanted to defeat Aztecs Other Advantages Native American allies, Cortés had metal weapons, heavy armor, guns, horses (never seen in Americas) Disease also swept through Aztec Empire, killing thousands of people The Conquest of Mexico

15. November 8, 1519, Cortés, army entered Tenochtitl á n, Aztec capital Cortés, Moctezuma greeted each other respectfully Spanish soon took emperor prisoner Battle erupted Moctezuma killed Months of heavy fighting followed Cortés eventually took city Defeated entire Aztec empire Aztec Empire

16. Francisco Pizarro 10 years after conquest of Aztecs, Francisco Pizarro led expedition to Peru Had heard of fabulous wealth of Inca Empire; hoped to win wealth for himself Inca Empire already weakened by smallpox; many killed, including emperor Civil war had also broken out New Ruler 1532, new ruler, Atahualpa , agreed to meet with Spanish Pizarro demanded Atahualpa accept Christianity, hand over empire to Spain Atahualpa refused Spanish killed Atahualpa, destroyed Inca army, took over empire The Conquest of Peru

17. Beginnings of Slavery Disease, mistreatment took toll on native population Some appalled at treatment One reformer, Bartolom é de Las Casas recommended replacing Native Americans as laborers with imported African slaves Slave labor soon became common practice in Americas Life in the Spanish Empire With Mexico, Peru, Spain gained control of huge empire in Americas Spanish king chose officials, viceroys , to govern American holdings Spanish colonial economy based on gold, silver mining, farming Spanish drafted Native Americans for labor in mines, on farms

18. Portuguese built an empire in the Americas Because of treaty, their empire was not as large as the Spanish one Treaty 1494, Treaty of Tordesillas drew imaginary line through Atlantic Ocean Everything west, including most of then-undiscovered Americas, would belong to Spain Everything to east would be Portuguese Only Brazil remained as Portuguese colony Colonization Heavy Brazilian jungles made mining, farming difficult Portuguese in no hurry to settle 1530s, colonists slowly moved in, mostly along Atlantic coast Established huge farming estates, as in Spanish lands First used Native American, then African slave, labor to work on farms The Portuguese in Brazil

19. Native American hunters were the French traders’ main source of furs. Many traders married Native American women, intermingling the two cultures. Silver and gold from American colonies began to circulate in Europe; other European countries paid close attention. Leaders in France, England, and the Netherlands decided that they needed to establish colonies in the Americas. French, Dutch, and English Colonies in the Americas French explorers established colonies in New France, or Canada Hoped this would be a rich source for gold, silver Did not find riches, but found other potentially valuable trade goods New France Waters of North Atlantic swarming with fish, staple of European diet Forests yielded valuable furs French did not send large numbers of colonists; small groups of traders Did not enslave Native Americans Trade and Colonization

20. South from New France A few French explorers headed south to seek more lands to claim 1608, Samuel de Champlain founded city of Quebec French also explored Mississippi River Thought it flowed to Pacific, would provide route to Asia Mississippi to Gulf of Mexico 1682, Ren é -Robert La Salle canoed down entire Mississippi River to Gulf of Mexico Claimed enormous Mississippi region, tributaries for France Named huge, fertile area Louisiana, after King Louis XIV Further Explorations

21. Trade Interests Dutch who came to North America interested in trade Only large colony, New Netherland, in Hudson River valley New Amsterdam 1626, governor bought island of Manhattan from Wappinger Founded city of New Amsterdam, later New York City Slow Growth in Americas New Netherland did not grow Dutch focused on developing colonies in other parts of world Other colonies more profitable More Valuable Goods Produced goods that could not be obtained in Europe, Americas Caribbean sugar, Asian spices more valuable The Dutch of New Netherland

22. 1607, first English colony established at Jamestown Settlers hoped to find gold, silver, river route to Pacific Instead found marshy ground, impure water 80 percent of settlers died during first winter in America Colony still endured Pilgrims 1620, Pilgrims sailed from England Pilgrims had been persecuted in England for religious beliefs Established colony at Plymouth, Massachusetts Persevered despite difficulties Colony self-sufficient within 5 years Native Americans English settlers did not share same relationship with Native Americans as French, Dutch Jamestown, Plymouth colonies received aid from local peoples Still, colonists viewed Native Americans with distrust, anger The English Colonies

23. Problems English ran into conflict with French settlers in Americas Mid-1700s, English colonists attempted to settle in French territory, upper Ohio River valley; tension in region grew; war broke out, 1754 Costly War Eventually French surrendered, yielded Canada, all French territory east of Mississippi War costly for British; king tried to place costs of war on colonists Led to resentment, which eventually brought about American Revolution French and Indian War Both had Native American allies; English called it French and Indian War War began badly for British; French had more soldiers than English British turned tide, took city of Quebec British-French Conflict

27. As people settled in North America, they adapted to different types of geography by developing different styles of housing and ways of getting food.

30. Most of southwestern U.S. and northern Mexico is desert Hohokam flourished from 100 BC to AD 1500 Learned to farm in the desert Built shallow canals for irrigation Planted crops in earthen mounds next to canals Woven mats created dams in canals, directed water to crop mounds Cultures of the Desert West

31. Hohokam expanded irrigation system Channeled water into villages Used wells and other containers for storing water Created pithouses, dwellings formed by digging shallow holes in the ground and building walls and roofs with mixture of clay and straw called adobe Cultures of the Desert West

32. The Anasazi lived in the Desert West near the Hohokam from about 100 BC to AD 1300. Pueblos Like Hohokam, Anasazi had pithouses Also developed the pueblo Several stories high Many rooms Similar to apartments Villages also had underground rooms called kivas Kivas used as meeting places, for religious ceremonies Cliff Dwellings Another type of Anasazi architecture, cliff dwellings Pueblos built in shallow caves in walls of rocky canyons To enter, rock staircases carved into rock or ladders Limited accessibility offered protection from attack Cultures of the Desert West

33. Hopewell Lived in eastern woodlands, near Ohio and Mississippi river valleys Mound builders, 200 BC to AD 500 Built large stone and earth mounds as burial sites Size suggests some form of organized labor Burial Mounds Hopewell buried objects like pottery and metal ornaments Daggers of obsidian from Rocky Mountains Shells from Gulf of Mexico Clues that Hopewell developed extensive trade network Culture began to decline AD 400, cause not clear The Mound Builders

34. Mississippian Also lived in eastern woodlands, near Ohio and Mississippi river valleys Built some of the earliest cities in North America Cahokia had population up to 20,000 people Contained more than 100 mounds, with ruler living atop largest in city center Cahokia Planned city built by an organized labor force Mathematical and engineering skills evident Different types of soils in mounds for proper drainage Artifacts show complex society, differences between common people and those with status The Mound Builders

35. Cultures developed differently according to their environments Varied geography determined the way these peoples got food Also how they made their shelter Environment also played a role in how societies organized The Inuit Lived in the Arctic regions of North America Frozen, treeless landscape meant no vegetation for food source Became skilled hunters and fishers Year-round hunting Used kayaks to hunt sea mammals, caught fish through holes in ice Hunted caribou in summer, used skins and furs for warm clothing Houses were igloos, made from ice blocks Other Cultures of North America

36. The Iroquois Lived in eastern North America in warmer climate Relied on materials from the forest Built dwellings called longhouses from elm bark Hunting and farming Trapped forest animals for food Farmed crops such as beans, squash, maize Five different nations Iroquois included Cayuga, Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Seneca Shared characteristics, eventually formed government, Iroquois League Later admitted Tuscarora, but did not grant equal status Other Cultures of North America

37. Europeans brought change Plains Indians originally lived along rivers and streams Introduction of horses by Europeans changed their lives Followed buffalo herds over long distances Buffalo center of lives, with buffalo meat as food, skins for clothing and tents, and bones and horns for tools Plains Indians Like Iroquois, Plains Indians consisted of different tribes Not all spoke same language, communication problematic Developed a form of sign language to communicate when they met Lived mostly on a treeless grassland

38. Civilizations in Mesoamerica were some of the earliest and most advanced in the Americas.

39. Mesoamerica, southern Mexico and northern Central America, was ideal for farming. Cities and complex social structures arose there too. Olmec Lived in hot, humid lowlands 1200 BC to AD 300 Built first large towns in Mesoamerica Earliest Olmec town Pyramid, courtyard Eight giant stone heads Throne like monuments Towns served as ceremonial, political and religious centers Society Olmec rulers, families lived in towns Lower social classes lived outside the towns Elite led ceremonies, controlled trade network Trade From Gulf to Pacific coast Rubber, pottery, furs Also beliefs, art, games The First Civilizations

40. Zapotec Southern Mexico 1500 BC to AD 750 May have had contact with Olmec Began as farmers, built capital city around 500 BC Monte Alb á n, first true city in Mesoamerica Located high above Valley of Oaxaca Monte Alb á n Huge main plaza with pyramids, temples, palaces Olmec influence in decorations Large ball court, observatory Population of 25,000 at height City declined when leaders lost support of their people Still used for high-status burials The First Civilizations

41. Toltec Highlands of central Mexico, AD 900 to 1200 Capital located at Tula, near obsidian mines Major trade center Pyramids, temples Militaristic society Fierce warriors established dominance over large region Climate change, social conflict led to decline The First Civilizations

42. Large civilization Olmec, Zapotec, Toltec small in comparison Developed around 1000 BC More than 40 cities of 5,000 to 100,000 each at height Early Maya Civilization First lived in small villages Grew corn, beans, squash Good rainfall, rich soils Rain forest challenges Slash-and burn agriculture Clearing forest land for crops Flat terraces built in hillsides to control erosion Trade developed Farming did not provide all needs Villages traded for cotton, jade Trade of cacao, salt, obsidian helped villages grow to cities The Maya

43. Cities and Government Most cities built between AD 250 and 900, the Classic Age Cities Tikal and Copan among the most spectacular in Mesoamerica Brightly painted pyramids, temples and palaces found there City-States Each had own ruler and government No ruler ever united the cities into single empire Cities linked even without central government Cities linked Highlands traded jade, obsidian for cotton, rubber, cacao from lowlands Cities also linked by warfare with each other Through battles kings tried to gain land, power The Maya

44. The Maya worshipped many gods and believed they influenced daily life; They also believed their kings communicated with the gods. To keep the gods happy, the Maya performed private and public rituals. Religious Offerings Offering blood by piercing tongue, skin Human sacrifice only occasionally Ritual ball game, losing team having hearts sacrificed to gods Upper Class Society Priests, who led religious ceremonies Professional warriors, who got war victims for human sacrifice Other Classes Merchants, craftspeople middle class Lower class Farmers Slaves Provided food, labor for other classes The Maya

45. Achievements Impressive buildings and architecture, including canals Advances in astronomy, math, writing Observed movements of sun, moon, planets Calendar system Created based on astronomical observations 365-day farming, 260-day religious calendars More accurate than that used in Europe at same time Number and writing systems Number system included new concepts, including “zero” Complex writing system of glyphs , or symbols, representing objects, sounds Carved writing in stone, also in bark-paper book called a codex The Maya

46. Decline of Mayan civilization, AD 900 Caused by number of factors Environmental damage, drought Warfare increased over competition for land, destroyed more crops Abuse of power by strong kings Civilization declined but did not disappear Maya moved from forest to coastal cities Remained for several hundred years The Maya

47. At the height of Mayan Civilization, the Aztecs began to rise to power in the north. Early Aztecs were a small group of unlucky farmers that created the most powerful empire in Mesoamerica. Rise of the Empire Began as separate farming tribes Probably subject of the Toltecs Legend: settle where they saw an eagle on a cactus eating a snake Migrated south to Valley of Mexico, 1100s Good farmland already taken Lake Texcoco A swampy island in valley Site where legend says Aztecs saw eagle and snake Founded city of Tenochtitl á n From here, continued rise to power In addition to being farmers, the Aztecs were also fierce warriors. They began fighting to control other towns around Lake Texcoco. The Aztecs

48. Conquering Warriors Aztecs gained strength in 1420s with alliance with Texcoco and Tlacopan Alliance gained control over huge region beyond Lake Texcoco Aztecs ruled 400 to 500 other city states, 5 million people Required conquered people to pay tribute Wealth and Strength Tribute paid in many forms, feathers, food, pottery, blankets Tribute was basis of economy Gained wealth and strength through trade as well System of roads aided trade of goods like jade, cacao Merchants also acted as spies for Aztec emperor The Aztecs

49. Tenochtitl á n Capital city of Aztec empire Covered 5 square miles Population of about 200,000 One of largest cities in world at time Site of present day Mexico City Enchanted Vision Walled compound at city center Pyramid with two temples on top Other temples, government buildings, palaces, a ball court Political and religious heart of the empire First Europeans, “enchanted vision” Floating Gardens Swampy island in middle of lake Not much land for farming Aztecs built floating gardens at city’s edge Tenochtitl á n connected by canals and causeways to biggest market Vendors paid tax to support army The Aztecs

50. Tenochtitl á n

51. The Aztec had an organized society, with the king at the top, followed by priests. Society and Religion King was part of royal family, but had to be elected Lived in palace at Tenochtitl á n Certain nobles served as government officials Just below king were priests Interpreted calendars Performed religious ceremonies Religious Ceremonies Believed gods needed blood Sacrificed as many as 20,000 victims a year European perspective , “ walls splashed and caked with blood…stank abominably” Slaves. prisoners used for sacrifices Certain warriors who captured victims also upper class The Aztecs

52. Other classes Merchants, artisans wealthy, respected Merchants rich from trading Artisans important, made goods required for tribute Lower class Most were farmers, very poor Did not own their own land Paid so much in tribute, it was difficult to survive Chance for improvement Farmers could become warriors or study at special schools All attended school until 15 Continuing in special schools led to work in government Slaves Suffered most in Aztec society Most had been captured in battle, or could not pay debts Some worked as farmers, laborers; some sacrificed The Aztecs

53. The Aztecs Kept written records, though not as advanced as Mayan Composed poetry, riddles, historical accounts Used astronomy to create religious and solar calendars much like the Maya Aztec Empire lasted less than 200 years, brought to end by European contact, 1500s Sciences Aztecs known for achievements in art and science Artisans made bright feathers into headdresses, shields, costumes Metalworkers fashioned gold, silver, copper into jewelry, masks Stoneworkers decorated temples with elaborate statues Achievements

54. Several early cultures in South America adapted to extreme environmental conditions. One of them, the Incas, built one of the biggest and most powerful empires in the Americas.

55. The western region of South America is one of environmental contrasts where early peoples learned to adapt and build civilizations. Early Cultures in South America Lived in Peruvian highlands, 800 to 400 BC Chavin de Huantar Urban religious, trading center of culture Home to about 3,000 farmers, craftspeople Several different ecological zones represented in Andes The Chav í n Warmer valleys had irrigation systems, grew corn Cooler higher in mountains, grew potatoes High-altitude grasslands, raised llamas and alpacas Other Andean peoples later adopted these methods of farming Chav í n Crops

56. Early Cultures in South America Desert people, 200 BC to AD 600, best known for huge designs on desert floor Many theories, including having to do with location of water Built irrigation canals and relied on springs, flooding of streams to water crops Farming supported large population The Nazca Lived in coastal desert of Peru in farming, fishing villages 400 BC to AD 600 Built irrigation canals in desert, channeled flow of Andean streams to crops Best known for skilled metalwork in gold, silver, pottery Pottery depicted scenes of everyday life, including warfare The Moche

58. Inca’s expansive empire Brought entire South American region into one empire Began as small Andean tribe Early 1500s, empire expanded along Pacific coast, Andes Ruling a large empire Incas needed strong government Emperor had most power Did not want conquered people to rebel Government Period of rapid expansion began 1400s from Cuzco Pachacuti used political alliances, military force Expanded by later leaders Creating stability Moved leaders of conquered areas out Moved loyal new leaders in Military used to protect against rebellion, external attacks The Inca Empire

59. Economy Strictly controlled by government Common people required to pay labor tax, called the mita Government told each household what work to do to pay tax Tracking goods Inca used quipu , colored and knotted cords representing numbers, dates No written language, quipu used to record taxes, number livestock, census Road system improved communication, helped government control economy Mita Paid by weaving cloth, working on government farms, mines, building roads No merchants, goods distributed by government Extra food, goods stored in government warehouses for emergencies The Inca Empire

60. The government also played a big role in Inca society. Each family was grouped with others into a cooperative community called an ayllu . The Inca Empire Members shared activities like farming, building canals, rituals Each group of ten ayllus had chief Chain of command from emperor down to local level Ayllu No slaves Most belonged to lower class Farmers Artisans Servants Wore plain clothes Could not own more than needed Served upper class Class Divisions King, government officials, priests Lived in capital, Cuzco Stone houses Fine clothes Did not pay tax Attended school to prepare to be officials Upper Class

61. Religion a key element of Inca society People allowed to worship local gods Sun god was most important of all Believed kings related to sun god Main temple located in Cuzco Mummies of dead kings worshipped Religious ceremonies often included sacrifices of llamas, cloth or food, rarely humans The Inca Empire

62. In spite of the high level of achievement, the Inca Empire lasted only about 100 years. Arrival of Spanish in 1532 marked end of Empire. The level of organization of Inca government and society led to significant achievements in the areas of engineering and the arts. The Incas were particularly talented builders of temples, forts and roads. Many Inca structures were built so well they still stand today. The Inca Empire Especially skilled in metalwork Artisans made intricate ornaments of gold, silver Created a life-sized field of corn out of gold, silver in temple courtyard Metalwork Weavers worked with wool, cotton Divided cloth into three categories Plain for households Finer for taxes and trade Special for royal and religious purposes Variety of patterns used Weaving