Ethical Aspects of Biotechnology

Ethical Aspects
of Biotechnology
GMOs, Biosafety and Bioethics
26th
April 2015
BSc (Hons) Biotechnology
University of Mauritius
Ritesh Bhagea, Samiirah Chummun, Sabiah Heerah, Huda Nazeer ,
Iswarree Punchum

Contents
● What are “Ethics”?
● Different aspects:
○ Legal
■ Ethical and legal introduction
■ Democracy and GMOs
■ Scientific arguments about
scientific uncertainty
■ The morality of taking risk
○ Developing countries and the poor
■ The problem of food security and
the poor
■ Developing countries and the poor
■ Implementation: Regulatory or
economic issue?
■ Different aspects in developing
countries
○ Food
■ Genetically modified food
■ Improvement of crops
■ Potential benefits of GM foods
■ Ethical aspects of GM food
■ Health risks associated with GM
food
○ Biotechnology and the Environment
○ Medicine
■ Introduction of GMOs in
medicines and researches
■ Pharmaceutical products
■ Gene therapy
■ Genetic modification of insects
■ Ethics concerning animal rights
■ Ethics of disease prevention
■ Social concerns of the use of GM
in medicines and research
■ Other ethical aspects of using
GM in medicines and research
● Conclusion
● References

What are “Ethics”?
● The act of defining what is morally right or wrong.
● Also assess the reasonings behind our decisions, i.e
○ the concepts and principles that are employed to justify our moral
choices and actions.
This is specifically important in the
applications of Biotechnology as the
latter deals with many serious
issues concerning the human
nature, health, food and the
environment.

Ethical Aspects
of
Biotechnology
Legal
Food
Environment
Medicine
Developing
countries &
the poor

Ethical and legal introduction
No consensus over the risks of a product or activity
Trade dispute
(One country restricts, while the other sees as legitimate)
Right or wrong (Decided by international law)
Restrictions: 1. Implicit exception
2. Explicit exception

Ethical and legal introduction
1. Exception based on democracy
Unclear scientific position:
● Trading systems must respect views of population of states
● Wrong to impose unsafe or undesirable product
2. Exception based on science
Unproven dangers = cannot be excluded
● Lack of scientific proof
● Precautionary approach need to be present
Forms of exception: Democracy and Science

Democracy and GMOs
● Views of the populations should be respected.
● If an agreement contains a clause allowing one party to derogate
when the majority wishes to, then it barely deserves to be
discussed in terms of laws or called an agreement at all.
● Democracy alone cannot justify derogations from WTO law.
● Should be politically realistic.
● If population feel strongly that WTO is wrong, then govt should
perhaps leave or renegotiate the terms of their membership.

Scientific Arguments about Scientific
Uncertainty
● Event theoretically possible but has not occurred = Whether it will
occur
○ E.g: If a generation or 2 have eaten GMOs without identifiable
consequences = No harm to health (limitation of time span for health)
● Outcome of scientific debate
WE JUST DON’T KNOW

The morality of taking risk
● There should be a balance between possible gains v/s possible harms.
● E.g: Profits to be made or lives saved through greater production v/s
cost or harm of things that went wrong.
● Decisions are dependent on various benefits and harms.
● Reflect different world views on different levels.
(i) Essence of the acts involved
(ii) Differences due to emphasis
(iii) Level of variations (perceptions reflect whole political and social
philosophies and in turn religious and metaphysical views)
● Moral character on GMOs view is seen by comparison with other
dangers.

The Problem of Food
Security and the Poor
~ 600 M poor people in the world
~ 40,000 die each day due to malnutrition
50% of them are children
● Most limiting resources for
food production: land and
water.
● Solution: Increase yields on
the available land (increase
production capacity) using
biotechnology.
● The Green Revolution was not
enough to eradicate poverty.
● Solution: Need to increase
food production in developed
countries for export at a price
that the poor can afford, and
thus the purchasing power.

Developing countries and the Poor
● The least developed countries however, where poverty is
most rampant and increase in food production is most
needed, cannot afford the necessary research and extension
facilities to bring to the farmers.
● This accessibility problem is what have turned many people
against GM crops who claim that this technology rather
benefits multinational corporations than feeds the poor.
○ Of the crops of the poor that include the cassava, rice, millets,
sorghum, sweet potatoes, yams and legumes, only rice has
benefited from biotechnology.
● In developing countries: concerns and fears regarding the
safety of foods produced by biotechnology further dampen
development.
AreGMcropsreallyaccessibletothosewhoneeditmost?

Implementation: Regulatory or Economic
Issue?
● More of a regulatory than economic issue in developing countries.
○ Importance of risk assessment prior to implementing use, generally
involves field trials.
○ Risk assessments are costly; require skilled personnels.
○ The UNEP Guidelines on Biosafety details the aspects that are to be
considered in the risk assessment.
○ Poor countries and some developing ones cannot assess impact of
GMOs and minimize any risks.
● International companies do not tend to market GM products that
have not gone through regulatory procedures.
○ Transboundary issues as country of import may not have the same
regulatory requirements as the country of export.

Different aspects in Developing Countries
Empowerment
Can we increase
production of crops and
feed the World?
Can the crops be rigorous
enough to withstand
distribution?
Can we free women from
farming?
Exploitation
No access to products of
biotechnology due to IPR.
Dumping of unwanted
products.
Can the poor really be fed
since the staples of the poor
receive little development?
Socio-economic issues
Hinder export? Case of a decrease in export of sugarcane since the High Fructose Corn
Syrup was developed.
Oil from coconut palms in Philippines has decreased in production, transgenics in the US
are producing better yields.
Research &
Development for
Agriculture
Can positively note that
biotechnology is supported
by research and extension
establishments.
However the private sector
is often ignored.

Intellectual Property
Rights
Biotechnology produces
disease-free seeds which
farmers find beneficial in
increasing yields. IPR rights
elevate the costs of seeds.
However, Protection of
Intellectual Property is a
means of providing finance
to implement the
technology.
Crop Genetic
Diversity
Loss of particular genetic
varieties in favor of others.
Examples: banana, wheat,
rice.
However several steps have
been taken to prevent this
including the creation of
gene banks.
Genetic Erosion
Is the loss of genetic
diversity esp the loss of
individual genes and
combinations of genes.
Caused by the substitution
of a large no. of varieties for
a smaller number of new
varieties. Happens when
local varieties are replaced
by improved & exotic
varieties.
Biodiversity
Can we collect plant materials from other countries and
then patent them? Should countries have compensation for
their indigenous knowledge? Example: Turmeric; long been
used by the indigenous but patented by researchers.
Liability
Should operators be liable
during production,
culturing, storage,
handling, use, destruction,
disposal and release of
genetically modified
organisms?

Centres of Origin
Limitations of farmers to
use modified organisms
that are not from their
centres of origin.
Since no problems have
been posed for the case of
maize, scientists endorse
the use of new varieties in
centres of origin.
Uniformity
Shouldn’t there be
uniformity in the
regulations of different
countries to prevent
discrimination?
A protocol that provides a
baseline has been
developed for LMOs which
concerns mainly their
transboundary movements.
Monitoring
Should there be
international monitoring
before release of GMOs
particularly those that
might affect diversity?
Will the monitoring not be
regarded as interference
rather than an effort to
implement safety of the
technology?
“The view in countries where there is enough to eat, and where choice of
what to eat is assumed may be significantly different from that
pertaining in other countries. Choices need to be made by those who have
to live with their consequences.”

Genetically Modified Foods
● About 75% of processed food produced in the US
contain some GM ingredients.
● These foods include crackers, breakfast cereals
and cooking oils.
● The most common GM foods are soy, cotton,
canola, corn, sugar beets, Hawaiian papaya,
alfalfa and squash.

Improvement of Crops
● Advances in biotechnology now allows the production of plants
with novel traits such as longer shelf-life, increased nutrient
content and drought resistance.
● The advent of GM crops provides new opportunities for increasing
agricultural production and feeding the world.

Potential benefits of GM foods
● Genetic engineering can be used to remove genes associated with
allergies e.g. the gene that produces allergenic protein in peanuts
can be blocked.
● The insertion of genes into crops such as rice and wheat and
enhance their nutritional value e.g. Golden rice.
● Genetic modifications can be used to produce healthier foods e.g.
by eliminating trans fats or caffeine.

Potential benefits of GM foods
● Can be used to induce herbicide resistance leading to decrease use
of herbicides
● Induction of insect and pest resistance → Decrease use of
insecticides and pesticides
● Induction of abiotic stress resistance

Ethical Aspects of GM Food
There is a need to raise
agricultural
productivity to deal
with problems of
poverty and food
insecurity.
Genetic engineering
allows the production of
plants with desired
traits speedily and at
low costs.

Ethical Aspects of GM Food
Unnaturalness
GM crops are associated with a sense of “unnaturalness”.
It is wrong in itself to alter the “essence” of species or to
interfere with the natural order.
Environmental risks
Genes can flow from modified plants to wild plants leading to
potential threat in biodiversity.
Health risk:
Because of the possible harmful health effects of GM foods, GM
foods should be properly labelled to allow people to choose
whether to consume of not to consume GM foods.

Health risks associated with GM food
● Toxins and engineered genes associated with GM foods may enter
the human circulatory system causing disruption in biological
events
● GM foods may also be linked to gluten disorders
● A research carried out in 2012 showed that GM corn was linked to
rat tumours
● GM foods may also be linked to human breast cancer cell growth,
thyroid issues and infertility
● Glyphosate present in GM foods are known to cause malformations
and birth defects at high doses
● Glyphosate is also linked to weight gain, depression and Alzheimer’s
disease

Biotechnology and the Environment
● Biotechnological products/applications to the environment are
based on human activities.
● This can be regarded in 2 ways:
○ Domination
○ Harmonization
● Biotechnology has been used for various purposes in the
environment such as:
❏ Prevention of infectious-vector transmitted diseases
❏ Removal of greenhouse gases
❏ Removal/degradation of waste products
❏ Reduced impact of pesticides, insecticides, etc.

GM crops with
improved
nutritional
traits
GM crops
with drought
and stress
tolerance
GM crops
with insect,
disease
resistance
● Agriculture and Environment - Closely related
● Modern Agricultural practices:
● GM crops production - Beneficial to humans?
● Goals (Green Revolution):
○ Increase crop production,
○ Strengthen food security,
○ Decrease poverty and eradicate resulting infectious diseases.

● Beneficial traits to humans - But the environment?
● GM crops have been controversial since their production for many
reasons.
● Concerns expressed w.r.t GM plants are:
○ Possibility of horizontal gene transfer of transgenic DNA and
the potential to create new viruses and bacteria that cause
diseases .
○ Effect of synthesised substances on non-target organisms.
○ Unintentional generation of superweeds and superbugs by
evolution.
○ Concerns related to food safety.

● Strong belief that GM plants will cause loss of biodiversity.
○ Monocultures and inbreeding techniques- wild strains are
overlooked.
○ Drop in soil ability to contain other crops.
● International debates on the rights of farmers and breeders to
genetic resources.

Biocentric
Ethics
concerned with
an individual
organism
● Ethics with respect to the environment and biotechnology are:
● Concerns with respect to threats on environment and human
health.
● Ethical issues w.r.t the act of modifying DNA.
● Ownership of biological innovations - Can humans own life?
Ecocentric
Study of an
ecosystem with
prevailing
concerns
Anthropocentric
Ethic views
engaged on
Humans

● Preservation of fauna and flora is highly debatable when
significant and explicit input of views from spiritual/ religious
aspects and cultures are involved.
● Some approaches based on “what can the environment offer” and
so, it is protected for food supplies and future generations.
○ E.g: Maori tribes refuse any modification of native forest.
● Ecocentric approaches, view the environment not by what it can
give but with an intrinsic value.
○ E.g: Some Christian traditions see the environment as a
creation of God, with humans as custodians to it.

Introduction of GMOs in Medicines and
Researches
• Since the 1980s, GMOs have emerged as one
of the mainstays of biomedical research.
• The use of GMOs in medicine and research
has produced a debate that is more
philosophical in nature.
• Ethical issues in introducing GMOs as medicines and research include:
Violation of natural organisms' intrinsic values
Tampering with nature by mixing genes among species
Objections to consuming animal genes in plants
Animal rights

Pharmaceutical Products
• Production of complex pharmaceuticals by
enabling the generation of safer and cheaper
vaccines and therapeutics.
• E.g: Insulin was initially derived from pigs and
cows which arose concern about:
Animal Welfare: There is serious concern that animals will suffer as a
result of being genetically modified.
Religious problem: Some religions (Jews and Hindus) prohibited the use
of insulin derive from animal sources.
• Today insulin is produced through GM microbes, which is less likely to
cause allergic reactions.
• Yet use of genetic engineering in the production of medicines is still an
issue though many people are benefited with none harmed.

Gene Therapy
Gene therapy
Gene therapy is becoming a
treatment option for
diseases ranging from rare
metabolic disorders to
cancer.
Introduction of these GM
cells into the patient could
cure the disease without the
need for a matched donor.
However gene therapy has been a
controversial subject in the past
years.
Ethical reasons:
• Cells used for the study are
often taken from human
embryos.
• The techniques will not be
accomplish for the intended
purpose.
• Replacement tissue will never
be grow from a person’s own
stem cell.

Genetic modification of insects
● Genetic modification of insects has become an important area
of research, especially to prevent parasitic diseases.
● Introduction of these GM mosquitoes into the wild may
someday help eradicate transmission of the malaria parasite
without widespread use of harmful chemicals or disruption of
the normal food chain.

Ethics concerning animal rights
Animal rights concerns:
• Concern in ethics when discussing
animals is their capacity to suffer or feel
pain. This concern is weaker for the GM
mosquitoes.
• Concern that we are manipulating life
for human purposes without
considering the interests of the animal.
•Biodiversity concerns about
endangered animals that are used for
genetic engineering.
Intrinsic concerns:
Pain, sentience and
consciousness
Extrinsic values:
The status given by
human society on
some animals
(national symbols)

Ethics of Disease Prevention
● Widely held ethical principle that human life is worth saving.
● Thus try to improve existing and develop new approaches for
preventing, diagnosing, treating, and controlling infectious
diseases that cause loss of human life.
● Methods used to achieve these goals, including the extent to which
risks to human health, damage to the environment and other
living organisms.
But is it worth it?

Social concerns of the use of GM in medicines
and research
● If the blending of animal and human DNA results in chimeric
entities possessing degrees of intelligence or sentience never
before seen in animals, should these entities be given rights and
special protections?
● What, if any, social and legal controls or reviews should be placed
on such research?
● What unintended personal, social, and cultural consequences
could result?
● Who will have access to these technologies and how will scarce
resources such as medical advances and novel treatments be
allocated?

Other ethical aspects of using GM in medicines
and research
Medical emergencies
The Trade-Related Intellectual
Property Rights (TRIPS)
agreement gives priority to
medical emergencies.
Ethics of Technology Choices
Debate on whether we should
concentrate limited research
cost on developing
technologies that rectify
problems or on studies to
learn how to prevent those
problems from occurring.
Consent from Trial Participants
All research participants should
give informed consent before
receiving any intervention that
has a reasonable risk of causing
harm.

Conclusion
Biotechnology is a technology that operates at
molecular level. Many applications of it are meant to
solve global issues in medicine, food and
environment. However, no matter how beneficial it
seems, it does come with drawbacks. Modifications
brought to living organisms are given strong ethical
considerations, regardless of where and how the
technology is applied.
To be able to counter these, strong scientific proofs
and results must be provided on GMOs on how they
interact with the environment, humans and animals
in nature.

References
● Darryl Macer, 2003. Ethical, legal and social issues of genetically modified disease
vectors in public health. UNDP/World Bank/WHO Special Programme for Research
and Training in Tropical Diseases. 03.1.
● Davies, G. (2006). Morality Clauses and Decision making in Situations of Scientific
Uncertainty: The Case of GMOs. The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Faculty of
Law. 10-06.
● Capron, A. M., Häyry, M., Takala, T. and Herissone-Kelly, P. (2007). Ethics in
Biomedical Research: International Perspectives (Vol. 186).
● Chrispeels, M. J. (2000). Biotechnology and the poor. Plant Physiology 124(1), 3–6.
● De Melo-Martín, I., & Meghani, Z. (2008). Beyond risk. EMBO Reports 9(4), 302–306.
● Ethical aspects of agricultural biotechnology. (1999). [Delft]; The Hague: EFB Task
Group on Public Perceptions of Biotechnology ; Cambridge Biomedical Consultants
[distr.].
● International Life Sciences Institute. (2002). Safety considerations of DNA in foods:
expert group report reviewed at a workshop held in June 2000. Washington;
Brussels: ILSI press ; ISLI Europe.
● Marx, M. E. (2007). The benefits and ethical issues behind using genetically modified
organisms in agriculture. Interdiscipl. J. Health, Ethics Policy 6, 1–5.
● Weale, A. (2010). Ethical arguments relevant to the use of GM crops. New
Biotechnology 27 (5), 582–587.

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