Essay On Photovoltaic Cells As Sources Of Clean Energy

Essay on Photovoltaic Cells as Sources of Clean Energy
Photovoltaic – A sources of Clean Energy Abstarct– The aim of this work is a comparison of the merit and demerit of of different generation solar cells
i.e. Single crystal silicon wafers (c–Si), Amorphous silicon (a–Si), Polycrystalline silicon (poly–Si), Cadmium telluride (CdTe), Copper indium gallium
diselenide (CIGS) alloy, Nanocrystal solar cells, Photoelectrochemical (PEC) cells, Polymer solar cells, Dye sensitized solar cell (DSSC), Hybrid –
inorganic crystals. Solar cells are becoming a mature technology. Solar cell provides clean energy. As it silently generates electricity and produces no
air pollution or hazardous waste. Since there have been rapid advances in the efficiency and reliability of these cells, along with a ... Show more content
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Solar cells, or photovoltaic cells, transform light, usually sunlight, into electric current. Few power–generation technologies are as clean as photovoltaics
(PV). Photovoltaic comes from the words photo meaning light and volt, a measurement of electricity. Sometimes photovoltaic cells are called PV
cells or solar cells for short. As it silently generates electricity, PV produces no air pollution or hazardous waste. It doesn't require liquid or gaseous
fuels to be transported or combusted as sunlight is free and abundant. Because PV systems burn no fuel and have no moving parts, they are clean and
silent, producing no atmospheric emissions or greenhouse gases to cause detrimental effects on our water, air, and soil. Compared with electricity
generated from fossil fuels, each PV–produced kilowatt eliminates up to 830 pounds of nitrogen oxides, 1,500 pounds of sulfur dioxide, and 217,000
pounds of carbon dioxide, every year, according to National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) research. [1] In solar cells when photons of light
fall on the cell, they transfer their energy to the charge carriers. The electric field across the junction separates
II–TREDIIOAL SOLAR CELL PRINCIPAL
A photoelectric effect First observed in 1839 (> 180 years ago) by French physicist A. E. Becquerel, (Becquerel effect : Ag З
Ѓ Acid ЗЃ Pt) when
sunlight was allowed to fall on one of two electrodes placed in an electrolyte. Practical device – In 1954, at the Bell Telephone Laboratories
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A Brief Note On Solar And Alternative Energy
Nathan Arenas Myles Denholtz Period 1 Mrs. Hampton 21 November 14 Literature Review Literature Review Introduction Switching to solar and
alternative energy is a clean efficient way to save money and it could even raise the value of your home. The group is researching what converts
sunlight to electricity and how it converts the radiation to flowing electricity. Selenium, a photovoltaic cell, was found to convert sunlight to
electricity flowing into wires. The importance of this helpful technology, is solar energy is an alternative and will help provide electricity without
harming the ecosystem and economy like paying for an electric bill would. After investing in solar panels, it would provide free electricity for
years to come on your business or home. The research group's experiment is to test if cold weather and clouds will negatively or affect the energy a
solar panel would create compared to being on sunny and warm days. Since solar panels use silicon in photovoltaic cells to convert heat and light
radiation to electricity, then the research groups predicts that there would be a higher voltage on warm sunny days, rather than cloudy or overcast
days. The research group will measure the energy collected for three days in each type of weather for a more accurate answer and more accurate data
points. Entity History of Solar Energy On 1839, Alexandre Edmond Becquerel, discovered that certain materials produced small amounts of electric
current when exposed to light.

Photovoltaic Technology Impacts on Environment Essay
Research Proposal on Photovoltaic Technology Impacts on Environment The research will explore the effects that brought about by the degradation of
photovoltaic panels to the environment. This will also include the effect of degradation photovoltaic when exposed to both fresh and salt water. The
study will also include an assessment of degradation effect on the performance and reliability of photovoltaic system. Thus, this research will focus on
the outcome of having a photovoltaic panel lying on the surface of water. Thus, the effects created will be determined and the array design adjusted
accordingly. Further, another environmental issue that will be investigated is the ecological impact created from the transmission of extraordinary...
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From this study, it was concluded that the hazardous emissions that are connected to photovoltaic technology are only connected the consumption of
energy in the manufacturing process. In 2010, a research project was funded by the Clean Energy Fund. This project only focused on understanding the
effects of photovoltaic to the environment. According to this research, photovoltaic energy is in a perfect position to be included in low carbon energy
technologies to sustain future energy. The study also concluded that the amount produced was too low to pose adverse effect to the environment.
Objectives i.To determine the total greenhouse gasses emission throughout the lifecycle of photovoltaic technologies ii. To investigate effects on
marine and fresh water resulting from the degradation of photovoltaic solar panels in water iii. To examine the effect of the installation and presence of
photovoltaic panels on the water surface iv. To determine the ecological effects of photovoltaic panels especially on the transmission of high–voltage
currents in the aquatic environment. v.To examine the assessment of degradation effect on the performance and reliability of photovoltaic vi. Assess
the irradiance and oxygen level measurements as well as the consequences of the same on the aquatic environment lying beneath the array

Energy Self-Sufficiency in Building through Photovoltaic...
Energy Self–Sufficiency in Building through Photovoltaic Cells ABSTRACT Solar energy is a way to acquire self–sufficiency of many residential
buildings. The different forms of solar cells made from different materials and in different ways are able to increase the efficiency of the solar cells
and allow solar energy to become more widespread. Due to the possibility of a shortage of fossil fuels in the near future, solar power can serve as an
integral component in solving the energy crisis through developing energy self–sufficient buildings. However, after researching many already
published materials, the possibility of allowing the world's buildings to become self–sufficient is not possible unless other solar cells become... Show
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To cause a current to flow through the cells and create an electrical current, the semiconductor incorporates a p–n junction, which is when p–type
silicon is placed next to n–type silicon. The electrons will then flow towards the positive side of the solar cells instead of in random directions (see
figure 1). These semiconductors are usually made out of silicon, which, when in different forms can have efficiency from 16% to 32%. The
efficiency of a photovoltaic cell is measured by the ratio of the amount of solar energy it converts to electrical energy to the total amount of solar
energy that hits the cell (Department of Energy 2004). Figure 1: The Photovoltaic Effect, Converting Light Energy to Electrical Energy Source:
Walker 2004 Photovoltaic Cells 4 The idea of photovoltaic cells is based on Albert Einstein's photoelectric effect. The photoelectric effect describes
the effect of certain energies of light on different materials. Photons are able to dislodge electrons from the material when the energy of the photons
exceeds the energy needed to dislodge an electron from the material plus the kinetic energy of electron. However, if the photon does not have enough
energy, the electron is unable to escape and remains in the material. Bell Labs first put these cells to use in

The World 's Top Consumer / User Of Photovoltaic Solar...
I. Case Study Introduction
Germany is the world's top consumer/user of photovoltaic solar technology thereby produces the most solar power worldwide. With a climate much
like the state of Maine, it is surprising that Germany now obtains more of its energy from solar power than any other nation – a total that is continually
growing. The country uses a feed–in tariff system that mandate the use of renewable energy sources. This system makes solar power a consumer friendly
option for power and thereby making Germany global leaders in green technology. Their adoption and success is serving as the global modal for
nations wishing to lessen their carbon footprint.
II. Description of the environmental science behind the Case Study
NASA ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
III. Description of general policy issues surrounding the Case Study The sun is expected to continue to burn for upwards of five billion years. That
alone makes this energy source much more reliable than fossil fuels like oil or natural gas. There are many benefits of harnessing sunshine for energy
consumption. Significant savings can be made from day one on energy costs, electricity consumption and carbon emissions. Benefits of solar power
includethe ability to harness this power almost anywhere without being tied to a grid. Solar energy is considered a "clean energy source." The use of
solar energy panels does not produce greenhouse gases, smoke, and other chemical by–products that fossil fuels produce (Advantages and
Disadvantages of Solar Energy).
Further benefits include the fact that solar power does not release toxins into the air like greenhouse gases or other air pollutants and solar power
doesn't require any harmful digging or drilling into mother earth.
With benefits comes the drawbacks –the two major disadvantages to using solar power include the price of solar power and finding suitable sunny
locations. While the "primary disadvantage of current solar technology is the up–front cost of the equipment. Because of the investment cost, solar
power remains the most expensive way to produce electricity." (Withgott & Brennan, 2011. p. 599) In the United States, it could take as many as 20
before a

Application And Mechanism Of Organic Photovoltaics Essay
Organic photovoltaics are a branch of technology that has been thoroughly researched for the last few of years, recently becoming a major focus for
researchers. The "photovoltaics" portion of the name refers to the purpose and mechanism of the device; a device used to convert energy from the sun
into electrical energy, which can be harnessed and employed. The devices achieve this change in energy through a phenomenon known as the
photovoltaic effect; when light hits the device, electrons found within its compounds are excited into a higher energy level, and the subsequent
movement of that excited electron from one energy level to the next (or from electron donor to electron acceptor) results in a direct current which can
be used as energy in a wide range of devices. This movement of electrons as a result of light excitation is what makes photovoltaics such unique
devices, however, this photovoltaic effect can be produced by a myriad of compounds in a variety of structures, which is what can lead to many
different kinds of photovoltaic devices, which is where organic photovoltaics, or OPVs, are introduced1. The "organic" portion of the name refers to
the compounds used in these devices, as opposed to other kinds of photovoltaics devices, organic photovoltaics use organic compounds as the
aforementioned electron acceptors and donors. Typically, these compounds are composed of complex pi–conjugated moieties, which can intrinsically
accept and donate electrons, which are

Photovoltaics in the United Kingdom
Chapter 2 – Literature Review
The purpose of this chapter is to analyse previous publications and opinions of Photovoltaics in the UK. The chapter will aim to address the issues
highlighted in the objectives of this paper. This chapter will form an essential basis for the research in which comparisons can be made.
2.1 – What are Photovoltaics?
Photovoltaic energy generation is the direct conversion of sunlight into energy. It offers one of the few ways of generating electricity in urban areas
that is free of noxious emissions and noise.
Photovolaic materials, commonly known as solar cells, generate direct current electrical energy when exposed to light. Mott Green & Wall state that
'solar cells are constructed from certain semi–conducting materials that absorb solar radiation; electrons are displaced within the material, thus starting
a flow of current through an external connected circuit.' (Mott Green & Wall, 2002, p43)
Figure 1 shows the basic process of how photovoltaic panels produce electricity.
Fig 1 – The Power Producing Process (Battle, 1998)
The ability to generate electricity from sunlight is a relatively new and exciting technology that offers many new opportunities in generating 'green'
electricity. This technology is called solar photovoltaics or more simply, PV. PV offers the ability to generate electricity in a clean, quiet and renewable
way. It makes use of the abundant energy from the sun, to generate electricity without the production of

Photovoltaic And Solar Thermal Systems
1 INTRODUCTION
Two of the most common ways to generate energy with solar energy are with photovoltaic and solar–thermal systems. However, each of these options
have limitations in which make them seem as though they are not efficient systems to produce energy. The Nanophotonic Solar Thermophotovoltaic
device on the other hand has shown that with its new hybrid system and materials, solar powering can be substantially more efficient than recent years.
Its enhanced designs are equipped to produce energy at a much higher rate of efficiency and can prove to be the best option to use.
2 BACKGROUND
At the moment, the systems that are currently being used on their own to generate energy are not cutting edge like they have the potential to be. ... Show
With constant threats such as these, the continuous use of fossil fuels are not ideal for the earth or even humans existence. That being said, in order to
ultimately extend the amount of years that the earth is safe, a solution needs to be made in order to improve the solar energy conversions.
3 SOLUTION
The main solution to improve the efficiency of solar energy conversions has been combining two original methods, solar photovoltaics and
solar–thermal, in order to make a hybrid system called A Nanophotonic Solar Thermophotovoltaic device.
3.1 What It Does
The combination of the two systems allows for the limitations that were once present in the systems as they operated alone to be improved upon. The
device utilizes features of solar–thermal and photovoltaics in order for the photons that were being reflected away to also be collected and used in the
conversions, resulting for an improvement of efficiency. With the enhancements that this device provides, solar energy conversions will become more
reliable as the limitations will no longer affect the efficiency.
3.2 How It Works

The device in general takes in all of the energy and heat that is given off from sunlight by a primary component. The component is equipped so that
while consuming the energy and heat the temperature increases to a point at which allows the component to emit thermal radiation. With certain
materials and careful designing the radiation can be directed in the form of useful wavelength,

System Advisor Model Is Developed By The National...
Gerardo M Gallardo Independent Study EEL 4905–Spring 2015 03/09/15 System Advisor Model (SAM) or System Advisor Model is developed by
the National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) and is available for free download. Its main function is to predict the performance and cost of
residential and commercial projects. SAM has different options for predicting the performance of photovoltaic systems. The model requires that the
user choose from different photovoltaic system models, and depending on that choice, possibly choose from different modules and different inverter
component models. The software offers a package of performance and financial for projects with different financial structures. SAM's reports use
consistent assumptions for the different models to facilitate comparing technology and financing options. SAM is one of many photovoltaic system
models available, but is unique in the way it integrates a photovoltaic performance model with a detailed financial model for a given project, and in its
ability to compare photovoltaic systems to other renewable energy systems. SAM has three different choices for the user to choose from to modeling a
photovoltaic system; The PVWatts System model which is an implementation of NREL 's online photovoltaic calculator, the Flat Plate PV model
which combines and separates module's component models that are available for the user to select and; and the High–X Concentrating PV model
which is for concentrating PV systems. All three

Digitally Controlled Single Phase Inverter For...
Digitally Controlled Single Phase Inverter for Photovoltaic Energy System Mr. Suraj Muley1, Mr. Abhijit Padgavhankar2 E&TC Department, Smt.
Kashibai Navale College of Engineering,pune–41 1suraj.muley9@gmail.com E&TC Department, Smt. Kashibai Navale College of Engineering
,pune–41 2 avpadgavhankar@sinhgad .edu Abstract–This paper is concerned with the basic theory of a Sinusoidal Pulse Width Modulation,
considering different designing parameters and various uncertainty. The project will start by a basic understanding of the circuit of the pwm Inverter,
the components used in the design and the reason for selecting such components in this circuit. After this, tried to simulate a model circuit on any
simulating software e.g. MATLAB and analyze the output waveforms for various values of the elements used in the circuit and hence study the
system response and instabilities. key words: PV cell , SPWM. I. INTRODUCTION An inverter is basically a device that converts electrical energy of
DC form into that of AC. The Purpose of DC–AC inverter is to take DC power from a battery source and converts it to AC. For example the household
inverter receives DC supply from 12V or 24V battery and then inverter converts it to 240V AC with a desirable frequency of 50Hz or 60Hz. These
DC–AC

Increasing The Efficiency Of Photovoltaic Panels By...
Increasing the Efficiency of Photovoltaic Panels by Trapping and Reflecting Light Energy Introduction: Objectives: To create a more reflective and
efficient photovoltaic roof panel in order to allow buildings with photovoltaic–panel roofs to meet LEED standards. Justification (need/specification):
This work is important as our carbon intake is much too high and if we are to reduce it so by 2050 we only have twice as much CO2 in the
atmosphere as we do now. At this point, we are due to have three times as much CO2 which is detrimental to a great percentage of Earth 's ecosystems
(Ex: the coral reefs will be extinct) (Powering the Planet: Nathan Lewis) and our general health. However, there are many efforts being taken to reduce
emission. LEED Standard buildings– buildings that use less water, energy, and to produce less waste; are becoming more widespread. In total, these
buildings have saved over a billion dollars in energy, about 1.5 million dollars in water, and about 5.4 million dollars in waste reduction (http:/
/leed.usgbc.org/leed.html?gclid=CNbk7PLXztACFc9ZhgodzPYJyw). However, these buildings have one problem: they are unable to have solar
paneled roofs because, in order for a building to meet LEED standards the building has to have a white roof. The design we are Acosta, Crawford 2
proposing could possibly solve that problem and increase the efficiency of photovoltaic lenses. Background: In the past there have been both mirrors
and lighter colors used for

A Framework For Epbt Calculation Of Roof Mounted...
A FRAMEWORK FOR EPBT CALCULATION OF ROOF MOUNTED PHOTOVOLTAIC SYSTEMS
Introduction
Currently, most of the world's energy is derived from fossil fuels (World Energy Resources 2013 Survey). Fossil fuels are a limited resource and
might not be able to meet the future energy requirements of the world for too long (Shafiee and Topal 2009). Apart from being non–renewable, these
are also significant contributors of greenhouse gases to the environment leading to air, water and land pollution (Marland and Rotty 1984). Due to the
nature of these resources there is an urgent need to conserve these resources. It is also important to explore alternative energy sources for the future.To
this end, multiple solutions have been proposed. One of the most ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
It can be anywhere in between 3 years to 30 years or even more depending on a multitude of factors.
Energy pay–back time (EPBT):
" The Energy Pay Back Time is defined by EPBT = Einput/Esaved, where Einput is the energy input during the module life cycle (which includes the
energy required for manufacturing, installation, energy use during operation, and energy needed for decommissioning) and Esaved the annual energy
savings due to electricity generated by the PV module. EPBT depends on a number of factors: cell technology, type of encapsulation, frame and array
support, module size & efficiency, PV system application type (autonomous or grid–connected) and, finally, PV system performance as determined by
irradiation and the performance ratio. EPBT is also affected by factors that do not directly relate to the characteristics of the PV power system itself:
conversion efficiency of the electricity supply system and energy requirements of materials like glass, aluminum etc. " (Alsema 2000)
In order to determine the EPBT of a photovoltaic system, it is very important to determine the total energy that is required to manufacture, install,
transport and dispose the system as well as energy required for any other purpose during the life cycle of the system.
A typical PV system consists of different components. The components of a PV system can be classified into two categories:
1.The Panel: This consists of the panel
2.Balance of system (BOS):

Materials Engineering Of Photovoltaic Cells
Materials Engineering in Photovoltaic cells
In today's world when we think about energy sources, there are 2 classifications they can be split into: renewable and non–renewable sources of energy.
Fossil fuels are the backbone for most of the energy we use today. We need this fuel for almost all of our daily routine, from lighting a fire to
running heavy machinery, but with increase in population there has been an increasing demand of such energy. Fuels like these tend to give
massive amount of energy but also affect the environment by producing harmful gases and residue. With the depletion of the fossil fuels such as
coal and petroleum we needed to switch to alternate form of energy which and there has been an ever greater need for a cleaner and renewable form
of energy. Humans have tried to find many alternative (and renewable) forms of energy such as wind and water but not at a very large scale. With an
abundance of solar energy available to harvest, it is one of the most widely cultivated renewable forms of energy.
Solar cells or photovoltaic are the primary devices that are able to harvest the sun's energy in a form that can be used every day. Semiconductors are
one of the more widely used materials in the solar cells industry; however other materials such as organic photovoltaic, solution–processed solar cells
and dye–sensitized solar cells are also used in the market. To understand the basic principle behind the working of a solar cell, we have to look down
into the

Analysis of Solar Photovoltaic Development and Constraints
Analysis of Solar Photovoltaic Development and Constraints History In 1954, Bell Laboratories have developed the first solar cell and the
energy efficiency was 6% back then (Goetzberger et al. 2002). The figure has been raised to over 10% within 18 months (Green. 2009). For a long
period of time, solar energy has mainly been applied into the power supply of space vehicles (Goetzberger et al. 2002). On account of the substantial
development in the performance of silicon cells, the efficiency of solar energy conversion has reached 25% (Green. 2009). The growth over time of
solar efficiency is delineated in Figure 1: Figure 1 – Development in Solar Efficiency since 1940 (Green. 2009) As shown in the diagram, there are
majorly three major breakthroughs in solar efficiency. According to Green, the first one was in 1950s, powered by better cell design, crystal growth
and junction diffusion. The following phase was in 1970s, boosted by the enhanced coatings, surface texturing, development in shallow junctions and
photolithographically deп¬Ѓned metallization. Finally, since mid–1980 the solar technology has benefited from ameliorations in bulk lifetimes, light
trapping and passivation, resulting in more than 5% net growth in efficiency (Green. 2009) Importance of Solar and other Renewable Energy Sources
According to the projections from the United Nations, the world population will reach 9.3 billion in 2050 (Lee. 2011). The figure is expected to reach
10.1 billion by

China 's Solar Photovoltaic Energy Development
Leiding Wang Econ 3253 Ouyang Yusi Dec 04, 2014 China's Solar Photovoltaic Energy Development With the rapid economic development, China
has surpassed US and become the world's largest economy. In the same time, China also become the largest emitter of Carbon Dioxide (Co2) which
is the most important reason for world's climate change. During the development of economy, China used Coal too much and Coal would be
converted to Co2. However, Coal is one of a fossil Fuel which means it is non–renewable. For the future development and environmental concerns,
China has the sufficient reason to find another resource instead of Coal. Indeed, China is trying to extend application of renewable energy such as
wind power, hydropower and solar energy. Especially, solar energy developed very well last decade in China and China become the leading
manufacturer of PV (Photovoltaic– solar energy). According to article China's Solar Photovoltaic Industry Development: The Status Quo, Problems
and Approaches, "solar PV energy supply is destined to become one of the main global energy supply carriers by 2030 and a leading energy source by
2050. EU and USA plan to expand the gross installed capacity of the PV industry to over 1500 million KW by 2050. China aims to create a PV
industry with a gross installed capacity of 1050 GW by 2030." (Hongzhang P222) Based on information above, it is easy to notice China's potential in
PV industry and PV market will create value for China's economy.

Photovoltaic Materials Essay
Photovoltaic Materials
Ahmed Albalbisi
University of South Florida
Abstract
Solar energy is one of the most used energy sources that all living things depend upon. Man has been able to capture some of the sun's energy and
uses it for cooking, heating and to power everyday appliances. Solar energy technologies have come a long way. Solar cells, commonly referred to as
photovoltaic cells, transform the solar energy into electrical energy. Owing that solar energy is renewable and could be the most dependable source of
electricity, it is worthwhile to drive the production costs further down to enable growth in the photovoltaic manufacturing sector. Research in thesolar
cell manufacturing field indicates that influences ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
In converting solar enagy to electrical energy for use, Solar cells commonly known as photovoltaic cells are used. Technology innovations in the solar
photovoltaics is anticipated to significantly reduced the cost of energy across the globe (Kalkman et al, 2015). This paper will look to investigate and
research on prospective production practices and innovations that will help to drive down expenditure involved in the production of photovoltaic
materials.
In the past four decades, there have been numerous strides made in the photovoltaic enagy field which has seen has seen the emergence of PV as
a viable source of renewable energy. One significant development is the progressive reduction in the unit cost of photovoltaic cells made from
silicon. For instance, an analysis of the cost in dollars per watt of Crystalline Silicon from 1977 indicates that the cost has been declining steadily. In
1977, the cost in dollars per watt ($IW) over $76, in the year 2000, it stood at $5 and surprisingly, in 2015 it was at a low of $0.30 (Kalkman et al,
2015). Due to the decline in cost per unit watt, photovoltaic energy production has reached grid–parity in 40 countries of thereabout. In it projected that
by the end of this year, it would have attained grid–parity in more than half of the countries of the world (Balfour Shaw, 2011).
Albeit the cost of c–Si cells has become very affordable, its low cost has made it hard for other equally viable

A Thorough Comparative Analysis Of Single Diode Models...
Abstract– This paper presents a thorough comparative analysis study for various kinds of single diode models based photovoltaic power source. The
main target behind the paper is to explore the effect of increasing the embedded degree of complexity of the single diode model on the simulated
behavior of a particular PV module by comparing the dynamic performance of such kind of PV models with the experimental data from manufacturer 's
data sheet under varying the atmospheric conditions. The relative errors between each PV single diode model output and the experimentally validated
data are computed at three indicative points namely open circuit voltage, short circuit current and maximum power point. The result of this comparison
leads to determining the best PV single diode module – that is more suitable than the others in the context of single diode model – to be applied in
different power system application irrespective of changing the environmental conditions along over different periods of the day. The comparison
study in this paper ends up with determining the relevant single diode model at low, medium and high temperature and irradiance level as well as at
standard test conditions. Introduction New era that will not mainly relay on central power stations seems to have started. A novel independent power
producers who provide less expensive, more efficient and smaller–scale power plants is well underway вЂЋ[1]–вЂЋ[2]. Renewable energy is heavily
involved in such direction and

Photovoltaic ( Pv ) Based Distributed Generators Essay
Abstract: Photovoltaic (PV) based distributed generators (DGs) are generally controlled as current source to deliver only active power generated
by PV source to the grid. However, reactive power transfer capability of such DGs must be utilized to satisfy reactive power demand of the load or
to provide reactive power support to the grid. Reactive power management for several such PV based DGs operating in parallel is a challenging task
as the available reactive power capacity of each depends on the environmental conditions and may vary continuously. The proposed algorithm considers
the effect of environmental conditions on the active power generated by the DGs and accordingly assigns reactive power references for the inverters
after computing the available capacity of the inverters. Hence, irrespective of variation in active powers of the DGs, the proposed algorithm not only
helps to avoid the overloading of the inverters but also operates all inverters at same apparent power rating to ensure equal utilization of the inverters.
The algorithm is evaluated in terms of its capability to obtain the best solution that gives the least standard deviation of utilization factors of the
inverters. Simulation results obtained using MATLAB/Simulink are included to confirm its effectiveness over other algorithms. 1.Introduction
Distributed power generation especially through renewable energy sources is gaining more attention compared to conventional power generation by
non renewable

The Impact Of Solar Technology On The Environment
Jennifer Potoczak
Eco–Structures
Fall 2014
Professor Land
Photovoltaics
I. What is photovoltaics?
The basic principle behind photovoltaics is the conversion of sunlight into electricity. Photovoltaic cells, "generate electric power when illuminated by
sunlight or artificial light. They are by far the most highly developed of the man–made photoconversion devices". (pg.1) Although seemingly cutting
edge, the physics and technology behind photovoltaics is nothing new. Their history reaches as far back as 1839, with the first photoconversion devices
appearing in the 1950 's and the earliest installations of these devices taking place in the 1970 's. Today, with technological innovations consistently and
exponentially improving everything from photovoltaic efficiency to their aesthetic qualities, photovoltaic devices are poised for significant market
expansion.
With the dawn of the energy crisis upon us, photovoltaic technology has become a crucial component of discussions centering around sustainability,
clean energy, and renewable recourses. This is because there are a number of significant advantages associated with photovoltaic technology. First and
foremost, this technology channels our Earth 's largest renewable energy source– the sun. In itself, the sun 's net solar power input to the Earth is more
than 10,000 times humanity 's current rate of use of fossil and nuclear fuels. Thus, the energy source harnessed by PV technology is virtually
inexhaustible,

Photovoltaic Based Stabilising The Load Distribution...
Photovoltaic Based Stabilising The Load Distribution Feeders Using LPC. SUNKA DIVYA G.NARESH M.Tech Student,EEE, Asst.Prof,EEE,
Aarushi Engineering college, Aarushi Engineering college, Warangal, Telangana, India. Warangal, Telangana, India.
Mail.id:divyasunka@gmail.com Mail.id:nareshsce@gmail.com ABSTRACT: Balancing load of distribution feeders is significant for falling of
power loss and mitigating power flow. As the loop power controller is implanting for the active power and reactive power flows by change in
voltage ratio and phase shift. So that the balancing of the load distribution feeders can be achieved. However it can include photovoltaic power
producing in feeder balancing load, as a Taipower distribution feeder consisting of two feeders with large amount of photovoltaic equipment
considered. The balancing load can be determine in distribution feeders with photovoltaic set up by using the loop power controllers as the changing
of solar energy and power loading of feeders. With implanting the control algorithm in MATLAB for loop power controller by changing the voltage
ratio and phase shift connecting to the feeder the proper amount of active power and

Photovoltaic Cell And Its Effect On The Environment
1.[INTRUDUCTION] Photovoltaic cell is electric generating cells that convert sunlight energy into electrical energy; it is the most important and
sustainable electrical energy generating system, solar electric cell energy has grown rapidly and a popular resource of energy. On like most
electricity generating system has footpath of (CO2) produce, either during construction of the system or when in operation. Photovoltaic cell also
known as the solar panel is one of the Morden means of generating electricity without producing (CO2) although traces of Co2 could be emitted,
due to the mechanical application involves during the contraction of the Photovoltaic system which could be ignored cause it's of less harm to the
environment during the long term of its operation. Photovoltaic cell is affected by two major external conditions which are irradiance and
temperature, the two factors have a great effect on the Photovoltaic cell and its output, the amount of power obtained from the PV system is a
function of the PV array voltage and current set point, which brings to note why the output from the Photovoltaic cell has to be maximized with a
DC booster. Photovoltaic cell is of grate impart in the Morden market of electrical generating sector, commonly used by industries and private home
etc. as a source of electricity , which have been of existence since , 1950s 'Inventors at Bell Labs (Daryl Chapin, Calvin Fuller, and Gerald Pearson)
developed a more efficient PV cell (6%)

Advantages And Disadvantages Of Photovoltaics
Photovoltaics. Photovoltaic panels that conform to curved or otherwise irregular surfaces offer numerous advantages over the heavy and rigid panels
that account for most of today's photovoltaic electricity generation. "Building–integrated photovoltaics" (BIPV) could allow photovoltaic laminates to
be applied directly to building surfaces or incorporated in building products such as shingles and siding.14 Dr.
Harry Zervos of the consultancy IDTechEx observes that "it will be easy to go to the local DIY shop and buy rolled or folded solar panels and fit
them in the average family car to take them home. There will be no need to strengthen the home roof before installing such panels."15
Current organic photovoltaics (PV) technology has reached conversion efficiency of ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Flexible electronics have potential in many important applications, such as wearable health monitoring devices and medical implants. Medical patches
and implants utilizing bendable and stretchable sensors can potentially monitor a wide range of biological functions.21 Smart textiles. Flexible
electronics technology may enable the creation of fabrics that can alter their characteristics in response to external stimuli, whether mechanical,
thermal, electrical, chemical, or biological. "Currently much of this field is still in the development or prototype stage, with significant work going into
areas such as stretchability and hybrid integration."22
Defense applications. Flexible electronics devices printed onto uniforms, including electronic readers, displays featuring high–quality photographs,
maps, and other information, and communications devices would drastically reduce the loads soldiers carry. sensors can be placed on aircraft and
vehicles to perform multiple functions. Printed photovoltaic devices on tents, buildings,

An Investigation Into Photovoltaic Cells
An Investigation into Photovoltaic Cells Karolina Kot, U1356111 University of Huddersfield School of Art, Design and Architecture An
Investigation into Photovoltaic Cells INTRODUCTION: In this report I will be investigating into photovoltaic cells, also known as solar cells,
and "solar battery" (in early days). I will look at the purpose of them, the technologies in which they are being used, how they work and how they
are used based on the actual examples. The other parts of the report will show the example of how they are used in the existing building and what
function they have in it. I will also be looking at the advantages and disadvantages of using photovoltaic cell technologies and compare it to
alternative technologies available on market that can be used, taking in consideration the aspects of both technologies. At the end of the report I
will also look at the sustainable issues as well as the cost issues that come along with using this method in small and large buildings. I will look
forward to generally summarize the use of photovoltaic cells and their aspects within the buildings. EXPLANATION OF THE TECHNOLOGY,
WHAT IT IS: Photovoltaic cells, are used in buildings in the way of photovoltaic panels also known as "Solar PV Panels" to provide and deliver
electricity directly into the building. They are often being mixed up with "Solar Thermal Panels", as they are both put on the roofs of the buildings and
look very similar, however they provide

Introduction And Literature Review : New Generation...
1.INTRODUCTION AND LITERATURE REVIEW
New generation photovoltaic cells based on organic materials possess the potential for the low cost and large area production on mechanically flexible
substrates. These are lightweight and suitable for the applications such as foldable and portable solar cells. Organic photovoltaics (OPVs) have not
achieved efficiencies comparable to the inorganic solar cells due to poor charge carrier mobility [1]. Recent developments of optimizing the organic
absorbing materials have shown encouraging device performance towards overcoming the challenges associated with commercialization. Using
various fabrication techniques, production speed up to several meters square per second can be achieved. With roll to roll fabrication process, about
105 m2 of a film can be prepared in a day. The production of organic photovoltaic devices can be achieved in large quantity and many times cheaper
than the conventional inorganic photovoltaic technology.
Recently, organic solar cells (OSCs) developed using different fabrication techniques, materials and state of the arts have power conversion efficiency
between 6 – 10% and even greater than this [2–5]. To develop more efficient organic solar cells, various strategies are being used such as bilayer
heterojunction to improve exciton dissociation, bulk hetero junction to minimize exciton recombination, etc.
The performance of the organic solar cell highly depends on the interfaces between the various

2.5 How Do Photovoltaic Work?
2.5 How do photovoltaic work? For solar cells, a thin semiconductor wafer is especially treated to structure an electric field, positive on one side and
negative on the other. At the point when light energy strikes the solar cell, electrons are knocked loose from the atom in the semiconductor material. In
the event that electrical conductors are joined to the positive and negative sides, structuring an electrical circuit, the electrons can be caught as an
electric current – that is, electricity. This electricity can then be utilized to power a load, for example, a light or a device. Various solar cells
electrically connected with one another and mounted in a support structure or frame is known as a photovoltaic module. Modules are intended... Show
As such, the photovoltaic reaction of single–intersection cells is constrained to the share of the sun 's range whose vitality is over the band hole of the
retaining material, and lower energy photons are not utilized. One method to get around this impediment is to utilize two (or more) different cells, with
more than one band gap and more than one junction, to create a voltage. These are referred to as "multijunction" cells. Multijunction devices can
accomplish a higher aggregate transformation proficiency in light of the fact that they can change over a greater amount of the energy spectrum of
light to power (Knier, 2002). 3.Brazil Energies Brazil has experienced a significant economic and demographic growth in the previous decades and this
development is expected to continue in the following years, influencing on electricity consumption rates. The government of Brazil estimates that
electricity consumption (excluding self–consumption) will grow from 466,5 TWh in 2013 to 672 TWh in 2022, demanding investments on the
expansion of the energy matrix and more utilization of the high potential for renewable energies (ANEEL, 2013). Brazil has a huge potential to
generate solar energy with an irradiation average between 4,8 to 6,0 kWh/mВІ/day, while in Germany the maximum value is of 3,4 kWh/mВІ/day.
(Brazil Solar Atlas, 2006). Then it is quite noticeable that the worst spot in Brazil is still better than in Germany, which is one of the largest producer
of solar energy in the

The Best Type Of Energy
Around the world, there are hundreds of different methods of how to use alternative energy in order to save the earth from burning fossil fuels.
Burning these, causes major air pollution and can be detrimental towards the health of thousands of populations. The best type of energy is
photovoltaic energy because it possesses many advantages and it outshines the other alternative sources. In one day, the amount of sunlight shining
over the United States is over 2,500 times the entire country's daily energy usage combined. Photovoltaic energy is used to power solar panels by
having particles of light, photons, free electrons from their atoms, thus generating electricity. Solar panels are composed of photovoltaic cells; these
cells turn sunlight into electricity. Each cell is made up of two pieces of semi–conducting material, typically silicon, which is used to establish an
electric field. This field occurs when opposite charges are separated and this is done by giving each piece a positive or negative electrical charge.
When the photon pushes an electron free, the electron field will thrust the electron out of the junction between the two charged layers of material. This
basic physical process, ejecting electrons in response to light, is known as the photoelectric effect. When this happens, the energy from the photon is
shifted towards an electron that is in a photovoltaic cell. Metal conductive plates can then use these electrons as usable energy by collecting and

Comparative Study Of Mppt Algorithms For Photovoltaic...
COMPARATIVE STUDY OF MPPT ALGORITHMS FOR PHOTOVOLTAIC APPLICATIONS D.Kannan *1, Dr.N.Narmadhai 2 Department of
Electrical Engineering, Government College of Technology, Anna University, Coimbatore
–641013.Tamilnadu, India,Mobile:+91
9543628236,E–mail:kannanstak@gmail.com Departments of Electrical Engineering, Government College of Technology, Anna University
Coimbatore.Tamilnadu, India kannanstak@gmail.com narmadhai@gct.ac.in Abstract– This paper presents study and comparison of Maximum Power
Point tracking(MPPT) for photovoltaic applications. Comparison based on the output power from the Photovoltaic panel(PV),ripple in PV
voltage,Tracking Efficiency and oscillations around the MPP. Using Power Simulation(PSIM) platform, the conventional MPPT algorithms and
proposed MPPT algorithm is compared with boost converter. The simulation results for conventional MPPT algorithms and proposed MPPT algorithm
named power plane analysis technique with and without using Proportional Integral(PI) controller are computed. Index Terms–Maximum power point
Tracking, Photovoltaic Panel, Power Simulation, Proportional Integral. I. INTRODUCTION Electrical energy can be drived from conventional and
renewable resources. The exhaustion of natural resources and the accelerated demand of conventional energy have forced planners and policy makers
to look for alternate sources. The limited reserves of fuel oils and their unstable price have

The Generation Of Electricity By Photovoltaic Cells Essay
PHOTOVOLTAICS PIYUSH PIYUSH ID–101317400 ABSTRACT The report covers the generation of electricity by photovoltaic cells. The main
idea of this report is to provide knowledge to the scholar about the photovoltaic power generation and how we can use PV cells for the production
of electricity. In this report there is an explanation of how PV cells can be used for the production of electricity. The report consists of how
concentrating collectors, thin film technology, building integrated systems and flat plate collectors can be used. The material used for the production
of photovoltaic cells are polycrystalline silicon, thin film materials and single crystal. The report consists of manufacturing technology used in the
production of photovoltaic cells and how we can improve the cell efficiency and other monetary aspects of photovoltaic technology. However, the
photovoltaic efficiency and production costs has not reached up to the highest level because of the cost related issues and this technology is not able
to replace the conventional sources of energy such as coal, gas and nuclear powered generating facilities. Photovoltaic power is used in remote
applications such as communications, villages and homes in many developing countries. In many areas the rooftop installation of solar panels is
smaller but it is rapidly increasing at a great pace. As the industrial sciences narrow down the cost gap, more applications are increasing and the use of
photovoltaic panel has increased.

Advancements Of Organic Photovoltaic Cells
Advancements in Organic Photovoltaic Solar Cells Stephen J. Faulkenberry, Graduate Assistant (GA) Department of Engineering Technology, Middle
Tennessee State University Abstract Organic photovoltaic (OPV) solar cells are becoming an increasingly pragmatic alternative to first and second
generation cells when it comes to existing augmentation and future rollouts. Cheap to construct due to a simplified printing process, they can even be
made in consumer level 3D printing processes. Unlike previous generations, they are much more flexible in design and practical usage thanks to the
wide variety of dyes, polymers, and natural elements that can be used in construction. Pitfalls of OPV cells include their low lifespan and solar
efficiency, but in 2013 Heliatek finished research on a cell that achieved a 12% efficiency rating, above the target mark of 10% for second generation
amorphous silicon cells. Further research and development in OPV cells will likely bring them into direct competition with previous generations.
I.Introduction Solar photovoltaic cells are catogorized into three generational groups. First generation cells are made from crystalline silicon, expensive
to construct, and offer little flexibility. Second generation cells are made from amorphous (non–crystalline) silicon, cheaper to make than crystalline,
offer some flexibility, yet still utilize rare and often toxic materials. Consequently, the maturation of the build process for 1st and 2nd generation

Detection Methods That Use Signal Processing And Interfere...
ABSTRACT
Photovoltaic (PV) electrical power generation is an important and promising research area because there is high demand for renewable energy
systems. To improve the performance of PV array systems so that these energy systems might be better understood and more readily available, more
research needs to be done to detect faults on PV array and system monitoring. Through the study of fault detection methods on PV systems, the process
of using and analyzing these systems can become more streamlined and reliable. In this paper, most of the fault detection methods that use signal
processing and interfere with PV array analysis techniques will be discussed and analyzed. This paper seeks to identify early detection methods that can
... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Additionally, progress in PV research has political benefits because installing PV systems does not require specific resources to be imported from other
countries. Because of that advantage, governments across the world have supported the deployment of PV arrays and funded research to improve PV
technology [2].
In this paper, an overview of PV is discussed in Section 2. Section 3 presents fault analysis of PV arrays and types of faults, which occur in PV arrays.
Fault detection methods of PV arrays are mentioned in Section 4. Finally, Section 5 contains a conclusion about fault detection methods that use
signal–processing techniques.
2 OVERVIEW OF PHOTOVOLTAICS
Even though this work presented in this paper analyzes PV arrays at a very sophisticated level, some basic understanding of the electrical attitude and
characteristics of individual PV cells is needed to obtain the big picture. This section contains brief explanations of the PV cell. First, Section 2.1
covers single–diode equivalent circuit model of a PV cell and current–voltage characteristic (I–V). Second, the most common models of PV module
performance are discussed in Section 2.2. Last, solar cells connections are described in Section 2.3.
2.1 Single–Diode Model and I–V Characteristics
A solar cell is basically a p–n junction made–up in thin layers of semiconductor material. It converts solar energy

A Strong Feedback Linearizing Stabilization Scheme For A...
ABSTARCT This project represents a robust feedback linearizing stabilization scheme for a three phase grid connected PV (Photovoltaic) system with
boost converter to control the injected current into the grid and DC link voltage to generate more power from photovoltaic (PV) modules. In this
proposed system, boost converter is implemented with the photovoltaic system to increase the input voltage to output. The proposed control scheme is
mostly based on the robust controller with partial feedback linearization approach of response and the robustness of the proposed control scheme is
ensured by in view of uncertainties within the photovoltaic structure. The uncertainties are modeled as structured uncertainties based on the approval
of corresponding circumstances are proposed in this work. The proposed robust control linear stabilization scheme is implemented on a photovoltaic
three phase grid connected system with boost converter in terms of delivering maximum power under changes in different atmospheric situations. The
implementation and analysis of three phase grid connected photovoltaic system with boost converter by using MATLAB/Simulink software.
INTRODUCTION Now a day, photovoltaic (PV) energy system has attracted interest as a next generation energy source capable of solving the couple
of problems caused by increasing energy consumption. Photovoltaic system avoids unnecessary fuel expenses, pollution or waste and no vibrations
/ noises because the components of power

The Viability of Small Photovoltaic (PV) Systems Installation
The purpose of this analysis is identification of the relative impact of economic factors for entities contemplating entry into the Midwest Region solar
energy installation market as installers of solar photovoltaic energy systems (PV systems) for homes and small businesses. Many individuals are
concerned with renewable energy. They believe it provides a reduction in utility consumption and cost. They also believe government subsidies, and
environmental preservation makes the idea more attractive to potential clients. However, entry to the PV system installation market is not without
financial risk. The following research of applicable economic variables and subsequent recommendation might sufficiently illuminate the important
issues... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2014). The third demand determinant evaluated is consumer taste. Scant information is available to gauge consumer
preference for PV systems. A 2009 survey of 641 individuals and businesses in San Diego, California indicates 20 percent or fewer respondents would
have PV systems installed without an available tax rebate, and most could not afford systems sufficiently large enough to meet all of their electrical
needs (U.S. Department of Energy, 2009). The fourth determinant evaluated is population and demographics. Again little information is available to
evaluate this determinant. In a subcontract report for the National Renewable Energy Laboratory, The Natural Marketing Institute indicates consumers
in the Midwest are more price sensitive, and less aware of their available energy options than other national regions (Rogers, 2011). Additionally, the
report states most consumers across all regions are concerned about renewable or sustainable energy yet few act upon their concerns. The final demand
determinant evaluated is consumer expectation of future price. PV system prices are expected to decrease as photovoltaic technology evolves, and
production increases. From 2012–2016 all PV markets are expected to grow by 25–30 percent, and the national weighted average of all system prices
will drop 33 percent (Solar Energy Industries Association, 2012). Figure 1 The graph above depicts anticipated demand for PV systems over the next

Building Integrated Photovoltaic ( Bipv ) Systems
Building integrated photovoltaic (BIPV) systems are one of the most promising solar–based technologies with the potential to minimise the high energy
demands of office buildings in the Adelaide CBD. Recently, the Australian government has put in significant effort to increase the sustainability of
existing buildings. The Commercial Building Disclosure (CBD) program, released as part of the Building Energy Efficiency Disclosure Act 2010,
requires the owners of Australia's largest office buildings to reveal information regarding their energy consumption and efficiency to the public
(Department of Industry and Science 2015). By replacing conventional building materials on the exterior of a building with solar photovoltaic (PV)
modules, BIPV allows on–site electricity generation to reduce the building's total energy consumption and emissions. A multifunctional technology, the
modules can also serve dual functions as roofs, windows, walls, thermal insulation and daylight modulators, increasing energy efficiency and reducing
operational costs. It is therefore recommended that the South Australian government develop policies and strategies to encourage the incorporation of
BIVP into all future buildings and restoration projects. The development of BIVP standards and procedures will also be necessary to overcome the
technical and financial constraints of BIVP and promote more industry professionals to partake in this new and innovative technology. In Australia,
commercial buildings

The Solar Of Solar Energy
Luke Schwartz Environmental ethics Final Paper Photovoltaic Panels Have you ever been to a house or business that uses Solar? Solar power is a
great way to save money as well as conserve energy. Solar panels convert sunlight into usable energy for housing, businesses, sections of properties,
and even stuff like pool equipment. I want to discuss out the three important points about photovoltaic panels starting with the history of solar panels
to understanding panels and how they are built, and finally the environmental aspects of photovoltaic panels. For those who don 't know, solar
energy is radiant energy produced by the sun and can be captured through semi conductors to use the energy. Solar energy is used in many parts of
the world and has become very poplar today. The history of solar energy goes back to the 1769's when a "Swiss scientist named Horace–Benedict de
Saussure created the first solar collector which was an insulated box covered with three layers of glass to absorb heat energy. Saussure's box became
widely know as the first solar oven, reaching temperatures of 230 degrees fahrenheit."(7). This complex system of collecting sunlight to create power
for all sorts of things became extremely popular and the industry started to boom. An article from solar energy history states that, "In 1947 following
the second World War, solar power equipment started being popular among many people in the USA. There was a huge demand of solar
equipment."(7). After this boom

Working Of Dc Ac Converter For Photovoltaic Systems Essay
ABRIDGEMENT This report aims to discuss the working of DC–AC converter for photovoltaic systems and how it has been implemented to convert
renewable energy into usable power to be supplied to the load (power supply application).A topology of a two–stage DC–AC converter has been
designed in which a boost converter and a full bridge inverter act as an interface between the photovoltaic (PV) array and the power supply
applications. A controlled strategy called Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT) technique has been used for achieving maximum power output at
the load. Various modes of operation of the converter and the inverter are also discussed. MATLAB Simulink environment has been used for
designing the circuitry and to observe various waveforms related to the output. Keywords: PV array, MPPT (Maximum Power Point Tracking),
Perturbation and Observation, Boost Converter, Full Bridge Inverter. TABLE OF CONTENTS 1. INTRODUCTION As a result of rapid
industrialization and urbanization, there has been substantial increase in energy demand. The fossil fuel consumption has also been increased to great
extent. But it's over consumption is leading to various environmental issues like increased level of Carbon dioxide and various harmful gases in the
environment and rise of Global Warming. So various approaches are being made to meet the world 's increasing demand of energy.in the recent years,
there has been great development in the field of power generation from the alternative

The Photovoltaic Installation And Maintenance
This paper proposes an entrepreneurial endeavor in the photovoltaic installation and maintenance in support of the Department of Defense's
requirement in meeting Executive Order 13693, Federal Leadership on Climate Change and Environmental Sustainability, mandating a 40 percent
greenhouse gas emissions reduction from 2008 levels. This paper discusses the influential event resulting in the entrepreneurial contemplation; differing
market models; discusses how pricing relates to elasticity of demand for competing models (i.e., monopoly, oligopoly, monopolistic competition, and
pure competition); discusses strategies to use to develop product differentiation and market segmentation (including proposals concerning alternative
non–pricing strategies available and non–pricing strategies proposal to increase barriers to entry); determines elasticity of demand (for various
quality ranges and the degree of luxury vs. necessity represented by various brands; discusses changes in quantity supplied as a result of pricing
decisions affecting the company 's marginal cost, marginal revenue, and market share as production volume rises; discusses responses to producers'
actions altering fixed and variable costs in support of the business' pricing strategy. On June 6, 2013, most parts of the Island of Guam went dark,
which is due to an explosion of one of the electrical substations to one of the electrical power plants on the island (Aguon, 2013). The substation
explosion's immediate impact

Energy Crisis Interrelated to Global Warming....
Energy Crisis Interrelated to Global Warming. Photovoltaic Cell– A Possible Solution Abstract– The world's energy crisis has worsened in recent
years, as oil prices dramatically increased due to the limited amount of available oil. Global warming is considered as a byproduct of energy crisis,
because as oil continues to burn in the refining process, CO2 is constantly emitted to the atmosphere at a fast rate and in heavy concentrations, which in
turn, worsens the global warming situation. Photovoltaic cell technology converts sunlight into direct current electricity. This source can be a possible
solution to solve the energy crisis as well as the global warming issue. Introduction– Energy crisis has remained a top concern in... Show more content
on Helpwriting.net ...
One of the possible solutions to solve these problems is the replacement of renewable energy, solar energy, which converts sun energy directly to
usable energy such as electricity. This will possibly slow down the process of energy crisis and global warming. 3 Results and Discussion– Almost
everything in our daily lives depends on oil as a major energy source, automobiles, freeways, commutes, air travel, food and heater/air conditioning.
Since the production of oil is considered cheap and convenient in economic terms, people rarely consider alternative sources of energy. Until
recently, the energy crisis has worsened. This is indicated by the rising of oil prices. The world, especially the U.S. is highly depending on the
Middle Eastern oil because oil productions in other places are constantly declining. Not only city residents are dependent on oil, but also the farmers.
Farmer represents 2% of the American population, but they can produce enough food for the rest of the 98% of the population due to the help from the
oil–powered machineries. It is estimated that it takes approximately one ton of oil to produce one steer. (The Coming World Energy Crisis, 2005).
Since oil is a non–renewable energy source, the oil production will definitely be depleted. The world has already consumed about half of the
endowment of oil, and the discovery rate for new oil has decreased in the past 40 years. As the world population increases, the corresponding

The Solar And Integrated Photovoltaic Panels That Generate...
One of the most innovative and interesting ideas in renewable energy to hit the streets in recent years, happens to actually be the streets! I'm talking
about roadways with integrated photovoltaic panels that generate electricity! The basic concept of this technology is actually quite interesting. With
over 2.5 million miles of paved roadway throughout the United States alone, even covering a fraction of those roadway surfaces with solar panels
could generate enormous amounts of clean energy. There are currently two different approaches to the solar panel roadway concept, both of which
are currently in the Research and Development stages with prototypes already deployed. First, a company aptly named "Solar Roadways" here in the
United States, founded by Scott Brusaw, a US Marine Veteran turned Electrical Engineer and his wife. Their concept replaces traditional paved roads
with 4 square foot hexagonal arrays. Each interlocking panel is individually replaceable, removing just four retaining bolts and a single electrical/data
connection. The Solar Roadways design requires a sophisticated sub–surface road bed with steel support columns and poured concrete with one side
designated to channel water runoff and provide drainage. The other side, large enough to support underground telecommunication lines, electric power
lines, DC–AC converters, roadway panel wiring and still allow for a man to fit inside to perform required servicing. These panels incorporate
photovoltaic cells, a

Science Search Using The Rit Ieeexplore On Solar Cells And...
Q1) Perform the literature search using the RIT IEEEXplore on solar cells and photovoltaics. Read [1–3] and https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki
/Theory_of_solar_cells ; The voltage generated by single PV cell is low so we connect single PV cells in series when we need high voltage and in
parallel when we need high current and thus we can get the high power or desired output. We generally use a series connection and this
arrangement is called as Photovoltaic module or PV module. PV module generally consists of front side, back side and encapsulated PV cell. The
front side of the material is made up of tempered glass and low iron. Efficiency is less in PV module because some of the radiation is reflected by
glass cover. Basic PV cell can be seen below Hierarchy of Photo Voltaic cells can be seen below Photovoltaic array is a photovoltaic system which
is a interconnection PV modules. Sometimes the power generated by single PV module does not meet the requirements of commercial usage.so PV
modules are connected to form PV array. To get high or increased voltage we connect the PV modules in series and to get high or increased current.
We connected PV modules in parallel. To convert DC (Direct current) power to AC (Alternating Current) which runs motors, loads etc. an inverter is
used. Working of PV Cell. PV cell works on the principle of photoelectric current. When the light strikes the surface of a semiconductor material, some
of the energy is absorbed by semiconductor material

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