The study of allometry examines how the proportions of different parts of an organism change as the organism grows in size. As body size increases from mice to elephants, hearts generally beat more slowly, brains get larger, bones get shorter and thinner proportionally, and lifespans lengthen. Allometric equations take the form of Y = aMb, where Y is a biological variable, M is a measure of body size, and b is a scaling exponent. Common examples of allometry include surface area scaling with body mass to the power of 2/3 and metabolic rate scaling with body mass to the power of 3/4.
This document provides an overview of the history and development of evolutionary thought from ancient Greek philosophers to modern genetics. It describes key figures like Darwin who proposed natural selection as the mechanism of evolution, and Mendel who discovered the basic principles of heredity. Later scientists like Watson and Crick determined DNA is the genetic material and carrier of hereditary information between generations.
1) Charles Darwin had a profound influence on modern thought through his theory of evolution by natural selection, which was outlined in his 1859 book "On the Origin of Species."
2) Darwin proposed that species evolve over time through a process of natural selection acting on random genetic variations, rather than species remaining fixed. This contradicted the prevailing view.
3) Darwin's theory challenged the view that species were independently created and that evolution proceeded in a linear, goal-oriented manner. It established evolution as a branching, non-teleological process driven by natural selection acting on inherited variation.
- The document provides learning activity sheets for students covering topics in Earth and life science over 7 weeks.
- Week 1 focuses on the origin and early forms of life, discussing theories for how life began and evidence from fossils. Key theories mentioned include special creation, panspermia, spontaneous generation, evolution, biogenesis, hydrothermal vents, and biochemical evolution. Early life forms included prokaryotic cells like bacteria and archaea and early eukaryotic cells.
- The activities guide students to discuss why studying the origin of life is important, create a diagram of how life formed on Earth, and reflect on what topics around the beginning of life most intrigued them based on what they learned.
This document discusses the history and development of evolutionary thought from ancient Greek philosophers to modern times. It covers key figures like Charles Darwin who proposed natural selection as the mechanism of evolution, and Gregor Mendel who discovered the basic principles of heredity through his experiments with pea plants. Later scientists like Watson, Crick and others integrated Mendel's ideas of genetics into evolutionary theory by discovering the structure of DNA and how it transfers hereditary information between generations and allows for mutation.
Ecology is the study of interactions between organisms and their environment. There are several levels of ecological organization, including species, populations, communities, ecosystems, and biomes. Energy flows through ecosystems from sunlight which is captured by autotrophs like plants, then consumed by heterotrophs such as herbivores, carnivores, and decomposers in a food chain. Matter cycles through ecosystems in water, nutrient, carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus cycles which allow recycling of important elements.
Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection proposes that organisms gradually change over generations through a "descent with modification" process where favorable inherited traits become more common in a population. Evidence from fields such as paleontology, genetics and developmental biology support this theory. Scientists have found fossils that show whales evolved from land mammals, starting as four-legged creatures that walked both on land and swam in water, gradually becoming fully aquatic and losing legs over millions of years. While controversial for some, evolution is well-established scientific fact that explains the diversity of life.
Charles Darwin: The Galapagos Finches and the Emergence of Evolutionary TheoryTom Moritz
Charles Darwin developed his theory of evolution by natural selection after observing finches during his voyage on the HMS Beagle and reading Thomas Malthus' work on population growth. Darwin noticed that there was variation among finches and that some variations would help individuals survive and pass traits to offspring more successfully. This led him to propose that evolution occurs through natural selection preserving favorable traits.
The study of allometry examines how the proportions of different parts of an organism change as the organism grows in size. As body size increases from mice to elephants, hearts generally beat more slowly, brains get larger, bones get shorter and thinner proportionally, and lifespans lengthen. Allometric equations take the form of Y = aMb, where Y is a biological variable, M is a measure of body size, and b is a scaling exponent. Common examples of allometry include surface area scaling with body mass to the power of 2/3 and metabolic rate scaling with body mass to the power of 3/4.
This document provides an overview of the history and development of evolutionary thought from ancient Greek philosophers to modern genetics. It describes key figures like Darwin who proposed natural selection as the mechanism of evolution, and Mendel who discovered the basic principles of heredity. Later scientists like Watson and Crick determined DNA is the genetic material and carrier of hereditary information between generations.
1) Charles Darwin had a profound influence on modern thought through his theory of evolution by natural selection, which was outlined in his 1859 book "On the Origin of Species."
2) Darwin proposed that species evolve over time through a process of natural selection acting on random genetic variations, rather than species remaining fixed. This contradicted the prevailing view.
3) Darwin's theory challenged the view that species were independently created and that evolution proceeded in a linear, goal-oriented manner. It established evolution as a branching, non-teleological process driven by natural selection acting on inherited variation.
- The document provides learning activity sheets for students covering topics in Earth and life science over 7 weeks.
- Week 1 focuses on the origin and early forms of life, discussing theories for how life began and evidence from fossils. Key theories mentioned include special creation, panspermia, spontaneous generation, evolution, biogenesis, hydrothermal vents, and biochemical evolution. Early life forms included prokaryotic cells like bacteria and archaea and early eukaryotic cells.
- The activities guide students to discuss why studying the origin of life is important, create a diagram of how life formed on Earth, and reflect on what topics around the beginning of life most intrigued them based on what they learned.
This document discusses the history and development of evolutionary thought from ancient Greek philosophers to modern times. It covers key figures like Charles Darwin who proposed natural selection as the mechanism of evolution, and Gregor Mendel who discovered the basic principles of heredity through his experiments with pea plants. Later scientists like Watson, Crick and others integrated Mendel's ideas of genetics into evolutionary theory by discovering the structure of DNA and how it transfers hereditary information between generations and allows for mutation.
Ecology is the study of interactions between organisms and their environment. There are several levels of ecological organization, including species, populations, communities, ecosystems, and biomes. Energy flows through ecosystems from sunlight which is captured by autotrophs like plants, then consumed by heterotrophs such as herbivores, carnivores, and decomposers in a food chain. Matter cycles through ecosystems in water, nutrient, carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus cycles which allow recycling of important elements.
Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection proposes that organisms gradually change over generations through a "descent with modification" process where favorable inherited traits become more common in a population. Evidence from fields such as paleontology, genetics and developmental biology support this theory. Scientists have found fossils that show whales evolved from land mammals, starting as four-legged creatures that walked both on land and swam in water, gradually becoming fully aquatic and losing legs over millions of years. While controversial for some, evolution is well-established scientific fact that explains the diversity of life.
Charles Darwin: The Galapagos Finches and the Emergence of Evolutionary TheoryTom Moritz
Charles Darwin developed his theory of evolution by natural selection after observing finches during his voyage on the HMS Beagle and reading Thomas Malthus' work on population growth. Darwin noticed that there was variation among finches and that some variations would help individuals survive and pass traits to offspring more successfully. This led him to propose that evolution occurs through natural selection preserving favorable traits.
This is a powerpoint presentation that discusses about the biology topic: Evolution and Natural Selection. This includes some concepts about Evolution, Natural Selection and other related concern topic.
This document provides information about key concepts and figures in the theory of evolution. It discusses four types of evolution, including organic evolution studied in biology. Key figures who contributed to the theory are described, such as James Hutton who established geology as a science, Charles Lyell who popularized Hutton's ideas, and Jean-Baptiste Lamarck who was one of the first to propose evolutionary change over time through the inheritance of acquired characteristics. Charles Darwin is also summarized for his theory of natural selection and his 1859 book On the Origin of Species. Evidence for evolution like the fossil record, anatomical and genetic similarities, geographic distribution, and observed genetic changes are briefly outlined.
The document discusses Darwin's theory of evolution and its relationship to motivation. It explains that Darwin observed that organisms better adapted to their environment were more likely to survive and pass on their traits, a process he called natural selection. This led psychologists after Darwin to study motivation from an evolutionary perspective, looking at how behaviors increased chances of survival. The theory helped establish psychology as a biological science and motivated the study of instincts and how they guided behavior in pursuit of survival and reproduction.
This document discusses early theories of evolution and evidence that supports the theory of evolution through natural selection. It describes Lamarck's theory of acquired traits and Darwin's theory of natural selection. Darwin proposed that organisms with traits better suited to their environment are more likely to survive and reproduce, passing on these favorable traits. The document also discusses microevolution within species over short periods versus macroevolution leading to new species, and provides examples of fossil records, homologous structures, vestigial structures, and genetics as evidence supporting the theory of evolution through gradual change over long periods of time.
1. Charles Darwin was a British naturalist who developed the theory of evolution by natural selection while traveling around the world on the HMS Beagle from 1831-1836.
2. In 1859, Darwin published On the Origin of Species, which introduced the scientific theory that populations evolve over successive generations through a process of natural selection, in which organisms better adapted to their environment tend to survive and reproduce at a higher rate.
3. Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection was highly controversial at the time due to its conflict with religious beliefs, but it established the modern framework of evolutionary biology and revolutionized scientific thought.
The document discusses Charles Darwin and the theory of evolution. It describes Darwin's life and voyage on the HMS Beagle, where he observed finches with different beak shapes on the Galapagos Islands. This led Darwin to hypothesize that all life shares a common ancestor but has adapted over generations through natural selection to different environments. The document then outlines several evolutionary theories of social change, including unilinear evolution, multilineal evolution, and universal evolution. It discusses key thinkers like Morgan, Tyler, Spencer, White, and Childe and their views on how societies evolve through various stages over time.
- The document discusses life history strategies and how different species allocate resources between traits like reproduction and parental care to maximize survivability based on their environment.
- It uses the example of Rüppell's vulture (Gyps rueppellii) which is a K-selected, iteroparous species that invests heavily in raising 1-2 chicks per year but increases long term survival through annual breeding and colonial nesting.
- Increased threats from factors like poisoning, habitat loss, and climate change are challenging the life history strategies of vultures like G. rueppellii and may require adaptation to more r-selected traits to persist. Conservation efforts aim to restore environmental stability to support
Exploring the Microhabitats of Marsupial Frogs- a Study of the FoMeredith Eyre
This document is a senior independent study thesis that explores the habitat selection of the marsupial frog Flectonotus fitzgeraldi within populations of the plant Xanthosoma jacquinii in Tobago. The study examines environmental variables, plant morphology, and aquatic variables of phytotelm habitats to better define the ecological niche of F. fitzgeraldi. A multiple logistic regression found that water depth was the only significant predictor of frog occupancy. This suggests the species has a broad ecological niche allowing it to occupy various phytotelm habitats as long as an adequate water supply is present.
- Darwin proposed four main ideas about evolution: common descent, gradualism, multiplication of species, and natural selection.
- Common descent proposed that all organisms are related through descent from a common ancestor. Gradualism proposed that new species arise gradually over time through accumulated adaptations. Multiplication of species referred to the vast number of species that exist.
- Natural selection proposed that organisms better adapted to their environment would leave more offspring, leading to the multiplication of favorable traits in a population over generations, resulting in new species.
1) Evolution is defined as gradual change over time. Charles Darwin proposed the theory of evolution by natural selection, where heritable traits that increase an organism's chances of survival are passed on to offspring.
2) Darwin observed variations among species on the Galapagos Islands that supported his theory of evolution from common ancestry.
3) Darwin's theory combined Mendel's principles of heredity with Malthus' population principles to explain evolution through natural selection acting upon inherited variation.
Macroevolution examines evolution over long time periods of thousands to millions of years. It studies changes above the species level, including the emergence of new species through speciation and loss of species through extinction. Key areas of study in macroevolution include building phylogenetic trees to demonstrate evolutionary relationships between extinct and modern species based on morphological comparisons, and using molecular analysis to help validate these relationships when possible. Mass extinctions that eliminate large percentages of species are also investigated to better understand causes and patterns of extinction and subsequent radiations as new species evolve to fill open niches.
Jean Baptiste de Lamarck was the first evolutionist to believe that organisms change over time through his three theories: the Theory of Need, the Theory of Use and Disuse, and the Theory of Acquired Characteristics. He believed giraffes developed longer necks to reach tall trees and passed these traits to offspring. However, Charles Darwin later suggested natural selection as the mechanism of evolution, where traits that aid survival, like longer giraffe necks, are selected for and passed on, while less fit traits die out. Darwin observed variations in beak structures among Galapagos finches related to food availability.
This document provides an overview of the concept of sustainability through examining the Biosphere II experiment and discussing four dimensions of sustainability: human survival, biodiversity, equity, and life quality. The Biosphere II experiment showed that creating a self-sustaining closed ecosystem is extremely complex and prone to unforeseen issues. Regarding human survival, while humans are unlikely to go extinct, environmental damage could kill many individuals and devastate cultures. Biodiversity is also threatened by human activity. Achieving true sustainability requires consideration of all living creatures as well as ensuring equity and a decent quality of life.
Lamarckism and Darwinism are two theories of evolution. Lamarckism, proposed by Jean-Baptiste Lamarck in 1809, suggests that organisms can pass on traits acquired during their lifetime to their offspring. Darwinism, proposed by Charles Darwin in 1859, proposes that evolution occurs through natural selection, where organisms better adapted to their environment are more likely to survive and pass on their traits. Key aspects of Darwinism include variation between individuals, the struggle for existence due to limited resources, and survival of the fittest individuals who pass on adaptive variations. Over many generations, these variations accumulate and can lead to the formation of new species.
The document discusses evidence that supports evolution through natural selection, including:
1) The fossil record provides evidence that life has changed over long periods of time, with early life forms being vastly different than present-day forms.
2) Artificial selection in breeding programs demonstrates that organisms can change over generations through selective breeding.
3) Homologous structures across different species, like pentadactyl limbs, provide evidence of common ancestry even if the structures have different functions today.
Ecological Concepts of Integrated Pest ManagementKarl Obispo
Ecology involves the scientific study of living organisms and their interactions with each other and their environments. It examines how organisms grow, reproduce, interact as predators, parasites or competitors, die out, and evolve or adapt to changing climates and environments. Key concepts in ecology include species, population dynamics, communities, guilds, trophic pyramids, nutrient cycling, succession, stability, productivity, and biodiversity.
The document discusses the evolution of ideas about evolution from the 18th-19th centuries. It explores early thinkers like Linnaeus and Buffon and their classifications of plants and animals. Later, Lamarck proposed one of the first evolutionary hypotheses, suggesting traits acquired over a lifetime could be inherited. Darwin was influenced by Lyell, Malthus and his observations on the Beagle voyage. He developed the theory of natural selection to explain evolution, whereby favorable heritable traits become more common over generations. His ideas were informed by artificial selection and supported by Wallace's similar conclusions.
The modern synthetic theory is the most widely accepted theory explaining organic evolution through genetics, molecular biology, and other modern fields of biology. It was first proposed by Dobzhansky in 1937 and further developed by Huxley, Muller, Fisher, Wright, Myer, and Stebbins. The theory explains that evolution occurs through five basic processes: gene mutation, chromosomal aberration, recombination, natural selection of adaptive characters, and reproductive isolation. Genetic drift and hybridization are also considered accessory factors in the modern synthesis theory of evolution.
This document summarizes Charles Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection. It describes how Darwin began to question the prevailing ideas that species were fixed and the Earth was relatively young during his voyage on the HMS Beagle. Through his observations of organisms around the world, fossils, and influences from scientists like Lyell and Malthus, Darwin developed the theory that species evolve over time through natural selection, where individuals with traits best suited to their environment are more likely to survive and pass on their genes. The document outlines some of the evidence that has accumulated in support of evolution, including the fossil record, geographic distribution of species, homologous structures, similarities in development, and molecular biology.
Biology is the study of life. There are several key characteristics of living things including being made of cells, able to reproduce, and having genetic material in the form of DNA or RNA. DNA contains the genetic code and is able to self-replicate to allow for the survival of organisms. There are several themes that unite biology including cells, heritable genetic information, emergent properties from component interactions, and regulation through feedback mechanisms. Organisms are classified into domains, and evolution occurs through natural selection of heritable traits that increase reproductive success.
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The document discusses evolution and mechanisms that lead to evolutionary change, including natural selection and genetic drift. Natural selection occurs when some traits are favored over others in an environment, allowing those traits to be presented in future generations. Genetic drift is random changes in small gene pools due to errors in allele propagation. Evidence for evolution includes antibiotic resistance in bacteria due to natural selection, and comparisons of gene similarities between species using DNA, which provides direct evidence of common ancestry.
This is a powerpoint presentation that discusses about the biology topic: Evolution and Natural Selection. This includes some concepts about Evolution, Natural Selection and other related concern topic.
This document provides information about key concepts and figures in the theory of evolution. It discusses four types of evolution, including organic evolution studied in biology. Key figures who contributed to the theory are described, such as James Hutton who established geology as a science, Charles Lyell who popularized Hutton's ideas, and Jean-Baptiste Lamarck who was one of the first to propose evolutionary change over time through the inheritance of acquired characteristics. Charles Darwin is also summarized for his theory of natural selection and his 1859 book On the Origin of Species. Evidence for evolution like the fossil record, anatomical and genetic similarities, geographic distribution, and observed genetic changes are briefly outlined.
The document discusses Darwin's theory of evolution and its relationship to motivation. It explains that Darwin observed that organisms better adapted to their environment were more likely to survive and pass on their traits, a process he called natural selection. This led psychologists after Darwin to study motivation from an evolutionary perspective, looking at how behaviors increased chances of survival. The theory helped establish psychology as a biological science and motivated the study of instincts and how they guided behavior in pursuit of survival and reproduction.
This document discusses early theories of evolution and evidence that supports the theory of evolution through natural selection. It describes Lamarck's theory of acquired traits and Darwin's theory of natural selection. Darwin proposed that organisms with traits better suited to their environment are more likely to survive and reproduce, passing on these favorable traits. The document also discusses microevolution within species over short periods versus macroevolution leading to new species, and provides examples of fossil records, homologous structures, vestigial structures, and genetics as evidence supporting the theory of evolution through gradual change over long periods of time.
1. Charles Darwin was a British naturalist who developed the theory of evolution by natural selection while traveling around the world on the HMS Beagle from 1831-1836.
2. In 1859, Darwin published On the Origin of Species, which introduced the scientific theory that populations evolve over successive generations through a process of natural selection, in which organisms better adapted to their environment tend to survive and reproduce at a higher rate.
3. Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection was highly controversial at the time due to its conflict with religious beliefs, but it established the modern framework of evolutionary biology and revolutionized scientific thought.
The document discusses Charles Darwin and the theory of evolution. It describes Darwin's life and voyage on the HMS Beagle, where he observed finches with different beak shapes on the Galapagos Islands. This led Darwin to hypothesize that all life shares a common ancestor but has adapted over generations through natural selection to different environments. The document then outlines several evolutionary theories of social change, including unilinear evolution, multilineal evolution, and universal evolution. It discusses key thinkers like Morgan, Tyler, Spencer, White, and Childe and their views on how societies evolve through various stages over time.
- The document discusses life history strategies and how different species allocate resources between traits like reproduction and parental care to maximize survivability based on their environment.
- It uses the example of Rüppell's vulture (Gyps rueppellii) which is a K-selected, iteroparous species that invests heavily in raising 1-2 chicks per year but increases long term survival through annual breeding and colonial nesting.
- Increased threats from factors like poisoning, habitat loss, and climate change are challenging the life history strategies of vultures like G. rueppellii and may require adaptation to more r-selected traits to persist. Conservation efforts aim to restore environmental stability to support
Exploring the Microhabitats of Marsupial Frogs- a Study of the FoMeredith Eyre
This document is a senior independent study thesis that explores the habitat selection of the marsupial frog Flectonotus fitzgeraldi within populations of the plant Xanthosoma jacquinii in Tobago. The study examines environmental variables, plant morphology, and aquatic variables of phytotelm habitats to better define the ecological niche of F. fitzgeraldi. A multiple logistic regression found that water depth was the only significant predictor of frog occupancy. This suggests the species has a broad ecological niche allowing it to occupy various phytotelm habitats as long as an adequate water supply is present.
- Darwin proposed four main ideas about evolution: common descent, gradualism, multiplication of species, and natural selection.
- Common descent proposed that all organisms are related through descent from a common ancestor. Gradualism proposed that new species arise gradually over time through accumulated adaptations. Multiplication of species referred to the vast number of species that exist.
- Natural selection proposed that organisms better adapted to their environment would leave more offspring, leading to the multiplication of favorable traits in a population over generations, resulting in new species.
1) Evolution is defined as gradual change over time. Charles Darwin proposed the theory of evolution by natural selection, where heritable traits that increase an organism's chances of survival are passed on to offspring.
2) Darwin observed variations among species on the Galapagos Islands that supported his theory of evolution from common ancestry.
3) Darwin's theory combined Mendel's principles of heredity with Malthus' population principles to explain evolution through natural selection acting upon inherited variation.
Macroevolution examines evolution over long time periods of thousands to millions of years. It studies changes above the species level, including the emergence of new species through speciation and loss of species through extinction. Key areas of study in macroevolution include building phylogenetic trees to demonstrate evolutionary relationships between extinct and modern species based on morphological comparisons, and using molecular analysis to help validate these relationships when possible. Mass extinctions that eliminate large percentages of species are also investigated to better understand causes and patterns of extinction and subsequent radiations as new species evolve to fill open niches.
Jean Baptiste de Lamarck was the first evolutionist to believe that organisms change over time through his three theories: the Theory of Need, the Theory of Use and Disuse, and the Theory of Acquired Characteristics. He believed giraffes developed longer necks to reach tall trees and passed these traits to offspring. However, Charles Darwin later suggested natural selection as the mechanism of evolution, where traits that aid survival, like longer giraffe necks, are selected for and passed on, while less fit traits die out. Darwin observed variations in beak structures among Galapagos finches related to food availability.
This document provides an overview of the concept of sustainability through examining the Biosphere II experiment and discussing four dimensions of sustainability: human survival, biodiversity, equity, and life quality. The Biosphere II experiment showed that creating a self-sustaining closed ecosystem is extremely complex and prone to unforeseen issues. Regarding human survival, while humans are unlikely to go extinct, environmental damage could kill many individuals and devastate cultures. Biodiversity is also threatened by human activity. Achieving true sustainability requires consideration of all living creatures as well as ensuring equity and a decent quality of life.
Lamarckism and Darwinism are two theories of evolution. Lamarckism, proposed by Jean-Baptiste Lamarck in 1809, suggests that organisms can pass on traits acquired during their lifetime to their offspring. Darwinism, proposed by Charles Darwin in 1859, proposes that evolution occurs through natural selection, where organisms better adapted to their environment are more likely to survive and pass on their traits. Key aspects of Darwinism include variation between individuals, the struggle for existence due to limited resources, and survival of the fittest individuals who pass on adaptive variations. Over many generations, these variations accumulate and can lead to the formation of new species.
The document discusses evidence that supports evolution through natural selection, including:
1) The fossil record provides evidence that life has changed over long periods of time, with early life forms being vastly different than present-day forms.
2) Artificial selection in breeding programs demonstrates that organisms can change over generations through selective breeding.
3) Homologous structures across different species, like pentadactyl limbs, provide evidence of common ancestry even if the structures have different functions today.
Ecological Concepts of Integrated Pest ManagementKarl Obispo
Ecology involves the scientific study of living organisms and their interactions with each other and their environments. It examines how organisms grow, reproduce, interact as predators, parasites or competitors, die out, and evolve or adapt to changing climates and environments. Key concepts in ecology include species, population dynamics, communities, guilds, trophic pyramids, nutrient cycling, succession, stability, productivity, and biodiversity.
The document discusses the evolution of ideas about evolution from the 18th-19th centuries. It explores early thinkers like Linnaeus and Buffon and their classifications of plants and animals. Later, Lamarck proposed one of the first evolutionary hypotheses, suggesting traits acquired over a lifetime could be inherited. Darwin was influenced by Lyell, Malthus and his observations on the Beagle voyage. He developed the theory of natural selection to explain evolution, whereby favorable heritable traits become more common over generations. His ideas were informed by artificial selection and supported by Wallace's similar conclusions.
The modern synthetic theory is the most widely accepted theory explaining organic evolution through genetics, molecular biology, and other modern fields of biology. It was first proposed by Dobzhansky in 1937 and further developed by Huxley, Muller, Fisher, Wright, Myer, and Stebbins. The theory explains that evolution occurs through five basic processes: gene mutation, chromosomal aberration, recombination, natural selection of adaptive characters, and reproductive isolation. Genetic drift and hybridization are also considered accessory factors in the modern synthesis theory of evolution.
This document summarizes Charles Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection. It describes how Darwin began to question the prevailing ideas that species were fixed and the Earth was relatively young during his voyage on the HMS Beagle. Through his observations of organisms around the world, fossils, and influences from scientists like Lyell and Malthus, Darwin developed the theory that species evolve over time through natural selection, where individuals with traits best suited to their environment are more likely to survive and pass on their genes. The document outlines some of the evidence that has accumulated in support of evolution, including the fossil record, geographic distribution of species, homologous structures, similarities in development, and molecular biology.
Biology is the study of life. There are several key characteristics of living things including being made of cells, able to reproduce, and having genetic material in the form of DNA or RNA. DNA contains the genetic code and is able to self-replicate to allow for the survival of organisms. There are several themes that unite biology including cells, heritable genetic information, emergent properties from component interactions, and regulation through feedback mechanisms. Organisms are classified into domains, and evolution occurs through natural selection of heritable traits that increase reproductive success.
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The document discusses evolution and mechanisms that lead to evolutionary change, including natural selection and genetic drift. Natural selection occurs when some traits are favored over others in an environment, allowing those traits to be presented in future generations. Genetic drift is random changes in small gene pools due to errors in allele propagation. Evidence for evolution includes antibiotic resistance in bacteria due to natural selection, and comparisons of gene similarities between species using DNA, which provides direct evidence of common ancestry.
The document discusses evidence that supports evolution being real, including fossil records, embryology, comparative anatomy, molecular biology, and direct observation. Fossil records show remains of ancestral species and how creatures have changed over time. Embryology and comparative anatomy demonstrate homologous and analogous structures between species. Molecular biology reveals DNA comparisons between past and present species. Direct observation allows seeing how species adapt in their environments. Taken together, this evidence substantiates evolution as occurring through genetic changes in populations over generations in response to their environments.
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Evolution is the process of change over time through natural selection. The document summarizes key evidence and theories of evolution, including:
1. Evidence from the fossil record shows gradual changes in life forms over billions of years. Comparative anatomy and embryology also provide evidence of common descent.
2. Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection proposed that heritable variations arise by mutation and are selected if they confer a survival or reproductive advantage. This results in adaptation and potentially speciation.
3. Modern theories incorporate genetics and show how variation arises from sexual reproduction, mutation, and recombination of genes, and how selection can change allele frequencies to drive evolution or maintain genetic equilibrium.
This document summarizes Joseph A. Bracken's essay on self-organizing systems and final causality. It discusses how 17th century thinkers like Galileo shifted away from teleological views of the natural world towards mechanistic views. It then discusses how Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection was interpreted mechanistically. Some scientists like Polanyi and Sheldrake have challenged this view by proposing theories of "morphogenetic fields" and "formative causation" that reintroduce notions of teleology. Bracken seeks to provide a metaphysical framework from Whiteheadian philosophy to support these alternative conceptions.
Human evolution is the evolutionary process leading up to the appearance of modern humans. It is the process by which human beings developed on Earth from now-extinct primates. It involves the lengthy process of change by which people originated from apelike ancestors. The study of human evolution involves many scientific disciplines, including physical anthropology, primatology, archaeology, ethology, evolutionary psychology, embryology and genetics. Scientific evidence shows that the physical and behavioural traits shared by all people originated from apelike ancestors and evolved over a period of approximately six million years.
TABLE OF CONTENT
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Evolutionary Theory
3.0 Process of Evolution
4.0 History of Human Evolution
5.0 Paleoanthropology
6.0 Evidence of Evolution
6.1 Evidence from comparative physiology
6.2 Evidence from comparative anatomy
6.3 Evidence from comparative embryology
6.4 Evidence from comparative morphology
6.5 Evidence from vestigial organs
6.6 Genetics
6.7 Evidence from Molecular Biology
6.8 Evidence from the Fossil Record
7.0 Divergence of the Human Clade from other Great Apes
8.0 Anatomical changes
8.1 Anatomy of bipedalism
8.2 Encephalization
8.3 Sexual dimorphism
8.4 Other changes
9.0 Genus Homo
10.0 Homo Sapiens Taxonomy
Dr. Greta Sykes gives a lecture on what educational psychologists can learn from discussions of evolution among biologists. She summarizes that Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection was initially controversial but is now widely accepted. Recent research shows genes have less influence on traits than originally believed and that group selection and niche construction have played larger roles in evolution than previously acknowledged. This implies an environmentally-focused, preventative approach is important for educational psychologists rather than assuming traits are predetermined by genes.
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92 S C I E N T I F I C A M E R I C A N R e p r i n t e d f r.docxsodhi3
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ome creators announce their inventions with grand
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his new universe with brightness. Others bring forth
great discoveries in a modest guise, as did Charles
Darwin in defining his new mechanism of evolu-
tionary causality in 1859: “I have called this principle, by which
each slight variation, if useful, is preserved, by the term Natur-
al Selection.”
Natural selection is an immensely powerful yet beautifully
simple theory that has held up remarkably well, under intense
and unrelenting scrutiny and testing, for 135 years. In essence,
natural selection locates the mechanism of evolutionary change
in a “struggle” among organisms for reproductive success, lead-
ing to improved fit of populations to changing environments.
(Struggle is often a metaphorical description and need not be
viewed as overt combat, guns blazing. Tactics for reproductive
success include a variety of nonmartial activities such as earlier
and more frequent mating or better cooperation with partners
in raising offspring.) Natural selection is therefore a principle of
local adaptation, not of general advance or progress.
Yet powerful though the principle may be, natural selection
is not the only cause of evolutionary change (and may, in many
cases, be overshadowed by other forces). This point needs em-
phasis because the standard misapplication of evolutionary the-
ory assumes that biological explanation may be equated with
devising accounts, often speculative and conjectural in practice,
about the adaptive value of any given feature in its original en-
vironment (human aggression as good for hunting, music and
religion as good for tribal cohesion, for example). Darwin him-
self strongly emphasized the multifactorial nature of evolu-
tionary change and warned against too exclusive a reliance on
natural selection, by placing the following statement in a max-
imally conspicuous place at the very end of his introduction: “I
am convinced that Natural Selection has been the most impor-
tant, but not the exclusive, means of modification.”
Reality versus Conceit
N A T U R A L S E L E C T I O N is not fully sufficient to explain evo-
lutionary change for two major reasons. First, many other caus-
es are powerful, particularly at levels of biological organization
both above and below the traditional Darwinian focus on or-
ganisms and their struggles for reproductive success. At the low-
est level of substitution in individual base pairs of DNA, change
is often effectively neutral and therefore random. At higher lev-
els, involving entire species or faunas, punctuated equilibrium
can produce evolutionary trends by selection of species based
on their rates of origin and extirpation, whereas mass extinc-
tions wipe out substantial parts of biotas for reasons unrelat-
ed to adaptive struggles of constituent species in “normal”
t.
92 S C I E N T I F I C A M E R I C A N R e p r i n t e d f r.docxblondellchancy
92 S C I E N T I F I C A M E R I C A N R e p r i n t e d f r o m t h e O c t o b e r 1 9 9 4 i s s u e
ome creators announce their inventions with grand
éclat. God proclaimed, “Fiat lux,” and then flooded
his new universe with brightness. Others bring forth
great discoveries in a modest guise, as did Charles
Darwin in defining his new mechanism of evolu-
tionary causality in 1859: “I have called this principle, by which
each slight variation, if useful, is preserved, by the term Natur-
al Selection.”
Natural selection is an immensely powerful yet beautifully
simple theory that has held up remarkably well, under intense
and unrelenting scrutiny and testing, for 135 years. In essence,
natural selection locates the mechanism of evolutionary change
in a “struggle” among organisms for reproductive success, lead-
ing to improved fit of populations to changing environments.
(Struggle is often a metaphorical description and need not be
viewed as overt combat, guns blazing. Tactics for reproductive
success include a variety of nonmartial activities such as earlier
and more frequent mating or better cooperation with partners
in raising offspring.) Natural selection is therefore a principle of
local adaptation, not of general advance or progress.
Yet powerful though the principle may be, natural selection
is not the only cause of evolutionary change (and may, in many
cases, be overshadowed by other forces). This point needs em-
phasis because the standard misapplication of evolutionary the-
ory assumes that biological explanation may be equated with
devising accounts, often speculative and conjectural in practice,
about the adaptive value of any given feature in its original en-
vironment (human aggression as good for hunting, music and
religion as good for tribal cohesion, for example). Darwin him-
self strongly emphasized the multifactorial nature of evolu-
tionary change and warned against too exclusive a reliance on
natural selection, by placing the following statement in a max-
imally conspicuous place at the very end of his introduction: “I
am convinced that Natural Selection has been the most impor-
tant, but not the exclusive, means of modification.”
Reality versus Conceit
N A T U R A L S E L E C T I O N is not fully sufficient to explain evo-
lutionary change for two major reasons. First, many other caus-
es are powerful, particularly at levels of biological organization
both above and below the traditional Darwinian focus on or-
ganisms and their struggles for reproductive success. At the low-
est level of substitution in individual base pairs of DNA, change
is often effectively neutral and therefore random. At higher lev-
els, involving entire species or faunas, punctuated equilibrium
can produce evolutionary trends by selection of species based
on their rates of origin and extirpation, whereas mass extinc-
tions wipe out substantial parts of biotas for reasons unrelat-
ed to adaptive struggles of constituent species in “normal”
t ...
The document summarizes key concepts in the evolution of life. It discusses early theories of spontaneous generation and the Miller-Urey experiment demonstrating organic molecules can form from inorganic precursors. Modern evolutionary theory developed from Darwin's principles of variation within populations, a struggle for existence, and survival of the fittest. Evidence for evolution includes homologous and vestigial structures, transitional fossils, embryological similarities, and molecular comparisons. Present-day evolution theories have expanded on Darwin's work through ideas like punctuated equilibrium, selfish genes, and the endosymbiotic origin of eukaryotic cells. New species arise through genetic isolation of populations and their gradual differentiation over time. The appearance of human beings is traced from early homin
The document provides an introduction to zoology, discussing several key topics:
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- The complex life cycle of the monarch butterfly is used as an example to illustrate different life cycle stages like egg, larva, pupa, and adult.
- Adaptation strategies animals use to survive harsh environments like the desert and polar regions are outlined.
- The process of mitosis and key differences in replication between prokaryotes and eukaryotes are summarized.
- Homeostatic mechanisms that allow animals to maintain stable body conditions are briefly
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mitigated, at least in part.
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https://www.etran.rs/2024/en/home-english/
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dtubbenhauer@gmail.com
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The pygmy halfbeak Dermogenys colletei, is known for its viviparous nature, this presents an intriguing case of relatively low fecundity, raising questions about potential compensatory reproductive strategies employed by this species. Our study delves into the examination of fecundity and the Gonadosomatic Index (GSI) in the Pygmy Halfbeak, D. colletei (Meisner, 2001), an intriguing viviparous fish indigenous to Sarawak, Borneo. We hypothesize that the Pygmy halfbeak, D. colletei, may exhibit unique reproductive adaptations to offset its low fecundity, thus enhancing its survival and fitness. To address this, we conducted a comprehensive study utilizing 28 mature female specimens of D. colletei, carefully measuring fecundity and GSI to shed light on the reproductive adaptations of this species. Our findings reveal that D. colletei indeed exhibits low fecundity, with a mean of 16.76 ± 2.01, and a mean GSI of 12.83 ± 1.27, providing crucial insights into the reproductive mechanisms at play in this species. These results underscore the existence of unique reproductive strategies in D. colletei, enabling its adaptation and persistence in Borneo's diverse aquatic ecosystems, and call for further ecological research to elucidate these mechanisms. This study lends to a better understanding of viviparous fish in Borneo and contributes to the broader field of aquatic ecology, enhancing our knowledge of species adaptations to unique ecological challenges.
Travis Hills' Endeavors in Minnesota: Fostering Environmental and Economic Pr...Travis Hills MN
Travis Hills of Minnesota developed a method to convert waste into high-value dry fertilizer, significantly enriching soil quality. By providing farmers with a valuable resource derived from waste, Travis Hills helps enhance farm profitability while promoting environmental stewardship. Travis Hills' sustainable practices lead to cost savings and increased revenue for farmers by improving resource efficiency and reducing waste.
The technology uses reclaimed CO₂ as the dyeing medium in a closed loop process. When pressurized, CO₂ becomes supercritical (SC-CO₂). In this state CO₂ has a very high solvent power, allowing the dye to dissolve easily.
Importance of the Study of the Biological Aspects of the Individual Related to the Capacity of Adaptation of the Human Species
1. 1
Importance of the study of the biological aspects of the individual, related to the capacity of
adaptation of the human species.
Workshop number one: essay
Importance of the Study of the Biological Aspects of the Individual Related to the Capacity of
Adaptation of the Human Species.
Ricardo Paulo Javier Arieu
Universidad Metropolitana
October 08, 2014
Professor: Dr. Elsi Melendez
SOSC 111
2. 2
Importance of the study of the biological aspects of the individual, related to the capacity of
adaptation of the human species.
Image n 0
The evolutionary biological aspects of the individual are deeply related to the capacity of
adaptation of the human species. This is the reason that scientists have discussed for a long time,
about the events from the beginning of humanity, the moment that the species comes to the
existence and the appearance and subsequent evolution of living beings. It has been proven
scientifically by the theorist of biological evolution that after the appearance of man on the
planet, this has evolved, adapting to their environment and developed - thanks to his capabilities
and intelligence - as a social being.
For many centuries science has thought that species were immutable and that they were
created as are fixity. One of the modern pioneers of the theory of biological evolution, the
English naturalist Charles Darwin, in the year 1859 probed that species were not fixed, but they
3. 3
Importance of the study of the biological aspects of the individual, related to the capacity of
adaptation of the human species.
were susceptible of gradual changes over time, so that other new species could arise ("natural
selection"). But the species have changed ("have mutations") and adapted to their environment
("microevolution and macroevolution"), through a fierce battle for survival. And although this
arduous struggle for subsistence assumes random and cruel forms, found that forms that best
adapt to the surrounding environment, enjoy "evolutionary" advantages and tend to occur and
multiply. In short, "those species that are preserved as the environment changes, mutating also
tend to survive, while other creatures that are less suited to perish" (xtec.cat, n.d.).
According to a study published in the prestigious journal Science revealed, the explosion
of life on Earth happened about 520 million years ago ("the Cambrian Explosion"), it was the
result of a combination of interrelated factors rather than a single underlying cause (abc.es, 09-
19-2013). Two theories want to explain the biological evolution: Gradualism from Darwinism
and “saltacionism” not Darwinist (or theory of punctuated equilibrium).
Since it has been proven that various forms of life appeared rapidly in the Cambrian
explosion and the apparent absence of forms of transition of some species ("Darwin's dilemma",
tendencia21.net), the scientist Stephan Jay Gould, a paleontologist at Harvard, proposed the
theory of punctuated equilibrium.
“What is missing are the many intermediate from hypothesized by Darwin, and continual
divergence of major lineages into the morphospace between distinct adaptative types.” (Carroll,
2000)
4. 4
Importance of the study of the biological aspects of the individual, related to the capacity of
adaptation of the human species.
This theory states that "the species remain basically the same all the time and then change
so quickly that there is evidence in the fossil record" (Broocks, 2014, 117). The fossil record
often shows that species remain stable for a long time, then suddenly disappearing. On many
occasions, it also shows the evolutionary radiation, where a large number of species arise
suddenly and virtually no record of previous intermediate forms. These peculiarities have been
justified by gradualism, from the own Darwin, alleging that the fossil record is very incomplete
and, therefore, under-representation of intermediate forms not invalidate the theory. However,
the punctuated equilibrium exactly predicts the type of observed fossil record (Ridley, 1993), by
which this would be a true representation of the evolutionary process, rather than a sample
incomplete from what really happened (Gould, 1980). Shuhai Xiao, Professor of geobiology at
the Technologic Institute of Virginia, explains in an article that "the Cambrian explosion refers to
the sudden appearance of the majority of the groups of animals within a period geologically short
between 542 and 520 million years ago, in the early Cambrian period.”While the animal as in
modern oceans, most species were not so numerous (if not all) live animals groups were
represented in the Cambrian oceans" (Aguirre, 11-23-2012). And also in the same article, Shuhai
Xiao, Professor of geobiology at the Virginia Tech explained that "explosive evolutionary
pattern was a concern to Charles Darwin, because I expected that evolution occurs at a slow and
steady pace". "The perception of Darwin could be represented by an inverted Cone, with
increasingly broad range of morphological characteristics, but the fossil record of the Cambrian
explosion and it is best represented as a cylinder with a morphological radiation at the base and
morphological restriction after" (Aguirre, 11-23-2012). And he explained that "Darwin estimated
that there should be hidden and long periods of animal evolution before the Cambrian
5. 5
Importance of the study of the biological aspects of the individual, related to the capacity of
adaptation of the human species.
Explosion," said Xiao. And Michal Kowalewski, who is a Professor of geobiology too, clarified
that "paleontologists have not found such evidence, and, recently, scientists have learned that
biological evolution not has been moving on a smooth road. The accelerated rates may
characterize early of many groups of organisms evolution "(Aguirre, 11-23-2012).
Some opponents to the theory of Stephen Gould, have equated “the theory of equilibrium
punctuated with a caricature of the beliefs of Goldschmidt" (Gould, 1995), this is the same thing
that many evolutionists make with those who believe in the creation according to the Bible, tells
him to compare them with the flying spaghetti monster (TheVelozyraptor, 05-08-2013).
The species may adapt to its environment thanks to his intelligent design. Michael Behe,
a biochemist, American scientist, who currently teaches at Lehigh University (USA), coined a
term to describe the phenomenon of design, inherent in molecular machines such as engine
bacterial flagellar ("Irreducible Complexity"), a system composed of several interrelated,
properly adjusted parts that contribute to the basic function, wherein the removal of any of the
parties makes that system, in fact, cease to operate (Behe, 1996). Although some evolutionary
scientists refuse to accept the inference of design and intelligence in the creation, the law of
irreducible complexity by Behe coined to describe the molecular machines, indicates a property
of life - intelligence - collaborating in the adaptation to the natural order, as an objective that is
implicit in the very existence of the human race. After his appearance on planet Earth and as part
of this process of evolution-adaptation, the human being is quickly adjusted to its habitat,
developing not only as individual but also as a social being.
6. 6
Importance of the study of the biological aspects of the individual, related to the capacity of
adaptation of the human species.
And is undoubtedly, that the human capacities have allowed survive to humans as a
species. Martinez said that "man is a social being, and as such possesses a complex web of social
relations. Some of these are of crucial importance for the development of its existence as a form
of survival and adaptation of the same species" (Martinez, 1994). But in what sense is claimed
that human beings has been adapting to its environment? The word adaptation is used to indicate
a process of change in organisms and machines, which tends to make them more suitable for
their survival or to achieve certain objectives. The generality of the adaptive process involves all
humanity. Adaptation originally means a change in the structure or behavior of a living being
usually has a survival value. Also indicates any beneficial change of an organism to deal with the
demands of the environment. And "biological adaptation", is the physiological process or trait
morphology or behavior of an organism that has been evolved over a period of time, by the
random process of natural selection, in such a way that it increases its expectations in the long
run to reproduce successfully.
It is scientifically proved that the biological evolution of the species presents a
progressive character clear throughout "the millions of years of evolution of life". Although
human infants, is be worse with all the beings of the Earth, to achieve its development is the
most powerful of all. The man power and intelligence responds to the outside world, making
their livelihood and adaptation, avoiding the dangers to its surroundings thanks to the rational
and physical characteristics which has as a human being. This process of adaptation, a process
normally is very slow, which takes place for hundreds of generations, although sometimes can
7. 7
Importance of the study of the biological aspects of the individual, related to the capacity of
adaptation of the human species.
occur very quickly in extreme environments or in environments modified by man with great
pressures targeted, as in the case of the bacteria.
On the contrary, if a lack of social adaptation, this would lead to the human species to
extinction. It is for this reason that the concept of adaptation makes sense also to the Social
Sciences since the behavior of humans provides essentially some kind of adaptation to the social
environment. In this regard, Joseph Nuttin wrote:
"The notion of adaptation, as frequently used in the study of behavior and its motivation,
refers more specifically to the homeostatic balance and related regulatory processes. In
fact, tends to conceive of conduct and his motivation as an adaptation or a rehabilitation
of the organism to the environment, under the influence of the momentary breakdown of
balance which is between the two poles (body or personality, by one hand, and medium,
on the other). This rupture is manifested as a necessity or a State of tension, providing at
the same time the dynamic source of the adaptation process that defines the same
behavior"(Nuttin, 1977).
Social life and language made possible the collaboration, the implementation of
individual discoveries and the transmission of knowledge from one generation to another,
contributing to the development of intelligence. For this reason ("intelligence"), the man always
is in the search for new alternatives that allow them to overcome the problems that as a society
make us feel danger. Yesterday would perhaps be the risk of fire, or the threats of large
mammals, or food shortages. Extreme situations pushed them to migrate to humans through the
great continents, looking for ways to lower individuality and greater solidarity action. All change
8. 8
Importance of the study of the biological aspects of the individual, related to the capacity of
adaptation of the human species.
involves a transformation in the consciousness of the human person, the search for a new man
who is able to adapt to this new reality. A new man, which will be less wolf man that yesterday,
of course.
This generation has been a very particular generation, since he has seen the collapse of
two walls: of Berlin in 1989 (Germany) and that of Wall Street in 2008 (United States). And also
the last century witnessed two world wars. But these events are already part of history.
Reflecting on these events and the current situation; it will not be very difficult to agree with
people like Dennis Prager, a columnist, American broadcaster, author and lecturer, who stands
out for his political views and social conservatives, which according to him are based on Judeo-
Christian values. Prager, often say that the United States participate in a cultural war respect of
moral values ("mainly Christian") in which American society was built (Wikipedia). And what
far seem to have stayed longer, those words from one of the first Presidents of the United States,
Thomas Jefferson, who said: "indeed I tremble for my country when I reflect that God is just;
that his justice will not sleep forever"(Meredith, 2013). Simply just watch the news on television
every day, in order to meditate on the words of the American father of the nation and perhaps
also make reaching an agreement with the American broadcaster. Achieve that people stop being
"Wolves of man" (Hobbes), also seems to be an important objective in the investigation of the
biological aspects of the individual. However, experiments such as the prison of Santford in E.U,
seem to want to prove it (Vázquez, 09-01-2013), where the psychologist came to the conclusion
that situations that a person spends can be deeply marked his behavior. In addition, found that
people, adapt quickly to their roles and bother to comply with them, especially if they are related
9. 9
Importance of the study of the biological aspects of the individual, related to the capacity of
adaptation of the human species.
to the power. But is it possible to achieve a perfect society, in that each and every one of its
inhabitants, accept their roles and that individuality is sacrificed for the benefit of the common
good? Perhaps, being a little extremist, I wonder if it is possible and desirable that all humans
live so disciplined and harmonically in communities such as bees or termites, without violating
their free will?
But, to answer to all these questions, already will need to analyze the human being from a
bio-genetic perspective to from there deduce its ability to change to be able to adapt to a new
social reality. Not to mention obviously refer to the ethical and moral sciences. Because all the
advances of the civilization will not serve to the humanity if society continues as well as it
outlines, in an absolute journey to the moral and social decline. Do not find a solution to the
problem of man; jails remain full as far or even more. And wars will not have a real purpose
ever. This is why it is that I also fully agree with the already mentioned concepts of Dennis
Prager.
And then, which is the future of this first world nation headed? Because I think in reality
that when we were exposed to the result of our own decisions and to our own selfish inclinations,
this world - and not just North America - chaos is. From the first moments of the man in its
adaptation to the average human, some form of religion has accompanied it. And although
Christianity has approximately only 1600 years of adaptation to the Western world, it's not
possible to leave wondering if anything the Christian religion the opportunity to once more in the
history of giving answers to the problem of man. Or it will be destined to remain for a long time,
within the limits of their temples, without being able to express that solution there for "wolf" that
10. 10
Importance of the study of the biological aspects of the individual, related to the capacity of
adaptation of the human species.
we know that dwells within every man and every woman and collaborate with the society in this
stage of adaptation of the human being. When that reality was understood, the perspective about
religion can change. In addition, all input received from science raises the human condition.
And from there, evolutionary scientists have been trying to establish the ancestry of
humans with other animals like him ("theory of the common ancestor"). In this regard, one can
quote the 'Nature' magazine, which published "the first draft with the DNA of this type of
primates who share 96% of the genetic material with human". This research is "the first of a non-human
primate and the fourth of a mammalian genome"(Lopez, n.d.) Francis Collins, American
scientist prestigious said about these published results was "an historic achievement to spearhead
a large number of discoveries with implications for human health" (Lopez, n.d.). Although they
have shown similarities between the human Kingdom and the animal Kingdom, it is yet to prove
when, like, how and in what region of the planet was given this crossover between the two
species.
And well, said Gould, the theory of biological evolution "is a theory. It is also a fact. And
the facts and theories are different things, not steps of a hierarchy of increasing certainty. Ideas
are structures of ideas that explain and interpret facts. The facts do not leave as scientists’ debate
rival theories to explain them"(Gould, 1995). For all these reasons already mentioned, we would
consider that it is of great importance the study of the individual biological aspects, as I have
tried to explain it since the beginning of this essay. In doing so, this will allow us to better
understand and relate to biology with adaptive capacity that human beings have. And along the
way, every person is obliged to find a way to collaborate responsibly so that the fate of each one
11. 11
Importance of the study of the biological aspects of the individual, related to the capacity of
adaptation of the human species.
is a mission accomplished and fate of this society, leaning positively toward a better tomorrow.
According to explained, it is understood that no single man has been evolving, but also adapting
to their environment and to develop. This has been possible thanks to their human capacities and
"intelligent design", which has allowed man to be a social being.
12. 12
Importance of the study of the biological aspects of the individual, related to the capacity of
adaptation of the human species.
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