Esoteric jainism

EsotericJainism
DrUday Dokras
Tantra in Jainism has two distinctive features: it is largely centered around the use of verbal
spells or mantra, and Jain Tantric practices are aimed at improving one's condition within the
realm of rebirth rather than liberating one from rebirth. 35. Jain Tantra: Divinatory and
Meditative Practices in the Twelfth-Century Yogasâstra of Hemacandra
From the book Tantra in Practice
Olle Qvarnstrôm points out in The study of Jain medieval Sanskrit texts reveals a Tantric
influence on the two main traditions of Jainism—Digambara and Svetàmbara—both in
the sense of ideas and practices and in the sense of a literary class. This influence was
restricted neither geographically nor confessionally, and manifested itself within different
literary genres and contexts. Its impression is also visible in iconography and art. The
questions of the precise extent to which Tantra penetrated into Jainism, the historical
development of Jain Tantra, and its indebtedness to Hindu and Buddhist Tantra are at
the present stage of research not entirely clear, even though their outlines have been
sketched by scholars such as John Cort and Paul Dundas. Many Tantric texts are still
only available in manuscript form. Few have been critically edited. For various reasons
Jain Tantra has not caught the attention of Indologists. This has in its turn made it
difficult to integrate Jain Tantra into a broader religious, cultural, and historical
framework, as well as to define its distinctive character.
Jainism also seems to have developed a substantial Tantra corpus based on
the Saura tradition, with rituals based on yakshas and yakshinis. Saura is a religion and
denomination of Hinduism, originating as a Vedic tradition. Followers of Saura
worship Surya as the Saguna Brahman. At present the Sauras are a very small movement, much
smaller than other larger denominations such as Vaishnavism or Shaivism. There was a rapid
decline of the Sauras in the 12th and 13th century CE, due to the Muslim conquests.
Yogasâstra by Hemacandra (1089-1172 CE. not a Tantric text nor an historical work that
might provide a description of the gradual infusion of Tantra into Svetàmbara Jainism
underlines a historical process during which the incorporation of Tantric ideas and practices
was naturally infused into Jainism.
The Vaishnavas in the meantime developed another tradition of Hindu Tantra among them ,
this was called the Pāñcarātra Agama tradition. This tradition avoided the transgressive and
sexual elements that were embraced by the Saivas and the Buddhists. There is also a smaller
tantric tradition associated with Surya, the sun god. ( See my paper on Pancaratra in Angkor)
The sun has been worshipped in various forms since the time of the Rig Veda in India. The
prominence of the Saura sect is expounded by the supremacy of the Gayatri mantra in
the Vedic prayers. The theology of the sect appears in a number of documents like
the Mahabharata, Ramayana, Markandeya Purana and a fifth century inscription. Jain
temples in Khajuraho bear witness toTantric display and esoteric representations in the

sculptures. There are 31 (Thirty one) Jain Temples in total. But from architectural point
of view the Parsvanath, the Adinath and the Shantinath temples are relatively more
important and noteworthy.
YANTRAS
In Worship of Bell-Ears the Great Hero, a Jain Tantric Deity John E. Cort reveals
that Tantra in Jainism has two distinctive features: it is largely centered around
the use of verbal spells or mantra, and Jain Tantric practices are aimed at
improving one's condition within the realm of rebirth rather than liberating one from
rebirth. Although Jain Tantric rites, also involve the use of diagrams known as
yantras, these play a subsidiary role compared to the mantras, and most yantras
have the ritual mantra written on them.
Jaipur Jain Ghantakarna Mahavir temple display
Mantras are used directly to effect desired results, and to call on nonliberated
deities to effect those results. Jain Tantric rites rarely involve any elaborate form
of meditation or visualization; usually the simple repetition of the mantra suffices.
Some Tantric rituals invoke the central cultic figures of the tradition, the twenty-
four Jinas or tïrthahkaras, the enlightened and liberated souls who showed the
path to liberation. More often, though, the rituals invoke other figures, such as
the wonder-working monk Gautama in the Svetàmbara ("White-Robed") tradition,
various goddesses in both the Svetàmbara and Digambara ("Sky-Clad") traditions,
and male figures such as Ghantâkarna Mahâvîra and Nâkodâ Bhairava in the
Svetàmbara tradition.
According to Jain theology, however, none of these beings has the power to
grant liberation. The Jinas are inactive icons of the liberated state; the other deities,
although active in the world, are themselves unliberated, and so cannot give what
they themselves have not attained. As a result, most Jain Tantric rituals are aimed
at accomplishing a variety of goals in this world, such as health, wealth, and

power. Many Jain Tantric texts and rituals categorize these goals within the
framework of the "six actions" (satkarmânï) of pan-Indian Tantra. What is not
found in Jain Tantra is the development of a full-scale alternative Tantric path to
liberation such as is found in some Hindu and Buddhist Tantric schools. The cult of
Ghantâkarna Mahâvîra, "Bell-Ears the Great Hero," exemplifies these.
Jainism stresses the need for strict asceticism and non-violence to all living beings in
order to achieve liberation from the continuous cycle of life and death,” she explains.
The ideal Jain lifestyle requires vegetarianism, fasting, celibacy, and the renunciation of
all possessions. It is a minority tradition in India, with about 4.8 million followers out of
a total population of over 1.22 billion. Despite being outnumbered by Hindus and
Buddhists, Jains, often because of their significant wealth, have exerted a
disproportionate influence on the art, literature, and philosophy of India for well over
2,000 years.
In stark opposition to the traditional Jain lifestyle, Tantra is a (problematic) term for a
variety of beliefs and practices that allow for, and often encourage, the rejection of
these orthodox teachings in order to achieve liberation. Tantra, which was adopted by
followers of all the classical religious traditions on the subcontinent from the early
medieval period onward, is known for its promotion of meat-eating, wine-drinking,
illicit sex, initiation into esoteric cults, and the use of “magical’ invocations (mantra) and
diagrams (mand’’ala, yantra).”

A lay practitioner of the Jain religion offers a coconut while standing above a Jain
Tantric diagram made of colored powder.
Historical development and contemporary uses of one of these Jain invocations that
has been inscribed on a variety of ritual diagrams since the thirteenth century.
Composed in Prakrit, the sacred language of Jainism, the mantra praises Jain ascetics
who gained supernatural powers through meditation and self denial. These diagrams
are at the center of a variety of rituals, including mendicant initia- tions, image
consecrations, and lay festivalsn it is thought that practitioners who recite these praises
can obtain the supernatural powers such as flight and clairvoyance honored in this
mantra. Many Tantric diagrams look like a board gameand many of the Jain Tantric
texts remain unpublished and its rituals undocumented. One canl observe rituals in
which Tantric diagrams are used, such as festivals at which lay people form the
diagrams out of colored powder and “make offerings to ensure wealth and prosperity
in this life and eventual liberation.
“Tantra in the Temple: Jain Supernatural Powers in History, Ritual, and Visual Culture,”
The Yantra is the graphic, mathematics and magic representation of the divine
one. It is an ancient tradition that get lost in the night of the times; we can find

graphic representations of God in the prehistoric mural paintings, games of
numbers and magic squares in a lot of ancient cultures. But it is in the tantric
tradition that the Yantras assume a bigger spectrum of uses.
The Yantras therefore should not be confused with magic or superstition, but they
are a real tool of worship. The meaning of the word in Sanskrit is in fact
instrument, support, machine, device.
Many Yantras are contained in a square (bhupur) with four gates. The square
represents the material world while the gates are the points of access into
the Yantra. Geometric shapes, symbols, numbers inside are like parts of this
mechanism. They lead us gradually towards its center representing the Supreme
Consciousness. A yantra is an instrument that allows us to make an inner journey
to the discovery of the Supreme Self.
Apart from invoking the divine, the Yantra is used by the Aghoris as object of
meditation. It is painted in the walls of the temples or next to the dhuni (sacred
fire). It is engraved on small copper plates and usually positioned in
the mandir (temple). Or It is written within small squares of paper inside a silver or
copper container as amulets (kavacha); for every application there is a specify
Yantra.
The study of the Yantras is an important footstep in the particular sadhana
(spiritual path) of the Aghoris.
The main temples of the Jain group of temples in khajuraho are: The Parshavnath
Temple, Shantinath Temple and Adinath Temple. These temples bear witness to the
Tantric and Esoteric aspects that Jainism followed. The main Jain temples includes
the Parshvanath Temple around 954 AD, the Ghantai Temple around 960 AD, and the
Adinath Temple around 1027 AD. As many as eighty other temples of both religions
were also constructed in Khajuraho at this time. Khajuraho was a major Jain center
throughout the period of Chandela rule.
In the Mahabharata, On one occasion, when leaving his chambers in the
morning, Yudhisthira encounters one thousand Saurite brahmins with eight thousand
followers.
SUN WORSHIP
The priests of the saura sect were called magas, bhojakas, or sakadivipiya Brahmins. In
the Saura sect, the god Surya is the lord of the Trimurti, the eternal Brahman and the
supreme spirit, the soul of all creatures, self existent, unborn, the cause of all things and
the foundation of the world. Saura followers worship Surya as the Saguna Brahman.

The most important text of the Saura sect is the Saura Samhita. Its only extant copy is
currently in Nepal and has been dated to 941 A.D. but is considered to be older.
Another text of importance is the Surya Satakam, a Sanskrit poem of a hundred
stanzas. The poem was composed in the sragdhara meter and written in the gaudi style
by Mayurbhatta, a poet in the court of Harshavardhana and a rival of Banabhatta. Surya
as the bestower of moksha (release) is emphasized in this text. The Samba Purana, a
Saurite upapurana, is a text entirely dedicated to Surya.
Yaksha
"Parkham Yaksha" Manibhadra, 150 BCE/"Mudgarpani Yaksha", 100 BC Remains of the colossal statues of
the Parkham Yaksha (150 BCE) and the Mudgarpani ("Mace-holder") Yaksha (100 BCE), Mathura. These
colossal statues stand around two metres tall. The Mudgarpani Yaksha holds a mudgar mace in the right
hand, and the left hand used to support a small standing devotee or child joining hands in prayer
Art of Mathura, Mathura Museum
The yakshas are a broad class of nature-spirits, usually benevolent, but sometimes
mischievous or capricious, connected with water, fertility, trees, the forest, treasure and
wilderness. They appear in Hindu, Jain and Buddhist texts, as well as ancient and medieval era
temples of South Asia and Southeast Asia as guardian deities. The feminine form of the word
is yakṣī or yakshini .
In Hindu, Jain and Buddhist texts, the yakṣa has a dual personality. On the one hand,
a yakṣa may be an inoffensive nature-fairy, associated with woods and mountains; but there is
also a darker version of the yakṣa, which is a kind of ghost (bhuta) that haunts the wilderness
and waylays and devours travellers, similar to the rakṣasas.
The Yakshas are also the Dvarapala or Dvarapalaka "door guard"; a
door or gate guardian often portrayed as a warrior or fearsome giant, usually armed
with a weapon - the most common being the gada (mace). The dvarapala statue is a
widespread architectural element throughout Hindu, Buddhist and Jaina cultures, as
well as in areas influenced by them like Java.

Jaya-Vijaya - the Dvarapalas of the god Vishnu's abode Vaikuntha are often depicted
his temples, guarding the doors. Here they are guarding the sanctum of the Vishnu
temple, Chennakesava Temple.
Dwaarpalas at a Jain temple
In most Southeast Asian languages
(including Thai, Burmese, Vietnamese, Khmer and Javanese), these protective figures
are referred to as dvarapala. Sanskrit dvāra means "gate" or "door", and pāla means
"guard" or "protector".
The related name in Indonesian and Malaysia is dwarapala. Equivalent door guardians
in northern Asian languages are Kongōrikishi or Niō in Japanese, Heng Ha Er
Jiang in Chinese, and Narayeongeumgang in Korean.
Dvarapalas as an architectural feature have their origin in tutelary deities,
like Yaksha and warrior figures, such as Acala, of the local popular religion. Today
some dvarapalas are even figures of policemen or soldiers standing guard.
These statues were traditionally placed outside Buddhist or Hindu temples, as well as
other structures like royal palaces, to protect the holy places inside. A dvarapala is
usually portrayed as an armed fearsome guardian looking like a demon, but at the
gates of Buddhist temples in Sri Lanka, dvarapalas often display
average human features. In other instances a fierce-looking nāga snake figure may
perform the same function.
The sculptures in Java and Bali, usually carved from andesite, portray dvarapalas as
fearsome giants with a rather bulky physique in semi kneeling position and holding
a club. The largest dvarapala stone statue in Java, a dvarapala of
the Singhasari period, is 3.7 metres (12 ft) tall. The traditional dvarapalas of Cambodia
and Thailand, on the other hand, are leaner and portrayed in a standing position
holding the club downward in the center.
The ancient sculpture of dvarapala in Thailand is made of a high-
fired stoneware clay covered with a pale, almost milky celadon glaze. Ceramic
sculptures of this type were produced in Thailand, during the Sukhothai and Ayutthaya
periods, between the 14th and 16th centuries, at several kiln complexes located
in northern Thailand.
Depending on the size and wealth of the temple, the guardians could be placed singly,
in pairs or in larger groups. Smaller structures may have had only one dvarapala. Often
there was a pair placed on either side of the threshold to the shrine. Some larger sites
may have had four (lokapālas, guardians of the four cardinal directions), eight, or 12. In

some cases only the fierce face or head of the guardian is represented, a figure very
common in the kratons in Java.
Dvarapala in Elephanta India./ largest dvarapala stone statue of Java, Singhasari period./
Dvarapala at Banteay Kdei in Angkor, Cambodia RIGHT PIC is from Vietnam- Late 9th or early 10th
century dvarapala from Indrapura (Dong Duong), Champa, Vietnam.
Dvarapala Sukhothai and Ayutthaya, 14th and 16th centuries Thailand.
A pair of male and female dvarapalas guarding gate of a Hindu temple
in Bali, Indonesia.

Dvarapalaka, 11th
century (Chola dynasty), Tamil Nadu, India
Dvarapala at the entrance of Hatadage, Polonnaruwa, Sri Lanka
Dvarapala at the Kraton of Surakarta, Indonesia

Guardian statue at a Hindu temple in Sri Lanka.
Painting of Āṭavaka, a yaksha who challenged the Buddha/ The yaksha are nature spirits who are
benevolent, sometimes mischievous or capricious. Left: Yaksi, Right: Yaksha from Bharhut and Pitalkhora,
c. 2nd century CE.
Several monumental yakshas are known from the time of the Maurya Empire period.
They are variously dated from around the 3rd century BCE to the 1st century BCE.
These statues are monumental (usually around 2 metres tall), and often bear
inscriptions related to their identification as yakshas. They are considered as the first
known monumental stone sculptures in India. Two of these monumental yakshas are
known from Patna, one from Vidisha and one from Parkham, as well as one yakshini
from Vidisha. The yakṣas may have originally been the tutelary deity of forests and
villages, and were later viewed as the steward deities of the earth and the wealth
buried beneath.

In early Indian art, male yakṣas are portrayed either as fearsome warriors or as portly,
stout and dwarf-like. Yakṣiṇīs are portrayed as beautiful young women with happy
round faces and full breasts and hips.
Face of the
yakṣa Thotsakhirithon (ทศคีรีธร) at Wat Phra
Kaew, Bangkok
Yakshas (Thai: ยักษ์, RTGS: Yak) are an
important element in Thai temple art and
architecture. They are common as guardians
of the gates in Buddhist temples throughout
the country since at least the 14th
century. Ceramic sculptures of guardian
yakshas were produced in Thailand, during
the Sukhothai and Ayutthaya periods,
between the 14th and 16th centuries, at
several kiln complexes in northern Thailand.
They are mostly depicted with a characteristic
face, having big round bulging eyes and
protruding fangs, as well as a green
complexion. Yakshas and their female
counterparts are common in the
Buddhist literature of Thailand, such as in The
Twelve Sisters and Phra Aphai Mani. As ogres,
giants, and ogresses, yakshas are present as
well in Thai folklore.
"ย ยักษ์" (yo yak) is also used as an illustration
in order to name the letter ย, the 34th
consonant of the Thai alphabet, according to
the traditional letter symbols Thai children use
to memorise the alphabet.
Kubera

In Hindu, Buddhist and Jain Religion, Kubera, the god of wealth and prosperity, is
considered the king of the yakshas. He is regarded as the regent of the North
(Dikapāla) and a protector of the world (Lokapāla).
His many epithets extol him as the overlord of numerous semi-divine species and the
owner of the treasures of the world. Kubera is often depicted with a plump body,
adorned with jewels, carrying a money-pot and a club. His vahana (vehicle) is
the mongoose. He is often seen with Lakshmi, the Hindu goddess of wealth, fortune
and prosperity.
In Buddhism, he is equated with Vaiśravaṇa.
In Buddhist literature, the yakṣa are the attendants of Vaiśravaṇa, the guardian of the
northern quarter, a beneficent god who protects the righteous. The term also refers to
the Twelve Heavenly Generals who guard Bhaiṣajyaguru, the Medicine Buddha. The
yakshas of many Buddhist stories are ugly ogres, reborn in that form because of sins
committed during their past lives as humans.
One such malevolent yaksha, Silesaloma, appears in the Jataka tales of
the Pali Buddhist canon. The tale is similar to other folktales from a far-flung variety of
places, including Iran, South Africa, the Philippines, and Jamaica, though its exact
origins are uncertain. In the story "Prince Five-Weapons and the Sticky-Haired
Demon", Silesaloma is described as being the height of a palm tree, with sharp teeth
and two yellow tusks,and a coat of thick, matted fur. A bodhisattva named Prince
Panchayudha (Five-Weapons) attempted to kill Silesaloma, but all his attacks, from
both his weapons and his bare hands, were thwarted by Silesaloma's sticky hair.
Ultimately, Prince Panchayudha impressed Silesaloma with his bravery, and the yaksha
decided to let him go. Panchayudha explained that Silesaloma's monstrous state was caused by
wicked deeds from his past lives, and he taught the yaksha the five precepts, after which
Silesaloma renounced violence and transformed into a friendly forest spirit.
The Mahāmāyūrīvidyārājñī Sūtra, a text that dates back to fourth century or earlier (translated
from the Sanskrit by Kumarajiva), gives a large list of yakshas that reside in the classical cities of
ancient India who are invoked to seek the protection of the BuddhaDharma:
"The deity Krakucchanda resides in Pataliputra.
Aparajita resides in Sthuno.
The great yaksha Bhadra resides in Saila.
The great deity Manava resides in Uttara.
The great sage Vajrapani though lives in Rajagrha
Often dwells in Mount Grdhrakuta.
The deity Garuda resides in the Vipula mountain.
Citragupta resides in Citemukha.
The yaksha Vakula resides in Rajagrha.
...
The yaksha king Mahagiri resides in Girinagara.
The yaksha Vasava resides in Vaidisa.
The yaksha Karttikeya resides in Rohitaka.
This yaksha Kumara is renowned in the great city.

...
Vaisravana who resides in the city Alakavati,
Located along the jewelled stairway of the Buddha’s descent,
Is surrounded by billions of gods and goddesses.
Such yakshas command huge and powerful contingents of troops
To subjugate adversaries and enemies,
Conquering all.
They are famous throughout all directions.
Imbued with great dignity and virtue,
They come to aid
In the battles between the heavens and asuras.
These deities of virtues and great yaksha generals are located everywhere in Jambudvipa. They
uphold and protect the Buddhadharma, generating compassion."
Yakshas In Jainism
A yaksha as a gate guardian (dvarapala) atPlaosan temple in Indonesia/'Digambara Yaksha Sarvahna', Norton
Simon Museum,c. 900 CE
Jains mainly maintain cult images of Arihants and Tirthankaras, who have conquered
the inner passions and attained moksha. Yakshas and yakshinis are found in pair
around the cult images of Jinas, serving as guardian deities. The yaksha is generally on
the right-hand side of the Jina image while the yakshini is on the left-hand side. They
are regarded mainly as devotees of the Jina and have supernatural powers. They are
also wandering through the cycles of births and deaths just like the worldly souls, but
have supernatural powers.
The Harivamsapurana (783 CE) refers to them as Shasandevatas. Initially among the
yakshas, Manibhadra and Purnabadra yakshas and Bahuputrika yakshini were popular.
The yaksha Manibhadra is worshipped by the Jains affiliated with the Tapa Gachchha.
During tenth and thirteenth centuries yaksha Saarvanubhuti, or Sarvahna and
yakshinis Chakreshvari, Ambika, Padmavati, and Jwalamalini became so popular that
independent temples devoted to them were erected.

Yakshas and yakshinis are common among the Murtipujaka Śvētāmbara and
Bispanthi Digambara Jains. The Digambara Terapanth movement opposes their
worship. Among the Murtipujaka Śvētāmbaras, the Tristutik Gaccha sect (both historical
founded by Silagana and Devabhadra, and the modern sect organised by Rajendrasuri)
object to the worship of shruta-devatas.
Shasan devatas in Jainism
Yaksha and yakshini couple Sarvānubhūti and Kuṣmāṇḍinī, with the Tirthankaras
In Jainism, there are twenty-four yakshas and twenty-four yakshis that serve as
śāsanadevatās for the twenty-four tirthankaras: These yakshas are as follows:
 Gomukha
 Mahayaksha
 Trimukha
 Yaksheshvara or Yakshanayaka
 Tumbaru
 Kusuma
 Varanandi or Matanga
 Vijaya or Shyama
 Ajita
 Brahma or Brahmeshvara
 Ishvara or Yakset
 Kumara
 Dandapani
 Patala

 Kinnara
 Kimpurusha or Garuda
 Gandharva
 Kendra or Yakshendra
 Kubera
 Varuna
 Bhrikuti
 Gomedha or Sarvahna
 Dharanendra or Parshvayaksha
 Matanga
In Kālidāsa's poem Meghadūta, for instance, the yakṣa narrator is a romantic figure,
pining with love for his missing beloved. By contrast, in the didactic Hindu dialogue of
the Yakṣapraśnāḥ "Questions of the Yakṣa", it is a tutelary spirit of a lake that
challenges Yudhiṣṭhira.
In Mahavamsa poem of Sri Lanka, a local population is given the term Yakkhas. Prince
Vijaya encountered the royalty of the yakkhas' queen, Kuveni, in her capital
of Lanka pura and conquered them. The Yakkhas served as loyal subjects with
the House of Vijaya and the yakkha chieftain sat on equal height to the Sri Lankan
leaders on festival days.
1. Yaksha couple standing on lotus leaves, the male (sic) holding a lotus bud and posed
in shalabhanjika/
2. Dvarapala Yaksha made of basalt. Statue found in Buddhist cave (Pitalkhora) and
dates to 2nd century CE. On display in the Prince of WalesMuseum.
3. Vidisha Yaksha, 2nd century BCE, Vidisha Museum/Gomedh and Ambika at Maharaja
Chhatrasal Museum, 11th century
However, this Jain tantrism was mainly used for pragmatic purposes like protection, and
was not used to attain liberation. Complete manuscripts of these Jain tantras have not
survived. The Jains also seem to have adopted some of the subtle body practices of tantra,
but not sexual yoga. The Svetambara thinker Hemacandra (c. 1089–1172) discusses tantric
practices extensively, such as internal meditations on chakras, which betray Kaula and Nath
influences.

Tantricism and Esoterism portrayed in the The Jain Temples at Khajuraho
These are part of the Khajuraho group of monuments and hence to understand them, their
design, and genesis, it is but fitting to delve a little into the realms of Khajuraho temple history.
Most of the Khajuraho temples were built within the span of a century, between the end of the
10th century and the beginning of the 11th century. The temples sprouted with remarkable
prolificity during this time under the rule of the Chandela Kings. The Chandelas who traced
their ancestry to the Moon and were part of the Lunar dynasty or Chandravanshis who ruled
over the Bundelkhand region of Central India, then known as Jejakabhukti. The Chandelas
reigned between the 10th and 13th centuries and had their capital at Mahoba.
The Chandelas were connoisseurs of art and architecture and their reign saw the mushrooming
of many temples, forts, palaces, and other structures. In many ways, they can be compared to
the great kings of the Khmer Empire in Cambodia like Suryavarman II and Jayavarman VII
during whose reign the great temples of Siem Reap like Angkor Wat, Bayon Temple, Ta Prohm,
and others rose to the skies. It is interesting to note that the temples of Khajuraho and some of
the majestic temples of Siem Reap must have been built around the same time. It is now
known that by the 12th century there were around 85 temples in the region which was known
as Kalinjar near present-day Khajuraho. However, the Chandela dynasty declined in the 13th
century and the temples of Khajuraho too fell on bad days. Many of them were destroyed by
invaders from the Delhi Sultanate and others slowly were swallowed by the jungles. It was only
in the early part of the 19th century, that the temples were rediscovered.
Today what remains of the legacy of the Chandela dynasty is around 25 temples that stun the
world with their sheer beauty.
Visiting The Jain Temples Of Khajuraho
Adinath &Parasnath idols

The exterior walls of the temple have three bands of sculptures
featuring surasundaris (graceful women), flying vidyadhara couples, vyalas (mythical
lion-like being), and a dancer with musicians. Despite the shrine's Jain affiliation, the
external walls also feature carvings of the Hindu deitiesThe niches feature sculptures of
the Jain Yakshinis: Ambika, Chakreshvari, and Padmavati.
Close-up of a sculpture/ Chandela-era statue of Adinatha in the sanctum
One sculpture found at the temple shows a sitting Adinatha with an ushnisha on his
head. It features a dharmachakra with a small bull figure. The right side of the seat has
the figure of a pot-bellied yaksha with a cup and a moneybag in his hands. The left side has the
figure of the yakshini Chakreshvari sitting on a Garuda. She has four arms; each of the two
upper arms hold a chakra.

Another sculpture with similar iconography also features a yaksha, a yakshini, and a bull with a
dharmachakra. The Adinatha is shown sitting in padmasana pose on a cushioned seat with
lotuses and diamond motifs. The plan and design of the Adinatha temple is similar to that of
the Vamana temple. There are only a few differences between the two temples. For example,
the top row of the outer wall of the Adinatha temple depicts a flying vidyadhara, while that of
the Vamana temple shows diamond-shapeddecorations. The curvilinear tower of the Adinatha
temple is of better proportions than that of the Vamana temple. This, combined with a
somewhat more evolved sculptural style, suggests that the Adinatha temple was constructed
after the Vamana temple.
Only two major parts of the temple now survive: the vestibule and the sanctum. The roof of the
vestibule is particularly remarkable for its elegant design
The Jain Temples of Khajuraho are enclosed within a contemporary enclosure and has about 16
different temples. The most important of these are the Adinath Temple and the Parshvanath
Temple. Both these temples are the oldest too, dating back about a thousand years. During
those times the eastern part of Khajuraho was inhabited by Jain merchants and hence the Jain
temples are concentrated in this particular area. The secular character of the Chandela dynasty
and the co-existence of Hinduism and Jainism in that period is amplified by the existence of
the Jain temples of Khajuraho.
Parshvanatha temple (IAST: Pārśvanātha Mandir) is a 10th-century Jain temple
at Khajuraho in Madhya Pradesh, India. It is now dedicated to Parshvanatha, although it was
probably built as an Adinatha shrine during the Chandela period. Despite the temple's Jain
affiliation, its exterior walls feature Vaishnavaite themes. The entrance has an inscription with
a most-perfect magic square. It is part of a UNESCO World Heritage Site along with other
temples in the Khajuraho Group of Monuments. The Parshvanatha temple is the largest among
the Jain temples of Khajuraho. It has an entrance porch, a small hall, a large hall
(mandapa), a vestibule, and a sanctum. The temple structure has an oblong architectural plan
with projections at two ends. The front (eastern) projection forms the entrance porch, the back
(western) projection is a shrine attached to the sanctum.
The ceiling of the entrance porch features chain and floral patterns, and a pair of intertwined
flying vidyadharas. The door-lintel of the mandapa has the sculpture of Adinatha's attendant: a
ten-armed Chakreshvari riding a Garuda. The sanctum features sculptures of the Jinas.
The temple is believed to have been constructed by a prominent Jain family between 950
and 970 CE, during the reign of the Chandela king Dhanga. A 954 CE (1011 VS) inscription on
the left door jamb of the temple records gifts and endowments of gardens by one Pahila. The
gardens are named Pahila-vatika, Chandra-vatika, Laghuchandra-vatika, Shankara-vatika,
Panchaitala-vatika, Amra-vatika and Dhanga-vadi. The inscription describes Pahila as a devotee
of Jinanatha and states that he was held in great esteem by the king Dhanga.
The earliest idol enshrined in the temple appears to have been that of Adinatha. When the
British archaeological surveyor Alexander Cunningham visited in 1852, he found the
main sanctum deserted. He described it as "Jinanatha temple" and wrote that it had been
repaired by a Jain banker in 1847. In 1860, a Parshvanatha idol was installed in the main
sanctum. An Adinatha statue was placed in a secondary shrine attached to the rear of the
temple.

The temple has been classified as a Monument of National Importance by the Archaeological
Survey of India.
ADINATH to left and PARASVANATH to Right
The outer walls have three bands of sculptures.[5]
These sculptures
feature surasundaris (graceful women), flying couples, dancers, musicians, and celestial
beings. Despite the temple's Jain affiliation, the outer walls also depict Vaishnavite themes
including sculptures of Hindu gods and their incarnations with their consorts. These
include Vishnu-Lakshmi, Rama-Sita, Balarama-Revati, Parashurama, Hanuman, Brahma and
Yamalarjuna legend of Krishna. These sculptures are similar to those of the Lakshmana
Temple in modeling, proportions and poise. Unlike the Lakshmana temple, the Parshvanatha
temple doesn't feature explicit erotic sculptures, although one particular image appears to
show a cross-legged apsara masturbating with an object.

A most-perfect magic square of order n is a magic square containing the numbers 1
to n2
with two additional properties:
1. Each 2 × 2 subsquare sums to 2s, where s = n2
+ 1.
2. All pairs of integers distant n/2 along a (major) diagonal sum to s.
Image of Sriramachakra as a most-perfect magic square given in the Panchangam published
by Sringeri Sharada Peetham.
Two 12 × 12 most-perfect magic squares can be obtained adding 1 to each element of:
[,1] [,2] [,3] [,4] [,5] [,6] [,7] [,8] [,9] [,10] [,11] [,12]
[1,] 64 92 81 94 48 77 67 63 50 61 83 78
[2,] 31 99 14 97 47 114 28 128 45 130 12 113
[3,] 24 132 41 134 8 117 27 103 10 101 43 118
[4,] 23 107 6 105 39 122 20 136 37 138 4 121
[5,] 16 140 33 142 0 125 19 111 2 109 35 126
[6,] 75 55 58 53 91 70 72 84 89 86 56 69

[7,] 76 80 93 82 60 65 79 51 62 49 95 66
[8,] 115 15 98 13 131 30 112 44 129 46 96 29
[9,] 116 40 133 42 100 25 119 11 102 9 135 26
[10,] 123 7 106 5 139 22 120 36 137 38 104 21
[11,] 124 32 141 34 108 17 127 3 110 1 143 18
[12,] 71 59 54 57 87 74 68 88 85 90 52 73
[,1] [,2] [,3] [,4] [,5] [,6] [,7] [,8] [,9] [,10] [,11] [,12]
[1,] 4 113 14 131 3 121 31 138 21 120 32 130
[2,] 136 33 126 15 137 25 109 8 119 26 108 16
[3,] 73 44 83 62 72 52 100 69 90 51 101 61
[4,] 64 105 54 87 65 97 37 80 47 98 36 88
[5,] 1 116 11 134 0 124 28 141 18 123 29 133
[6,] 103 66 93 48 104 58 76 41 86 59 75 49
[7,] 112 5 122 23 111 13 139 30 129 12 140 22
[8,] 34 135 24 117 35 127 7 110 17 128 6 118
[9,] 43 74 53 92 42 82 70 99 60 81 71 91
[10,] 106 63 96 45 107 55 79 38 89 56 78 46
[11,] 115 2 125 20 114 10 142 27 132 9 143 19
[12,] 67 102 57 84 68 94 40 77 50 95 39 85
panmagicism of the squares.
All most-perfect magic squares are panmagic squares.
Apart from the trivial case of the first order square, most-perfect magic squares are all of order
4n. In their book, Kathleen Ollerenshaw and David S. Brée give a method of construction and
enumeration of all most-perfect magic squares. They also show that there is a one-to-one
correspondence between reversible squares and most-perfect magic squares.
For n = 36, there are about 2.7 × 10 essentially different most-perfect magic squares.
Kama and Rati
The inscription containing the 4×4 most-perfect magic square

The temple has an inscription with a magic square, called the "Jaina square". This is one of the
oldest known 4×4 magic squares, as well as one of the oldest known most-perfect magic
squares.
This magic square contains all the numbers from 1 to 16. The sum of the numbers in every
horizontal row, every vertical column and the two diagonal rows is 34.
7 12 1 14
2 13 8 11
16 3 10 5
9 6 15 4
7 12 1 14
2 13 8 11
16 3 10 5
9 6 15 4
7 12 1 14
2 13 8 11
16 3 10 5
9 6 15 4
7 12 1 14

2 13 8 11
16 3 10 5
9 6 15 4
The sum of the numbers in the smaller 2x2 squares at the four corners, as well as those in the
central 2x2 square, is also 34.
7 12 1 14
2 13 8 11
16 3 10 5
9 6 15 4
7 12 1 14
2 13 8 11
16 3 10 5
9 6 15 4
7 12 1 14
2 13 8 11
16 3 10 5

9 6 15 4
The magic square is pandiagonal, aka diabolic: the numbers in its broken diagonals also sum
up to 34. For example, 7 + (6 + 10 + 11) = 34.
7 12 1 14
2 13 8 11
16 3 10 5
9 6 15 4
7 12 1 14
2 13 8 11
16 3 10 5
9 6 15 4
7 12 1 14
2 13 8 11
16 3 10 5
9 6 15 4
7 12 1 14

2 13 8 11
16 3 10 5
9 6 15 4
17th Jaina Studies Symposium
Jaina Tantra Book of Abstracts
20 March 2015- SOAS, University of London
Tantric Elements in the Original Praśnavyākaraṇa‒A Study
Jagat Ram Bhattacharyya (Shantiniketan, India)
Praśnavyākaraṇa is known to be the tenth canon of the twelve fold aṅgas of the Śvetāmbara
sect. The available editions of Praśnavyākaraṇa are dealt with two major aspects of nine
categories in Jainism, the influx (of karman–āsrava) and inhibition (of karman-saṃvara). These
two aspects are the basis of the theory of thekarma in Jainism. Praśnavyākaraṇa is also known
in two other terms - Paṇhavāgaraṇadasā or Vāgaraṇadasā. Although the available text of the
Praśnavyākaraṇa is same in all the editions, there is no doubt that this (newly edited)one is the
new addition in the name of Praśnavyākaraṇa.
It is interesting to note that the subject matter of the Praśnavyākaraṇa was first introduced in
the Sthānāṅgasūtra of being ten sections of the text, such as, Upamā, Saṃkhyā, Ṛṣibhāṣita,
Ācāryabhāṣita, Mahāvīrabhāṣita, Kṣobhikapraśna, Komalapraśna, Ādarśapraśna and Bāhupraśna.
Samavāyaṃga, the fifth canon has mentioned the Praśnavyākaraṇa in more elaborative
manner. It has mentioned that there are 108 praśnas, 108 apraśnas and 108 praśnāpraśnas in it.
It also mentions about the divine dialogue between Nāgas and Suparṇas. It also names some
chapters like, Ādarśa (addāga), Aṅguṭṭha, Bāhu, Asi, Maṣi, Kṣauma and Āditya etc. Some typical
names that hint to the tantric elements are also there, such as, Mahāpraśnavidyā,
Manapraśnavidyā and Devaprayoga etc. It also mentions that the contents of the
Praśnavyākaraṇa hold forty-five uddeśanas, forty-five samuddeśanasand one lakh couplets and
so on and these are based on metaphysics, epistemologyand ethics. Nandīsūtra, on this point

comments that Praśnavyākaraṇa is the shorter
form of the Samavāyāṅga with minor difference in the name of the chapters.
The newly edited Praśnavyākaraṇa, which I name as the Original Praśnavyākaraṇa has been lost
for centuries. This text has a commentary named Darśanajyoti and the commentator is
Jīvabhogin, an unknown Jain mendicant (Ācārya?), a discipleof Devanandin. One Devanandin is
known to be a Digambara Ācārya of 7th/8th century A.D. Considering the period of
Devanandin this commentary should also be placed in that period. Jain commentary literatures
are acknowledged to be written on or after 10th century A.D. On this point the Darśanajyoti
may be the earliest commentary so far if Jīvabhogin would be the disciple of that very
Devanandin. However, the present Praśnavyakaraṇa comprises34 chapters with an appendix.
These are, 1. Vargaracanā, 2. Yoni-nirdeśa, 3. Śikṣā,
4. Saṃkaṭa-vikaṭa, 5. Uttarādhara, 6. Abhighāta, 7. Jīvasaṃjñā-bheda, 8. Jīvacintā (manuṣya), 9.
Jīvacintā, 10. Dhātucintā, 11.Mūlasaṃjñā, 12. Mūlacintā, 13. Muṣṭijñāna, 14. Saṃkaṭa-vikaṭa
(repetition of 04 with little change), 15. Saṃsthāna- vibhāga, 16. Varṇa-vibhāga, 17.
Ghanachidra, 18. Jñātakāṇḍa, 19.Saṃkhyā, 20. Kālānayana, 21. Nakṣatrānayana, 22. Dvika-yoga,
23. Guṇakārakāṇḍa, 24. Mahākaraṇa-nandika parvan, 25.Gaja-vilulita, 26. Gajavilulita saṃkhyā-
karaṇa, 27.Mahākaraṇa-Gajavilulita, 28. Siṃhāvalokana, 29. Sarvatobhadra, 30. Aśvamohita-
karaṇa, 31. Sama-viṣama, 32. Guṇa, 33. Akṣarotpādana kāṇḍa, 34. Antikṣapaṇa and 35. Pariśiṣṭa.
Beginning from the first chapter till the end this text covers some aspects ofgrammar and at
the same time it specifically deals with the nimittaśāstra, for example, while dealing with the
letters like k, g, c, j, t and d etc. are treated as consonants as laghu akṣara, these are also called
as jīvacintā; in terms of mātrā, certain vowels are not only treated in hrasva, dīrgha and pluta,
some other terminologies are created as tiryak, adhaḥ and ūrdhva etc. Phonemes are termed
as,āliṅgita, abhidhūmita, abhighāta, dagdha, carama and so on. So in other chapters, we come
across some points that lead to the tantric ordinances. Dealing with the whole text an overview
of tantric elements would be highlighted in the paper as this text holds good a new dimension
of Indian tantric tradition.
The Five Great Elements (pañca mahābhūta) in Jaina Meditation Manuals
Christopher Key Chapple (Loyola Marymount University, Los Angeles, USA)
Śubhacandra's Jñānārṇava, a Digambara text most likely composed in the 11th century,
includes a chapter on Piṇḍastha Dhyāna that correlates element, color, geometric form, and
mantra, leading to a meditation on lotuses. The text describes aprogressive entry into various
states of concentration on the elements. Unlike the ascent from earth to water, and then to fire,
air, and space commonly found in Hindu Tantra texts and in the Visuddhimagga of
Buddhaghosa, the 29th chapter of the Jñānarṇava outlines a different sequence, beginning
with earth, proceeding to water,but then using wind to generate the fire necessary to burn off
karmas, delivering one to a state of pure meditation or the final and fifth element of space.
Specifically, this chapter describes the four elements (earth, water, air, fire), four corresponding
geometric forms (square, crescent, sphere, triangle), four colors (ochre, white, blue- black,
yellow), and four mantras (lam, vam, yam, ram) to be performed.
Several chapters later more explicit directions are given in terms of the technique and results of
this meditative sequence. In chapter 37, the order of concentration on the elements is

switched, with water rising to ascendancy as a culminating practice that cools the burning fires
generated by the breathing practicesthat have eradicated karmas. One reconfigures the gaze
upon the earth to visualize the earth as taking the shape of a lotus. The “stuff” of the earth
becomes correlated with mountains seen in the distance at dusk. This meditation then
promotes fires to burn, scorching the eight downward petals of the lotus that represent the
eight Jaina karmas. The four negative karmas, to be purified and expelledthrough this practice,
are karmas that obstruct knowledge, that obstruct intuition, that obstruct energy, and that
cause delusional thinking and action. The four remaining categories, which are also ultimately
left behind, are karmas that enable feeling, lifespan, physique, and social status. This fire then
leads to the practice of effortful, wind-like breathing that frees one from all constraints. The
final visualization on water leads one to a reflection on the presence of the liberated soul and
great teacher Mahāvīra, visualized externally on his Lion Throne as well as internally within
one‟s own body. This latter meditation is reproduced nearly verbatim in the Yogaśāstra of
Hemacandra (1089-1172).
This paper will compare and contrast these variant approaches to Tantric
visualization practices, examining the uniquely Jaina aspects found in these two texts. Select
new translations will be shared.

Reading Gorakhnāth through a Jain Lens: Jain Receptions of the Nāths in Pre-Colonial
North India
John E. Cort (Denison University, USA)
Toward the end of the Banārsī Vilās, the “collected works” of Banārsīdās (1586- 1643) that was
compiled by his colleague Jagjīvanrām in 1644, there is a curiousseven-caupāī composition
entitled “Gorakhnāth ke Vacan,” or “The Sayings of
Gorakhnāth.” In it he gives a favourable overview of Gorakhnāth‟s teachings. To thebest of my
knowledge, no scholarly attention has been focused on this text.
Scholars of Banārsīdās at best simply mention it in passing. Scholars ofGorakhnāth, and the
Nāths seem largely to be ignorant of the text.
A century later, in his Mokṣa-mārg Prakāśak, the Jaipur-based Terāpanth ideologueṬoḍarmal
(ca. 1719/20-1766/67) included a discussion of yogic practices. While Ṭoḍarmal did not specify
a source for his discussion, his comments were harshly critical of these false practices. We thus
see two different responses to the Tantric Yoga of Gorakhnāth and the Nāths. In this paper, I
analyse these two texts, to see two Jain readings of and responses to Nāth Tantric Yoga. I
speculate on what the two sharply different receptions might tell us about the two authors, and
also the socio-religious situations of the Jains in seventeenth-century Agra and eighteenth-
century Jaipur. Finally, I look at other evidence of Jain readings and receptions of Nāth Tantric
Yoga in pre-colonial North India.
Tantra Without ‘Tantrism’: The Quotidian Jain Mantra According to Somasena
Bhaṭṭāraka
Paul Dundas (University of Edinburgh, Scotland)
This presentation will first draw attention to a range of references from ŚvetāmbaraJain sources
which might be styled 'tantric' without fitting into any overarching system of 'Jain Tantrism'
and will then focus on the role of mantra in daily life as described by the seventeenth century
Digambara Somasenabhaṭṭāraka.
Digambara Jaina Divination Rituals in Coastal Karṇāṭāka
Peter Flügel (SOAS, University of London)
The paper presents a comparative analysis of the divination rituals performed to theyakṣīs
Kūṣmāṇḍīnī, Jvālāmālinī and Padmāvatī at pilgrimage shrines related to the maṭhas of the
Digambara bhaṭṭārakas at Mūḍabidarī, Narasiṃharājapura and Hūmchā in Coastal Karnataka
and similar Hindu rituals in Central Karnataka to discern the specific features of Jainisation of
regional divinatory practice.

The Mudrās of Jain Mantraśāstra
Ellen Gough (Yale University, USA)
Ritual gestures (mudrā) are among the many components of Jain ritual that scholarship in non-
Indic languages has completely overlooked. Jain ritual manuals, however, catalogue a variety of
mudrās, with the twentieth-century Digambara compendium Laghuvidyānuvāda listing 45, and
Nayacandrasāgara‟s Śvetāmbara Vardhamāna Vidyā Kalpa picturing 24. While this paper
cannot examine all of these mudrās, it will focus on the eight used today in the daily worship of
the sūrimantra paṭa, the cloth ritual diagram gifted to Śvetāmbara mendicant heads (ācārya)
upon their promotions. Following the Gujarati manual ācāryas of the Tapā Gaccha use today,
this paper will historicize these eight mudrās, placing them within the Indic useof mudrās more
generally: (1) the saubhāgya mudrā, (2) the parameṣṭhī mudrā, (3) the garuḍa mudrā (4) the
surabhi mudrā, (5) the mudgar mudrā, (6) the cakra mudrā,
(7) the pravacana mudrā, and (8) the añjali mudrā. While some of these gestures, like the añjali
mudrā, are omnipresent in Indic traditions, others are more commonly associated with
particular sects: the garuḍa mudrā, for example, is associated with Vaiṣṇava traditions, while the
pravacana mudrā perhaps is not used outside of Jain traditions. Ultimately, examining how and
why these mudrās are used in the worshipof the sūrimantra will help us more fully understand
not only components of
Śvetāmbara worship, but also those of the non-Śvetāmbara traditions – Vedic,Vaiṣṇava, Śaiva,
Buddhist and Digambara – that use these same gestures.
Jaina Meditation as depicted in Jñánárựava by Śubhacandra (1003-1068 A.D.)
Shugan C. Jain (ISJS) New Delhi, India)
The paper highlights the uniqueness of the eleventh century AD Jain text, Jñānārụava written
by Śubhacandra on Jaina meditation system. The peculiarity of Jñānārụava lies in its treatment
of knowledge (jñāna) and meditation (dhyāna) as synonymous which is in conformity with Jain
philosophical tradition. Śubhacandra argues that meditation, like a ship in the ocean, is the
enabler of not only right knowledge but also of liberation (mokṣa, total annihilation of
karmas). Jñānārụava isa pioneering text with comprehensive details of concept and practice of
Jaina yoga and meditation. The author discusses the types and subtypes of meditation based
on the four types of puruṣārtha; their pre-requisites (control of mind, renunciation, self-
restraint of sensual inclinations); process of meditation including body postures,seat/place for
meditation, breathing, and retention for lay people, self-study and meritorious meditation
(dharmadhyāna) for auspicious results and liberation ultimately. For successful practice of Jaina
meditation, Śubhacandra in Jñānārụava emphasized the need to acquire right knowledge
about the soul and its attributes, to develop renunciation (vairāgya), and equanimity of mind.
To do so, he detailed the twelve reflections and the trio of jewels (ratnatraya). Similarly he said
that the objective of dhyāna –yoga should be to enhance spiritual knowledge that ultimately
leads to the attainment of liberation rather than just for meritorious results (puụya).

Śubhacandra had adopted some of the techniques of other yogic and meditation systems
prevailing in India to explain the practice of Jaina meditation. The paper also details as to
how Śubhacandra draws on the writings of his predecessors as

31
well his acquaintance with prevailing non-Jaina practices along with his own long experience as
a Jaina monk to explain the Jaina meditation systems. He also shows limitations of techniques
like use of mantra, tantra, body postures, breathing and objects of concentration etc for
meditation propagated by other traditions. Finally the paper analyses the impact of
Śubhacandra‟s writings on the practice of Jaina meditation of later and contemporary
Jainācāryas.
Tantric Elements in Prekṣa Meditation
Samaṇī Pratibhāprajñā (SOAS, Jain Viśva Bhāratī Ladnun)
This paper aims at understanding the role of tantric elements in the development of the prekṣā-
dhyāna developed by Ācārya Mahāprajña (1920-2010), an aspect of prekṣā meditation which has
not so far been explored. I argue that Mahāprajñā‟s prekṣā meditation synthesises tantric “right
hand practices” with elements of modern science in a new model of meditation. It examines the
incorporation of tantric techniques such as visualisation, verbalisation, identification, models of
the body, practices of mantra „fixing‟, and the assignment of colours to various parts of the
body (nyāsa). The anthropomorphic representation as a site for the mapping of thesesystems as
well as a locus for these practices to take place is explored. It will show how mainstream tantric
elements are mirrored in the Jaina prekṣā system: “coiled power” (kuụḍalinī) / internal journey
(antara-yātrā), concentrated gaze (trāṭaka) / fixed-gaze perception (animeśa-prekṣā), colour
visualisation (rāga-dhāraụā) / colour meditation (leśyā-dhyāna), element balancing (dhātu-
saṁtulana) / perception of the body (śaṛīra-prekṣā), and alphabet fixing (mantra-nyāsa). The
attempt to develop a new model of tantra which is compatible with modern science, empirical,
and free of superstition and religious dogma will be investigated. Finally, the humanitarian and
„socially engaged‟ features of these tantric elements will be assessed.

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