This document discusses emphysematous pyelonephritis (EPN), a severe necrotizing infection of the renal parenchyma that causes gas accumulation. EPN most often occurs in diabetics, especially women, and presents similarly to acute pyelonephritis but has a more fulminating course. Diagnosis is made through CT scan and treatment involves aggressive antibiotics, fluid resuscitation, and either percutaneous drainage or emergency nephrectomy depending on severity and patient stability. Prognosis has improved with current treatments but mortality remains around 20-25% if not promptly recognized and treated.
Emphysematous pyelonephritis is a severe necrotizing infection of the kidney that is characterized by gas formation. It primarily affects diabetic patients and is caused by gas-forming bacteria like E. coli. Patients typically present with fever, flank pain, and vomiting. Diagnosis is made through imaging like ultrasound, CT scan, or x-ray that show gas in the kidney. Treatment involves intensive care, antibiotics, drainage of pus or gas when present, and sometimes nephrectomy. Earlier diagnosis and treatment can help reduce the high mortality rate of 19-43% associated with this condition.
The document discusses emphysematous pyelonephritis (EPN), a severe necrotizing infection of the renal parenchyma that causes gas accumulation. EPN most often occurs in persons with uncontrolled diabetes, especially women. It requires prompt diagnosis using CT scan and treatment with IV antibiotics and percutaneous drainage to drain abscesses. Factors like altered mental status, thrombocytopenia and elevated creatinine indicate higher risk cases that may require emergency nephrectomy. With aggressive treatment, reported mortality has improved but remains at 20-25%.
This document discusses emphysematous pyelonephritis (EPN), a rare necrotizing infection of the renal parenchyma that causes gas formation. It provides details on the typical presentation, risk factors, diagnosis and classification of EPN. The document is authored by professors and assistant professors from the Department of Urology at Govt Royapettah Hospital and Kilpauk Medical College in Chennai, India. It covers epidemiology, pathogenesis, clinical features, investigations including CT findings, classification systems for EPN, treatment approaches including antibiotics and percutaneous drainage, and outcomes.
This document presents a case report of a 54-year-old diabetic male who presented with bilateral emphysematous pyelonephritis (EPN), a rare and life-threatening infection involving gas in the renal parenchyma. Despite initial treatment with antibiotics, the patient deteriorated and developed multiple organ dysfunction. Imaging revealed extensive EPN. Due to the patient's critical condition, nephrectomy was not pursued. He was managed medically with prolonged antibiotics and supportive care. After 4 weeks, follow up imaging showed no significant changes but the patient remained dependent on hemodialysis. The document then reviews EPN including causes, presentation, diagnosis, staging, and management approaches.
This document summarizes information about liver abscesses, including pyogenic and amebic types. It discusses the epidemiology, causes, clinical presentation, diagnosis, and management of both types of liver abscesses. For pyogenic liver abscesses, it notes that they are usually polymicrobial infections most commonly caused by E. coli or Klebsiella. Cryptogenic cases may indicate underlying malignancy. Diabetes is a major risk factor. Ultrasound and CT are important diagnostic tools. Treatment involves drainage and antibiotics. For amebic liver abscesses, it indicates they are endemic in India and usually caused by Entamoeba histolytica infection following travel to endemic areas. Clinical features, ultrasound and serology can aid
Acute pancreatitis is defined clinically by abdominal pain consistent with pancreatitis along with elevated serum amylase or lipase levels and imaging findings. It has an incidence of 4.9 to 73.4 per 100,000 patients in the US. The natural history involves an initial inflammatory phase lasting about a week followed by potential complications like pancreatic necrosis in 20% of patients. The pathogenesis involves inappropriate activation of digestive enzymes within the pancreas. Common causes include gallstones, alcohol use, hypertriglyceridemia, and post-ERCP. Diagnosis relies on abdominal pain and at least a 3-fold elevation of serum amylase or lipase.
Surgery Resident clinical seminar on the management of a 60yr old male with upper gastrointestinal bleeding presented to the department of surgery, Niger Delta University Teaching Hospital, Okolobiri, Bayelsa State
Emphysematous pyelonephritis is a severe necrotizing infection of the kidney that is characterized by gas formation. It primarily affects diabetic patients and is caused by gas-forming bacteria like E. coli. Patients typically present with fever, flank pain, and vomiting. Diagnosis is made through imaging like ultrasound, CT scan, or x-ray that show gas in the kidney. Treatment involves intensive care, antibiotics, drainage of pus or gas when present, and sometimes nephrectomy. Earlier diagnosis and treatment can help reduce the high mortality rate of 19-43% associated with this condition.
The document discusses emphysematous pyelonephritis (EPN), a severe necrotizing infection of the renal parenchyma that causes gas accumulation. EPN most often occurs in persons with uncontrolled diabetes, especially women. It requires prompt diagnosis using CT scan and treatment with IV antibiotics and percutaneous drainage to drain abscesses. Factors like altered mental status, thrombocytopenia and elevated creatinine indicate higher risk cases that may require emergency nephrectomy. With aggressive treatment, reported mortality has improved but remains at 20-25%.
This document discusses emphysematous pyelonephritis (EPN), a rare necrotizing infection of the renal parenchyma that causes gas formation. It provides details on the typical presentation, risk factors, diagnosis and classification of EPN. The document is authored by professors and assistant professors from the Department of Urology at Govt Royapettah Hospital and Kilpauk Medical College in Chennai, India. It covers epidemiology, pathogenesis, clinical features, investigations including CT findings, classification systems for EPN, treatment approaches including antibiotics and percutaneous drainage, and outcomes.
This document presents a case report of a 54-year-old diabetic male who presented with bilateral emphysematous pyelonephritis (EPN), a rare and life-threatening infection involving gas in the renal parenchyma. Despite initial treatment with antibiotics, the patient deteriorated and developed multiple organ dysfunction. Imaging revealed extensive EPN. Due to the patient's critical condition, nephrectomy was not pursued. He was managed medically with prolonged antibiotics and supportive care. After 4 weeks, follow up imaging showed no significant changes but the patient remained dependent on hemodialysis. The document then reviews EPN including causes, presentation, diagnosis, staging, and management approaches.
This document summarizes information about liver abscesses, including pyogenic and amebic types. It discusses the epidemiology, causes, clinical presentation, diagnosis, and management of both types of liver abscesses. For pyogenic liver abscesses, it notes that they are usually polymicrobial infections most commonly caused by E. coli or Klebsiella. Cryptogenic cases may indicate underlying malignancy. Diabetes is a major risk factor. Ultrasound and CT are important diagnostic tools. Treatment involves drainage and antibiotics. For amebic liver abscesses, it indicates they are endemic in India and usually caused by Entamoeba histolytica infection following travel to endemic areas. Clinical features, ultrasound and serology can aid
Acute pancreatitis is defined clinically by abdominal pain consistent with pancreatitis along with elevated serum amylase or lipase levels and imaging findings. It has an incidence of 4.9 to 73.4 per 100,000 patients in the US. The natural history involves an initial inflammatory phase lasting about a week followed by potential complications like pancreatic necrosis in 20% of patients. The pathogenesis involves inappropriate activation of digestive enzymes within the pancreas. Common causes include gallstones, alcohol use, hypertriglyceridemia, and post-ERCP. Diagnosis relies on abdominal pain and at least a 3-fold elevation of serum amylase or lipase.
Surgery Resident clinical seminar on the management of a 60yr old male with upper gastrointestinal bleeding presented to the department of surgery, Niger Delta University Teaching Hospital, Okolobiri, Bayelsa State
This document discusses surgical infections of the thorax, including pathology, investigations, treatments, and specific conditions. It covers topics such as the stages of empyema (exudative, fibrino purulent, organizing), classifications of inflammatory diseases of the thorax (infections of the container vs contents), and treatments for specific infections like tuberculosis of the ribs and actinomycosis. Empyema treatment options discussed include antibiotics, tube thoracostomy, fibrinolytic therapy, VATS, rib resection, decortication, and thoracoplasty.
This case report describes a 61-year old diabetic and hypertensive female patient who presented with fever, abdominal pain, and altered mental status. Imaging revealed emphysematous pyelonephritis of the left kidney with air pockets in the renal pelvis, parenchyma, and left renal vein. The patient underwent an emergency nephrectomy and was treated in the intensive care unit. She developed postoperative complications including hypotension, lactic acidosis, and pneumonia but eventually improved with treatment and was discharged. Emphysematous pyelonephritis is a severe necrotizing renal infection seen in diabetic patients that can lead to gas formation in the kidney and surrounding tissues. Prompt diagnosis and management
1) Acute pancreatitis has many causes including gallstones, alcohol use, genetic mutations, drugs, hypertriglyceridemia and trauma. It is diagnosed when a patient has abdominal pain consistent with pancreatitis along with elevated pancreatic enzymes or imaging findings of pancreatitis.
2) Severity is classified based on the presence of organ failure and local complications. Predictors of severe acute pancreatitis include age over 60, comorbidities, obesity, and long term heavy alcohol use.
3) Management involves fluid resuscitation, nutritional support either enterally or parenterally, use of antibiotics only if infection is suspected, and minimally invasive techniques to treat fluid collections and necrosis when indicated. Recurrence can
Simple presentation to understand effects of diabetes on our excretory system so learn urology ,discuss urology at my channel https://www.youtube.com/my_videos?o=U next presentaiton will investigation in non invasive urinary bladder carcinoma .......soon
Liver abscesses occur when bacteria, protozoa, or fungi infect and destroy hepatic tissue. There are two main types: pyogenic (caused by bacteria) and amebic (caused by the protozoan Entamoeba histolytica). Common symptoms include fever, right upper quadrant pain, and hepatomegaly. Imaging tests like ultrasound and CT are used to detect abscesses. Treatment involves antibiotics, drainage of large abscesses, and treating any underlying infection. Outcomes are generally good but complications can include sepsis, empyema, and rupture.
The document discusses carcinoid syndrome, which occurs when carcinoid tumors originating from neuroendocrine cells metastasize. Carcinoid tumors most commonly originate in the gastrointestinal tract and lungs. When they metastasize extensively to the liver, bioactive substances secreted by the tumors, such as serotonin and tachykinins, enter systemic circulation and cause symptoms. Common symptoms include facial flushing, diarrhea, and fibrosis of organs and heart valves. The document covers epidemiology, pathophysiology, clinical presentation, diagnosis, and management of carcinoid syndrome.
Pnuemonia - medicine (definitions, parthenogenesis)RishikRana3
This document provides information on pneumonia, including:
- Definitions, classifications, risk factors and typical organisms involved in different types of pneumonia.
- Signs, symptoms and findings on physical exam, imaging and laboratory tests.
- Treatment guidelines for different severities of community-acquired and hospital-acquired pneumonia, including antibiotic and supportive care recommendations.
- Criteria for severe pneumonia requiring intensive care unit admission or mechanical ventilation are outlined.
This document discusses the etiology and diagnosis of acute pancreatitis. It lists various etiological factors including mechanical obstruction, alcohol, hypertriglyceridemia, genetic mutations, drugs, infections, and trauma. It describes the diagnosis of acute pancreatitis based on abdominal symptoms, lipase or amylase levels, and imaging findings. It also discusses local complications like acute peripancreatic fluid collection, pancreatic pseudocyst, acute necrotic collection, and walled-off necrosis. Organ failure is defined using the Modified Marshall Scoring System.
This document discusses acute and chronic pyelonephritis. It defines pyelonephritis as inflammation of the kidney that can be acute or chronic. Acute pyelonephritis is typically caused by bacterial infection traveling up the ureters. It presents with fever, flank pain, nausea, and costovertebral angle tenderness. Chronic pyelonephritis is caused by ongoing or recurrent infections that lead to scarring of the kidney over time. Investigation may include urine analysis, blood tests, ultrasound or CT scan. Treatment involves antibiotics, fluids, and in some cases surgery to address underlying causes of recurrent infection.
Hepatic cysts are abnormal fluid-filled spaces in the hepatic parenchyma and biliary tree
They are categorized into 3 main types:
fibrocystic diseases of the liver
cystadenomas and cystadenocarcinomas
and hydatid cysts
AKI is common in ICU patients and is associated with high mortality. It is defined based on changes in serum creatinine and urine output. The RIFLE criteria is commonly used for classification. Causes include prerenal, intrinsic renal and post renal factors. Treatment involves identifying and treating the underlying cause, fluid resuscitation, and renal replacement therapy like intermittent hemodialysis or continuous renal replacement therapy as needed. Prevention strategies focus on ensuring adequate perfusion and minimizing nephrotoxins. Outcomes remain poor despite treatment.
- Viral hepatitis can present asymptomatically, symptomatically before jaundice, or progress to fulminant hepatitis or chronic hepatitis. Diagnosis involves blood tests to check liver enzymes and serology or molecular testing to determine the virus.
- Liver abscesses can be pyogenic (most common), amebic, or fungal. Amebic abscesses are caused by Entamoeba histolytica and present with fever, abdominal pain, and hepatomegaly. Pyogenic abscesses require drainage if large or not improving with antibiotics.
- Hydatid cysts are caused by the tapeworm Echinococcus granulosus. Surgical removal is usually required for large or infected cysts while
Pyogenic and amebic liver infections and infestations are described. Pyogenic liver abscesses are usually caused by bacteria spreading from another infected site via the bloodstream and are typically treated with antibiotics and drainage. Amebic liver abscesses are caused by the parasite Entamoeba histolytica and present with right upper quadrant pain, fever, and tenderness. Diagnosis involves blood tests and imaging, and treatment consists of antiparasitic medications and sometimes drainage. Hydatid cysts are caused by the tapeworm Echinococcus granulosus and seen endemic areas; they may cause liver masses, pain, or allergic reactions.
This document discusses acute and chronic pyelonephritis, which are inflammations of the kidney that can be caused by bacterial infections traveling up the urinary tract. It describes the etiology, pathogenesis, clinical features, investigations, and management of both conditions. Acute pyelonephritis is typically caused by gram-negative bacteria and can range from mild to severe with symptoms like fever and flank pain. Chronic pyelonephritis is characterized by recurrent infections and scarring of the kidney over time. Imaging tests can identify abnormalities and complications are treated with antibiotics or sometimes surgery.
1. Chronic cholestasis can be caused by intrahepatic or extrahepatic conditions. Common intrahepatic causes include primary biliary cholangitis (PBC), primary sclerosing cholangitis (PSC), and drug-induced liver injury (DILI).
2. PBC is an autoimmune disease characterized by progressive destruction of intrahepatic bile ducts, presence of antimitochondrial antibodies (AMA), and histologic findings of florid duct lesions on liver biopsy. PBC diagnosis requires two of three criteria: cholestatic liver enzymes, AMA positivity, or liver biopsy consistent with PBC.
3. PSC is a chronic inflammatory condition of
A 50-year-old farmer from Gujranwala presented with abdominal pain, jaundice, and urticaria. Differential diagnoses include liver abscess and hydatid disease. Investigations would include blood tests, imaging like ultrasound and CT, and fluid aspiration/culture. Initial management depends on diagnosis but may include antibiotics, drainage, or anti-parasitic drugs. Liver abscesses are generally pyogenic, amoebic, or fungal in origin and present variably. Hydatid disease involves cyst formation from Echinococcus tapeworms and usually affects the liver. Treatment involves surgery, percutaneous drainage, or anti-parasitic drugs depending on individual factors.
This document summarizes infectious diseases of the liver, focusing on pyogenic liver abscess and amebic liver abscess. Pyogenic liver abscess is usually polymicrobial, with risk factors including biliary tract disease, cirrhosis, and diabetes. Clinical features include fever, right upper quadrant pain, and jaundice. Treatment involves antibiotics and drainage of large abscesses. Amebic liver abscess is caused by Entamoeba histolytica and presents with nonspecific symptoms. Serology and imaging can help with diagnosis, and metronidazole is the treatment. Complications of liver abscesses include rupture, fistula formation, and spread to other organs.
Emphysematous pyelonephritis is a necrotizing renal infection characterized by gas in the renal parenchyma or surrounding tissue. It commonly affects diabetics and those with urinary tract obstructions. CT scan is most accurate for diagnosis by detecting renal gas. Treatment involves controlling blood glucose, relieving obstruction, IV antibiotics, and sometimes percutaneous drainage or nephrectomy. Mortality rates are high without prompt treatment.
This document outlines recent advances in the management of liver cancers. It discusses the epidemiology, risk factors, classification, investigations and various treatment options for liver cancers including hepatic resection, ablation techniques, regional therapies, chemotherapy and transplantation. Resection remains the standard curative treatment for non-cirrhotic patients with localized disease, while ablation techniques and regional therapies are alternatives for patients not eligible for surgery. Advances in surgical techniques and anesthesia have improved resection outcomes.
This document discusses surgical infections of the thorax, including pathology, investigations, treatments, and specific conditions. It covers topics such as the stages of empyema (exudative, fibrino purulent, organizing), classifications of inflammatory diseases of the thorax (infections of the container vs contents), and treatments for specific infections like tuberculosis of the ribs and actinomycosis. Empyema treatment options discussed include antibiotics, tube thoracostomy, fibrinolytic therapy, VATS, rib resection, decortication, and thoracoplasty.
This case report describes a 61-year old diabetic and hypertensive female patient who presented with fever, abdominal pain, and altered mental status. Imaging revealed emphysematous pyelonephritis of the left kidney with air pockets in the renal pelvis, parenchyma, and left renal vein. The patient underwent an emergency nephrectomy and was treated in the intensive care unit. She developed postoperative complications including hypotension, lactic acidosis, and pneumonia but eventually improved with treatment and was discharged. Emphysematous pyelonephritis is a severe necrotizing renal infection seen in diabetic patients that can lead to gas formation in the kidney and surrounding tissues. Prompt diagnosis and management
1) Acute pancreatitis has many causes including gallstones, alcohol use, genetic mutations, drugs, hypertriglyceridemia and trauma. It is diagnosed when a patient has abdominal pain consistent with pancreatitis along with elevated pancreatic enzymes or imaging findings of pancreatitis.
2) Severity is classified based on the presence of organ failure and local complications. Predictors of severe acute pancreatitis include age over 60, comorbidities, obesity, and long term heavy alcohol use.
3) Management involves fluid resuscitation, nutritional support either enterally or parenterally, use of antibiotics only if infection is suspected, and minimally invasive techniques to treat fluid collections and necrosis when indicated. Recurrence can
Simple presentation to understand effects of diabetes on our excretory system so learn urology ,discuss urology at my channel https://www.youtube.com/my_videos?o=U next presentaiton will investigation in non invasive urinary bladder carcinoma .......soon
Liver abscesses occur when bacteria, protozoa, or fungi infect and destroy hepatic tissue. There are two main types: pyogenic (caused by bacteria) and amebic (caused by the protozoan Entamoeba histolytica). Common symptoms include fever, right upper quadrant pain, and hepatomegaly. Imaging tests like ultrasound and CT are used to detect abscesses. Treatment involves antibiotics, drainage of large abscesses, and treating any underlying infection. Outcomes are generally good but complications can include sepsis, empyema, and rupture.
The document discusses carcinoid syndrome, which occurs when carcinoid tumors originating from neuroendocrine cells metastasize. Carcinoid tumors most commonly originate in the gastrointestinal tract and lungs. When they metastasize extensively to the liver, bioactive substances secreted by the tumors, such as serotonin and tachykinins, enter systemic circulation and cause symptoms. Common symptoms include facial flushing, diarrhea, and fibrosis of organs and heart valves. The document covers epidemiology, pathophysiology, clinical presentation, diagnosis, and management of carcinoid syndrome.
Pnuemonia - medicine (definitions, parthenogenesis)RishikRana3
This document provides information on pneumonia, including:
- Definitions, classifications, risk factors and typical organisms involved in different types of pneumonia.
- Signs, symptoms and findings on physical exam, imaging and laboratory tests.
- Treatment guidelines for different severities of community-acquired and hospital-acquired pneumonia, including antibiotic and supportive care recommendations.
- Criteria for severe pneumonia requiring intensive care unit admission or mechanical ventilation are outlined.
This document discusses the etiology and diagnosis of acute pancreatitis. It lists various etiological factors including mechanical obstruction, alcohol, hypertriglyceridemia, genetic mutations, drugs, infections, and trauma. It describes the diagnosis of acute pancreatitis based on abdominal symptoms, lipase or amylase levels, and imaging findings. It also discusses local complications like acute peripancreatic fluid collection, pancreatic pseudocyst, acute necrotic collection, and walled-off necrosis. Organ failure is defined using the Modified Marshall Scoring System.
This document discusses acute and chronic pyelonephritis. It defines pyelonephritis as inflammation of the kidney that can be acute or chronic. Acute pyelonephritis is typically caused by bacterial infection traveling up the ureters. It presents with fever, flank pain, nausea, and costovertebral angle tenderness. Chronic pyelonephritis is caused by ongoing or recurrent infections that lead to scarring of the kidney over time. Investigation may include urine analysis, blood tests, ultrasound or CT scan. Treatment involves antibiotics, fluids, and in some cases surgery to address underlying causes of recurrent infection.
Hepatic cysts are abnormal fluid-filled spaces in the hepatic parenchyma and biliary tree
They are categorized into 3 main types:
fibrocystic diseases of the liver
cystadenomas and cystadenocarcinomas
and hydatid cysts
AKI is common in ICU patients and is associated with high mortality. It is defined based on changes in serum creatinine and urine output. The RIFLE criteria is commonly used for classification. Causes include prerenal, intrinsic renal and post renal factors. Treatment involves identifying and treating the underlying cause, fluid resuscitation, and renal replacement therapy like intermittent hemodialysis or continuous renal replacement therapy as needed. Prevention strategies focus on ensuring adequate perfusion and minimizing nephrotoxins. Outcomes remain poor despite treatment.
- Viral hepatitis can present asymptomatically, symptomatically before jaundice, or progress to fulminant hepatitis or chronic hepatitis. Diagnosis involves blood tests to check liver enzymes and serology or molecular testing to determine the virus.
- Liver abscesses can be pyogenic (most common), amebic, or fungal. Amebic abscesses are caused by Entamoeba histolytica and present with fever, abdominal pain, and hepatomegaly. Pyogenic abscesses require drainage if large or not improving with antibiotics.
- Hydatid cysts are caused by the tapeworm Echinococcus granulosus. Surgical removal is usually required for large or infected cysts while
Pyogenic and amebic liver infections and infestations are described. Pyogenic liver abscesses are usually caused by bacteria spreading from another infected site via the bloodstream and are typically treated with antibiotics and drainage. Amebic liver abscesses are caused by the parasite Entamoeba histolytica and present with right upper quadrant pain, fever, and tenderness. Diagnosis involves blood tests and imaging, and treatment consists of antiparasitic medications and sometimes drainage. Hydatid cysts are caused by the tapeworm Echinococcus granulosus and seen endemic areas; they may cause liver masses, pain, or allergic reactions.
This document discusses acute and chronic pyelonephritis, which are inflammations of the kidney that can be caused by bacterial infections traveling up the urinary tract. It describes the etiology, pathogenesis, clinical features, investigations, and management of both conditions. Acute pyelonephritis is typically caused by gram-negative bacteria and can range from mild to severe with symptoms like fever and flank pain. Chronic pyelonephritis is characterized by recurrent infections and scarring of the kidney over time. Imaging tests can identify abnormalities and complications are treated with antibiotics or sometimes surgery.
1. Chronic cholestasis can be caused by intrahepatic or extrahepatic conditions. Common intrahepatic causes include primary biliary cholangitis (PBC), primary sclerosing cholangitis (PSC), and drug-induced liver injury (DILI).
2. PBC is an autoimmune disease characterized by progressive destruction of intrahepatic bile ducts, presence of antimitochondrial antibodies (AMA), and histologic findings of florid duct lesions on liver biopsy. PBC diagnosis requires two of three criteria: cholestatic liver enzymes, AMA positivity, or liver biopsy consistent with PBC.
3. PSC is a chronic inflammatory condition of
A 50-year-old farmer from Gujranwala presented with abdominal pain, jaundice, and urticaria. Differential diagnoses include liver abscess and hydatid disease. Investigations would include blood tests, imaging like ultrasound and CT, and fluid aspiration/culture. Initial management depends on diagnosis but may include antibiotics, drainage, or anti-parasitic drugs. Liver abscesses are generally pyogenic, amoebic, or fungal in origin and present variably. Hydatid disease involves cyst formation from Echinococcus tapeworms and usually affects the liver. Treatment involves surgery, percutaneous drainage, or anti-parasitic drugs depending on individual factors.
This document summarizes infectious diseases of the liver, focusing on pyogenic liver abscess and amebic liver abscess. Pyogenic liver abscess is usually polymicrobial, with risk factors including biliary tract disease, cirrhosis, and diabetes. Clinical features include fever, right upper quadrant pain, and jaundice. Treatment involves antibiotics and drainage of large abscesses. Amebic liver abscess is caused by Entamoeba histolytica and presents with nonspecific symptoms. Serology and imaging can help with diagnosis, and metronidazole is the treatment. Complications of liver abscesses include rupture, fistula formation, and spread to other organs.
Emphysematous pyelonephritis is a necrotizing renal infection characterized by gas in the renal parenchyma or surrounding tissue. It commonly affects diabetics and those with urinary tract obstructions. CT scan is most accurate for diagnosis by detecting renal gas. Treatment involves controlling blood glucose, relieving obstruction, IV antibiotics, and sometimes percutaneous drainage or nephrectomy. Mortality rates are high without prompt treatment.
This document outlines recent advances in the management of liver cancers. It discusses the epidemiology, risk factors, classification, investigations and various treatment options for liver cancers including hepatic resection, ablation techniques, regional therapies, chemotherapy and transplantation. Resection remains the standard curative treatment for non-cirrhotic patients with localized disease, while ablation techniques and regional therapies are alternatives for patients not eligible for surgery. Advances in surgical techniques and anesthesia have improved resection outcomes.
This document summarizes a seminar on rabies. It discusses the history, epidemiology, pathogenesis, clinical features, diagnosis and prevention of rabies. Rabies is a fatal viral disease transmitted through animal bites, primarily from dogs. It has affected humans for thousands of years. Current prevention strategies focus on mass dog vaccination programs, post-exposure prophylaxis for bite victims, and surveillance to identify outbreaks. Early diagnosis is difficult but important for effective treatment.
This document discusses stone disease in pregnancy. It notes that while the incidence of urolithiasis is similar in pregnant and non-pregnant women, stones can cause complications like premature birth in up to 40% of cases. Imaging choices are limited by concerns over radiation exposure to the fetus, but ultrasound is usually first-line. While most stones will pass spontaneously with conservative management, uncontrolled pain, infection, or obstruction of the solitary kidney may require interventions like ureteroscopy, with precautions taken to minimize radiation exposure to the fetus.
This document discusses the use of marginal or expanded criteria donors for kidney transplantation. It notes that there is a large gap between the number of patients needing kidney transplants and the availability of organs. Using marginal donors, such as those older than 60 years of age, deceased donors with hypertension, or living donors with medical risks can help increase the donor pool by 20-25%. Outcomes are inferior to normal criteria donors but provide recipients with improved survival over remaining on dialysis. Careful screening and optimization of allocation can help maximize outcomes when using marginal kidney donors.
A 68-year-old male farmer presented with complaints of dysuria and poor urine stream for 6 months. He had a suprapubic catheter inserted 2 months ago. On examination, his prostate was grade 1 and firm. Urinalysis showed plenty of white blood cells and 6-8 red blood cells. Urine culture showed no growth. Imaging showed a thickened bladder wall and post-void residual of 234cc. The patient was diagnosed with benign prostatic hyperplasia.
Surgical management of primary penile carcinoma includes biopsy for histologic confirmation, followed by organ-conserving or amputation procedures depending on the stage and grade. For low-stage Tis, Ta, T1 grade 1-2 tumors, organ-conserving options like circumcision, laser therapy, Mohs microsurgery, local excision or partial glansectomy are preferred to preserve sexual and urinary function. For more advanced or high-grade tumors, partial or total penectomy may be required. Radiation therapy is an alternative for small, early-stage lesions but is associated with higher risks of complications like necrosis, stenosis and the potential need for salvage surgery.
This document discusses urine cytology specimen collection and preparation techniques. There are three types of specimens that can be collected - voided urine, catheter specimens, and bladder washings. Voided urine is the simplest but early morning samples should be avoided due to poor cell morphology. Catheter specimens avoid contamination but can mimic tumors. Bladder washings use saline to irrigate the bladder and have good cellularity. Preparation methods include centrifugation with Esposito's fixative or cytocentrifugation, direct smears, membrane filters, and monolayer techniques. Normal urinary cytology shows a range of superficial and deep urothelial cell types with characteristic features.
This document presents a case report of a 70-year-old diabetic male patient who presented with right leg pain for 3 months and a raw area on his right foot for 1 month. On examination, he was found to have signs of peripheral vascular disease in his right leg including skin changes, delayed pulses, and inability to move toes. He was diagnosed with peripheral arterial occlusive disease in his right leg and a grade 3 diabetic foot ulcer on his right foot, likely due to atherosclerosis.
Tissue engineering applications in urology include organ transplantation, reconstructive procedures, and novel therapies for chronic illness. Studies have reconstructed tissues of the urethra, bladder, and male genitalia using cell-seeded matrices. For the urethra, tubular matrices seeded with autologous cells generated neourethral segments of 5-15cm. For the bladder, acellular matrices and cell-seeded matrices showed regeneration of transitional layers. Reconstructing penile corpora used smooth muscle cells on biodegradable scaffolds, generating intact structures. Tissue engineering offers alternatives to gastrointestinal tissues currently used for reconstruction and potential treatments for conditions like erectile dysfunction and infertility.
The CT scan showed a 40-year-old male patient complaining of abdominal pain for 3 days. The liver, gallbladder, pancreas, spleen, kidneys, bladder, prostate, bones, and bowel loops were normal. A 6.4mm renal calculus was seen in the lower pole calyx of the right kidney. A 1cm cortical cyst was seen in the midpole of the right kidney. Some fibroatelectatic strands and ground glass opacities were seen in the posterior basal segments of the lower lobes of both lungs. The impression was of a right renal calculus and right simple renal cortical cyst.
Wound is defined as a break in continuity of tissue that can be caused by transfer of energy either externally or internally. Wounds are classified as mechanical, chemical, thermal, or radiation-induced. Special wounds are classified by origin or bacterial contamination. Rabies is a fatal viral disease spread through infected saliva that causes encephalitis. It is endemic in parts of Asia and Africa where dog bites are a major transmission route, especially in children. Symptoms include bizarre behavior, hydrophobia, paralysis and death. Diagnosis involves antigen detection in tissues or PCR. Prevention focuses on wound cleansing, vaccination, and immunoglobulin administration based on exposure category. Post-exposure prophylaxis includes vaccination and immunoglobulin over 28-
This patient is a 32-year-old male with a history of hypertension and chronic kidney disease who has been on maintenance hemodialysis for 1 year. He has a neurogenic bladder with a history of urinary tract abnormalities and is being evaluated for a renal transplant. His wife is willing to be a living donor. On evaluation, he was found to have grade 2-3 bladder trabeculations, dilated ureters and renal pelvis, and a bladder capacity of 250ml. Cystoscopy and other tests confirmed his neurogenic bladder and suitability for a renal transplant.
Surgical management of primary penile carcinoma includes biopsy for histologic confirmation, followed by organ-conserving or amputational surgery depending on the stage and grade. Organ-conserving options for early stage low-grade tumors include circumcision, laser therapy, Mohs microsurgery, local excision and partial glansectomy. More advanced tumors may require partial or total penectomy to achieve adequate surgical margins while preserving sexual and urinary function when possible. Radiation therapy is an alternative for small early tumors but is associated with higher risks of complications like necrosis, stenosis and the potential need for salvage surgery.
Peritoneal dialysis solutions have evolved over time. Originally, scientists experimented with various solutions instilled into the peritoneal cavity to treat uremia. Commercially available solutions in the 1950s contained lactate. Newer solutions aim to be pH neutral with low glucose degradation products and better preserve residual renal function compared to high glucose and lactate solutions. Clinical trials show neutral pH solutions result in slower decline in renal function and longer time to anuria with similar ultrafiltration and fluid status but lower peritonitis rates.
“Psychiatry and the Humanities”: An Innovative Course at the University of Mo...Université de Montréal
“Psychiatry and the Humanities”: An Innovative Course at the University of Montreal Expanding the medical model to embrace the humanities. Link: https://www.psychiatrictimes.com/view/-psychiatry-and-the-humanities-an-innovative-course-at-the-university-of-montreal
These lecture slides, by Dr Sidra Arshad, offer a simplified look into the mechanisms involved in the regulation of respiration:
Learning objectives:
1. Describe the organisation of respiratory center
2. Describe the nervous control of inspiration and respiratory rhythm
3. Describe the functions of the dorsal and respiratory groups of neurons
4. Describe the influences of the Pneumotaxic and Apneustic centers
5. Explain the role of Hering-Breur inflation reflex in regulation of inspiration
6. Explain the role of central chemoreceptors in regulation of respiration
7. Explain the role of peripheral chemoreceptors in regulation of respiration
8. Explain the regulation of respiration during exercise
9. Integrate the respiratory regulatory mechanisms
10. Describe the Cheyne-Stokes breathing
Study Resources:
1. Chapter 42, Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 14th edition
2. Chapter 36, Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 26th edition
3. Chapter 13, Human Physiology by Lauralee Sherwood, 9th edition
Know the difference between Endodontics and Orthodontics.Gokuldas Hospital
Your smile is beautiful.
Let’s be honest. Maintaining that beautiful smile is not an easy task. It is more than brushing and flossing. Sometimes, you might encounter dental issues that need special dental care. These issues can range anywhere from misalignment of the jaw to pain in the root of teeth.
Osvaldo Bernardo Muchanga-GASTROINTESTINAL INFECTIONS AND GASTRITIS-2024.pdfOsvaldo Bernardo Muchanga
GASTROINTESTINAL INFECTIONS AND GASTRITIS
Osvaldo Bernardo Muchanga
Gastrointestinal Infections
GASTROINTESTINAL INFECTIONS result from the ingestion of pathogens that cause infections at the level of this tract, generally being transmitted by food, water and hands contaminated by microorganisms such as E. coli, Salmonella, Shigella, Vibrio cholerae, Campylobacter, Staphylococcus, Rotavirus among others that are generally contained in feces, thus configuring a FECAL-ORAL type of transmission.
Among the factors that lead to the occurrence of gastrointestinal infections are the hygienic and sanitary deficiencies that characterize our markets and other places where raw or cooked food is sold, poor environmental sanitation in communities, deficiencies in water treatment (or in the process of its plumbing), risky hygienic-sanitary habits (not washing hands after major and/or minor needs), among others.
These are generally consequences (signs and symptoms) resulting from gastrointestinal infections: diarrhea, vomiting, fever and malaise, among others.
The treatment consists of replacing lost liquids and electrolytes (drinking drinking water and other recommended liquids, including consumption of juicy fruits such as papayas, apples, pears, among others that contain water in their composition).
To prevent this, it is necessary to promote health education, improve the hygienic-sanitary conditions of markets and communities in general as a way of promoting, preserving and prolonging PUBLIC HEALTH.
Gastritis and Gastric Health
Gastric Health is one of the most relevant concerns in human health, with gastrointestinal infections being among the main illnesses that affect humans.
Among gastric problems, we have GASTRITIS AND GASTRIC ULCERS as the main public health problems. Gastritis and gastric ulcers normally result from inflammation and corrosion of the walls of the stomach (gastric mucosa) and are generally associated (caused) by the bacterium Helicobacter pylor, which, according to the literature, this bacterium settles on these walls (of the stomach) and starts to release urease that ends up altering the normal pH of the stomach (acid), which leads to inflammation and corrosion of the mucous membranes and consequent gastritis or ulcers, respectively.
In addition to bacterial infections, gastritis and gastric ulcers are associated with several factors, with emphasis on prolonged fasting, chemical substances including drugs, alcohol, foods with strong seasonings including chilli, which ends up causing inflammation of the stomach walls and/or corrosion. of the same, resulting in the appearance of wounds and consequent gastritis or ulcers, respectively.
Among patients with gastritis and/or ulcers, one of the dilemmas is associated with the foods to consume in order to minimize the sensation of pain and discomfort.
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STUDIES IN SUPPORT OF SPECIAL POPULATIONS: GERIATRICS E7shruti jagirdar
Unit 4: MRA 103T Regulatory affairs
This guideline is directed principally toward new Molecular Entities that are
likely to have significant use in the elderly, either because the disease intended
to be treated is characteristically a disease of aging ( e.g., Alzheimer's disease) or
because the population to be treated is known to include substantial numbers of
geriatric patients (e.g., hypertension).
Pictorial and detailed description of patellar instability with sign and symptoms and how to diagnose , what investigations you should go with and how to approach with treatment options . I have presented this slide in my 2nd year junior residency in orthopedics at LLRM medical college Meerut and got good reviews for it
After getting it read you will definitely understand the topic.
Breast cancer: Post menopausal endocrine therapyDr. Sumit KUMAR
Breast cancer in postmenopausal women with hormone receptor-positive (HR+) status is a common and complex condition that necessitates a multifaceted approach to management. HR+ breast cancer means that the cancer cells grow in response to hormones such as estrogen and progesterone. This subtype is prevalent among postmenopausal women and typically exhibits a more indolent course compared to other forms of breast cancer, which allows for a variety of treatment options.
Diagnosis and Staging
The diagnosis of HR+ breast cancer begins with clinical evaluation, imaging, and biopsy. Imaging modalities such as mammography, ultrasound, and MRI help in assessing the extent of the disease. Histopathological examination and immunohistochemical staining of the biopsy sample confirm the diagnosis and hormone receptor status by identifying the presence of estrogen receptors (ER) and progesterone receptors (PR) on the tumor cells.
Staging involves determining the size of the tumor (T), the involvement of regional lymph nodes (N), and the presence of distant metastasis (M). The American Joint Committee on Cancer (AJCC) staging system is commonly used. Accurate staging is critical as it guides treatment decisions.
Treatment Options
Endocrine Therapy
Endocrine therapy is the cornerstone of treatment for HR+ breast cancer in postmenopausal women. The primary goal is to reduce the levels of estrogen or block its effects on cancer cells. Commonly used agents include:
Selective Estrogen Receptor Modulators (SERMs): Tamoxifen is a SERM that binds to estrogen receptors, blocking estrogen from stimulating breast cancer cells. It is effective but may have side effects such as increased risk of endometrial cancer and thromboembolic events.
Aromatase Inhibitors (AIs): These drugs, including anastrozole, letrozole, and exemestane, lower estrogen levels by inhibiting the aromatase enzyme, which converts androgens to estrogen in peripheral tissues. AIs are generally preferred in postmenopausal women due to their efficacy and safety profile compared to tamoxifen.
Selective Estrogen Receptor Downregulators (SERDs): Fulvestrant is a SERD that degrades estrogen receptors and is used in cases where resistance to other endocrine therapies develops.
Combination Therapies
Combining endocrine therapy with other treatments enhances efficacy. Examples include:
Endocrine Therapy with CDK4/6 Inhibitors: Palbociclib, ribociclib, and abemaciclib are CDK4/6 inhibitors that, when combined with endocrine therapy, significantly improve progression-free survival in advanced HR+ breast cancer.
Endocrine Therapy with mTOR Inhibitors: Everolimus, an mTOR inhibitor, can be added to endocrine therapy for patients who have developed resistance to aromatase inhibitors.
Chemotherapy
Chemotherapy is generally reserved for patients with high-risk features, such as large tumor size, high-grade histology, or extensive lymph node involvement. Regimens often include anthracyclines and taxanes.
2. Emphysematous pyelonephritis (EPN)
• Acute severe necrotizing infection of the renal
parenchyma that causes gas accumulation in the tissues.
• First case reported by Kelly and Maccullum in 1898 .
• Since then terms such as ‘renal emphysema’,
‘pneumonephritis’ as well as ‘emphysematous
pyelonephritis’
• In 1962, Schultz and Klorfein suggested the use of
‘emphysematous pyelonephritis’ as the preferred term
3. • EPN most often occurs in persons with diabetes mellitus,
especially women.
• Presentation is similar to that of acute pyelonephritis
• But often has a fulminating course, and can be fatal if not
recognized and treated promptly
4. Epidemiology
• Mean age of patients with EPN is 55 years, with a range of 19-81 years.
• 6 times more common in women.
• Ninety-five percent of patients have diabetes.
• In most patients, the diabetes is uncontrolled, with high levels of glycosylated
hemoglobin (72%) or of blood sugar.
• Renal stones are another predisposing condition and therefore affect the frequency of
EPN
• Left kidney is affected more commonly than the right. Bilateral cases have also been
reported.
5. Other reported factors associated with the development of EPN are
• drug abuse,
• neurogenic bladder
• Alcoholism
• anatomic anomaly like polycystic kidney disease
6. Aetiology
• Enteric gram-negative facultative anaerobes.
• Escherichia coli- 66% of patients, and
• Klebsiella species- 26% of patients.
• Proteus, pseudomonas, and streptococcus species are other organisms found in
patients with EPN.
• Mixed organisms are observed in 10% of patients.
• Rarely, fungi (eg, aspergillus fumigatus, candida species) and protozoa (entamoeba
histolytica) have been isolated in patients with EPN.
7. Pathogenesis
• Various factors involved in the pathogenesis of this condition have
been suggested, including
• high levels of glucose within the tissues,
• the presence of gas-forming microorganisms,
• impaired vascular blood supply,
• reduced host immunity,
• the presence of obstruction within the urinary tract
8. Pathophysiology
• Urinary tract infections are common in persons with diabetes,
• Factors that predispose to EPN in persons with diabetes may include
uncontrolled diabetes, high levels of glycosylated hemoglobin, and
impaired host immune mechanisms.
• High tissue glucose levels- provide the substrate for microorganisms such
as E. Coli, producing carbon dioxide by the fermentation of sugar
• Diabetic microangiopathy may also contribute to the slow transport of
catabolic products and may lead to accumulation of gas
9. • Fermentation products from tissue necrosis produces
• Nitrogen , carbon dioxide, hydrogen, and oxygen
• Huang et al concluded that mixed acid fermentation is the mechanism of gas
production, based on the presence of hydrogen.
13. • Pathological examination of the kidney reveals features of
• abscess formation,
• foci of infarctions,
• vascular thrombosis,
• numerous gas-filled spaces and
• areas of necrosis surrounded by acute and chronic inflammatory cells
implying septic infarction.
• H&E stains reveal extensive suppurative inflammation, necrosis,
abscess formation and gas bubbles. Large colonies of Gram negative
bacilli can also be seen.
14. Gross examination of emphysematous pyelonephritis:
(a) specimen of enlarged kidney with loss of cortex and medulla with
adherent perirenal fatty tissue (highlighted by arrow),
(b) foci of abscess within parenchyma (highlighted by arrow),
(c) abscess extending toward capsule(highlighted by arrow)
15. (a) confluent abscess seen on external surface of the kidney,
(b) friable necrotic parenchyma (arrow),
(c and d) hemorrhagic infarct on external surface and cut surface
of
the kidney,
(e) a pyonephrotic cavity with purulent exudate lining the cavity
16. Signs and symptoms
• Fever (79%)
• Abdominal or flank pain (71%)
• Nausea and vomiting (17%)
• Dyspnea (13%)
• Acute renal impairment (35%)
• Altered sensorium (19%)
• Shock (29%)
• Other possible findings include the following:
• Crepitus over the flank area may occur in advanced cases of EPN
• Pneumaturia is uncommon unless emphysematous cystitis is present
• Subcutaneous emphysema and pneumomediastinum have been reported
• Comorbidities include alcoholism, malnourishment, renal calculi, and diabetic ketoacidosis
19. • Although plain radiography and ultrasound may suggest EPN,
computed tomography (CT) of the abdomen is more sensitive, allows
for more accurate staging of the disease and is considered the gold
standard for diagnosis.
• Ultrasonography and plain radiograph of the abdomen are only
accurate in 59% and 52% of cases, respectively, so abdominal CT is
necessary for early diagnosis and further management of EPN.
20. A nuclear renal scan should be performed to assess the
degree of renal function impairment of the involved kidney
and the status of the contralateral kidney before going for
nephrectomy after diversion.
21. XRAY
• May show mottled gas within renal
fossa or
• Crescentic gas collection within
gerota's fascia.
• Linear gas shadows along
paraspinal region may also be seen,
representing retroperitoneal air.
22. USG
•May show an enlarged
kidney with coarse echoes
within renal parenchyma
or collecting system
•Dirty echogenic foci with
reverberation /ring-down
artifacts representing air
('dirty shadowing') may
also be seen
23.
24. • Acc to Wan et al classification
Type I emphysematous pyelonephritis has a 65-70% mortality rate
versus 15-20% for type II, although transformation from type I to type II
has been observed following conservative treatment
25. CT image
• Type 1
• Greater than one-third renal
parenchymal destruction
• Streaky or mottled appearance of gas
• Intra- or Extrarenal fluid collections are
characteristically absent
• It is usually more aggressive and lead to
death shortly, if not intervened early
• Mortality 70%
26. • Type 2
• Destruction of less than one-third of
the parenchyma
• Renal or extrarenal collections
associated with bubbly or loculated
gas, or gas within pelvicalyceal system
or ureter
• Mortality 20%
29. Approach Considerations
• If extremely ill and need resuscitative measures in the intensive care
unit,
• including oxygen,
• intravenous (IV) fluids, and
• correction of acid-base imbalances, along with glycemic control.
• Systolic blood pressure should be maintained above 100 mm Hg, with
fluid or inotropic support if required.
• Surgical intervention should be performed only after stabilization of
the cardiorespiratory status.
• Prompt initiation of empiric IV antibiotic therapy is critical.
• broad spectrum, primarily target gram-negative bacteria,
30. ANTIBIOTICS
• Class 1 – A third-generation cephalosporin, with or without amikacin,
plus percutaneous catheter drainage in patients with obstructive
uropathy
• Class 2, 3, and 4 without risk factors – A third-generation
cephalosporin, with or without amikacin, plus percutaneous catheter
drainage
• Class 2, 3, and 4 with risk factors – Carbapenem with or without
vancomycin plus percutaneous catheter drainage
31. • Conservative treatment using percutaneous drainage with antibiotics is
indicated as follows:
• Patients with compromised renal function
• Early cases associated with gas in the collecting system alone and patient is in
otherwise in stable condition
• Class 1 and class 2 EPN
• Class 3 and class 4 EPN - In the presence of fewer than 2 risk factors (eg,
thrombocytopenia, elevated serum creatinine levels, altered sensorium, shock)
• DOUBLE DJ STENT
32. Percutaneous drainage
• Significant advances in the percutaneous catheters used made it
possible to have percutaneous drainage(PCD) as a treatment option
for EPN, which was first shown by Hudson et al.
• Subsequent case studies have shown patients being successfully
treated with PCD when used in addition to medical management,
with significant reduction in the mortality rates.
• PCD helps to preserve the function of the affected kidney in about
70% of cases.
33. • PCD should be performed on patients who have localized areas of gas and in
whom functioning renal tissue is believed to be present.
• A pigtail drain of at least 14 Fr in size should be inserted, either with USG or CT
guidance but ideally with CT guidance which has a better success rate when
compared with an ultrasonography.
• An abscess with loculations or multiple abscesses is not a contraindication for
PCD, as more than one catheter can be used to drain all loculations.
• The abscess, which is technically easier to access and would significantly reduce
the pressure on the viable renal tissue, should be targeted first with PCD.
34. • During the last decade there has been a gradual shift toward a nephron-
sparing approach with PCD, with or without elective nephrectomy at a later
stage.
• The treatment strategies include MM alone, PCD plus MM, MM plus
emergency nephrectomy, and PCD plus MM plus emergency nephrectomy.
• Patients on PCD plus MM benefit from follow-up CT in 4 to 7 weeks as
recommended by Chen et al. to look for air/fluid collections.
• This will also be helpful in planning a nephrectomy for non-responders to
PCD plus MM.
35. • In a meta analysis of the management strategies, the most successful
management was MM with PCD (80–100%), which was also
associated with the lowest mortality at 13.5% ( P<0.001).
• In the small proportion of patients managed with MM and PCD,
subsequent nephrectomy will be required and in these patients the
reported mortality is 6.6%.
36. Nephrectomy
• Indication
• Treatment of choice for most patients
• No access to percutaneous drainage or internal stenting (after
patient is stabilized)
• Gas in the renal parenchyma or "dry-type" EPN
• Possibly bilateral nephrectomy in patients with bilateral EPN
• Class 3 and class 4 EPN: In the presence of more than 2 risk factors
37. Prognosis
Untreated cases of emphysematous pyelonephritis (EPN) result in death.
• An overall EPN mortality rate of 19%.
• Reported significant treatment success rates with percutaneous drainage and antibiotics (66%)
and with nephrectomy (90%).
• Factors associated with a poor prognosis in patients with
• Altered level of consciousness,
• multiple organ failure,
• hyperglycemia, and
• leukocytosis.
• EPN that receives only medical treatment may lead to uncontrollable sepsis that requires surgical
intervention.
• Perinephric abscess and renal failure are other possible complications.
38.
39.
40. • In conclusion, EPN is a potentially lifethreatening condition which is most
commonly associated with poorly controlled diabetes.
• It requires a high index of suspicion in patients not responding to the routine
management of pyelonephritis.
• It is a radiological diagnosis and CT is the best investigation.
• Aggressive resuscitation should be done and the condition is currently treated by
MM along with PCD mostly commonly.
• Some patients may not respond and emergency nephrectomy may be required.
• Reported mortality figures have improved since the 1970s but still are at 20-25%