Supervision involves overseeing or directing the work of others. It generally includes providing knowledge, organizing tasks, enhancing motivation, and monitoring activity and results. Supervision occurs in various contexts such as academia, business, counseling, and society. In academia, supervision aids graduate and undergraduate students in their research projects. In business, supervision oversees staff work. In counseling, supervision allows psychologists to debrief about patient work.

1. Sociometry is a quantitative method for measuring social relationships. It was developed by psychotherapist
Jacob L. Moreno in his studies of the relationship between social structures and psychological well-being.
Definition
Moreno's criteria for sociometric tests
Anthropological applications
Other approaches and software
See also
References
External links
The term sociometry relates to its Latin etymology, socius meaning companion, and metrum meaning
measure. Jacob Moreno defined sociometry as "the inquiry into the evolution and organization of groups and
the position of individuals within them." He goes on to write "As the ...science of group organization, it attacks
the problem not from the outer structure of the group, the group surface, but from the inner structure.
"Sociometric explorations reveal the hidden structures that give a group its form: the alliances, the subgroups,
the hidden beliefs, the forbidden agendas, the ideological agreements, the ‘stars’ of the show."
He developed sociometry within the new sciences, although its ultimate purpose is transcendence and not
science. 'By making choices based on criteria, overt and energetic, Moreno hoped that individuals would be
more spontaneous, and organisations and groups structures would become fresh, clear and lively.'
One of Moreno's innovations in sociometry was the development of the sociogram, a systematic method for
graphically representing individuals as points/nodes and the relationships between them as lines/arcs.[1]
Moreno, who wrote extensively of his thinking, applications and findings, also founded a journal entitled
Sociometry.
Sociometry
 Moreno's sociograms
Contents
Definition
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2. Within sociology, sociometry has two main branches: research sociometry, and applied sociometry. Research
sociometry is action research with groups exploring the socio-emotional networks of relationships using
specified criteria e.g. Who in this group do you want to sit beside you at work? Who in the group do you go to
for advice on a work problem? Who in the group do you see providing satisfying leadership in the pending
project? Sometimes called network explorations, research sociometry is concerned with relational patterns in
small (individual and small group) and larger populations, such as organizations and neighborhoods. Applied
sociometrists utilize a range of methods to assist people and groups review, expand and develop their existing
psycho-social networks of relationships. Both fields of sociometry exist to produce through their application,
greater spontaneity and creativity of both individuals and groups.
In Sociometry, Experimental Method and the Science of Society: An Approach to a New Political Orientation
(1951), Moreno describes the depth to which a group needs to go for the method to be "sociometric". The term
for him had a qualitative meaning and did not apply unless some group process criteria were met. One of these
is that there is acknowledgment of the difference between process dynamics and the manifest content. To
quote Moreno: "there is a deep discrepancy between the official and the secret behavior of members".[2]:39
Moreno advocates that before any "social program" can be proposed, the sociometrist has to "take into account
the actual constitution of the group."[2]:39
Other criteria include the rule of adequate motivation: "Every participant should feel about the experiment
that it is in his (or her) own cause ... that it is an opportunity for him (or her) to become an active agent in
matters concerning his (or her) life situation." and the Rule of "gradual" inclusion of all extraneous criteria.[2]
1st Grade
2nd Grade 3rd Grade 4th Grade
5th Grade
6th Grade 7th Grade 8th Grade
Moreno's criteria for sociometric tests
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3. :116
Given that sociometry is concerned with group allegiances and cleavages, it is not surprising that sociometric
methods have been used to study ethnic relationships and way individuals identify with ethnic groups.[3] For
instance, using sociometric research, Joan Criswell investigated white-black relationships in US classrooms,[4]
Gabriel Weimann researched ethnic relationships in Israel,[5] and James Page has investigated intra-ethnic and
inter-ethnic identification within the Pacific.[6]
Other approaches were developed in last decades, such as social network analysis, or sociomapping. Freeware
as well as commercial software was developed for analysis of groups and their structure, such as Gephi, Pajek,
Keyhubs or InFlow. All these approaches share much of their basic principles with Sociometry. Facebook is a
social network service and website which is largely based on the sociometry of its users.
 Jacob L. Moreno
 Psychodrama
 Social interaction
 Social status
 Sociometric Solutions
 Sociometrics Corporation
 Socionics
1. Moreno (1934), Who Shall Survive?
2. Moreno, Jacob Levy (1951). Sociometry, Experimental Method and the Science of Society: An Approach
to a New Political Orientation. Beacon House.
3. Jennings, H.H. 1987. Sociometry in Group Relations. 2nd ed. Westport: Greenwood.
4. Criswell, J. 1937. Racial Cleavages in Negro-White Groups. Sociometry. 1(1): 87-89; and 1939 A
Sociometric Study of Racial Cleavages in the Classroom Psychology Archives Series, #235. New York:
Columbia University Press.
5. Weimann, G. 1983. The Not-So-Small World: Ethnicity and Acquaintance Networks in Israel. Social
Networks. 5(3): 289-302.
6. Page, J. 1988/9. Education and Acculturation on Malaita: An Ethnography of Intra-ethnic and Inter-ethnic
Affinities. Journal of Intercultural Studies. 15/16:74-81. Online: http://eprints.qut.edu.au/3566/
Anthropological applications
Other approaches and software
See also
References
External links
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4.  Sometics, a commercial software used to create sociograms.
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