This document provides an overview of key concepts in thermodynamics that will be covered in a lecture. It discusses microscopic and macroscopic views of thermodynamic systems, properties of pure substances, phase changes, and equilibrium concepts. Specific topics that will be covered include system and control volume analysis, the three phases of pure substances, quasi-static processes, the p-v-t surface, and the first and second laws of thermodynamics. The document serves as an outline of topics to be presented in a lecture on basic thermodynamic principles.
This document defines key thermodynamic concepts such as systems, surroundings, open and closed systems, homogeneous and heterogeneous systems, state variables, equilibrium, extensive and intensive properties, and thermodynamic processes. Specifically, it discusses:
- A system is the part under study, while surroundings are everything else.
- Open, closed, and isolated systems differ in their ability to exchange matter and energy.
- Homogeneous systems are uniform, while heterogeneous systems have multiple phases.
- State variables like temperature, pressure, and volume define a system's state.
- Equilibrium occurs when properties do not change over time.
- Extensive properties depend on quantity, while intensive properties do not.
- Thermodynamic processes like is
The document discusses the three states of matter - solids, liquids, and gases. It describes their characteristic properties at a microscopic level, including that particles in solids are locked in place, liquids flow freely but maintain a fixed volume, and gases spread freely and assume the shape of their container. It also discusses intermolecular and intramolecular forces, different types of intermolecular forces, gas laws, the kinetic molecular theory of gases, behavior of real gases, and properties of liquids.
This document provides an overview of key concepts in thermodynamics. It defines thermodynamics as the study of energy and its transformations, and notes its importance in predicting chemical reactions. The document outlines concepts like system, surroundings, open and closed systems. It discusses intensive and extensive properties, state of a system, state variables, and state functions. It also explains different types of processes, internal energy and enthalpy, entropy and changes in these quantities. Finally, it summarizes the three laws of thermodynamics.
The document discusses heat and mass transfer. It outlines objectives related to understanding thermodynamics and heat transfer mechanisms. The key mechanisms of heat transfer are conduction, convection and radiation. Heat transfer occurs through these three modes simultaneously in many practical systems. Fourier's law, Newton's law of cooling, and the Stefan-Boltzmann law govern conductive, convective and radiative heat transfer respectively.
This document analyzes the thermal characteristics of flared and rectangular fin profiles using finite element analysis. Solid models of the fin geometries were created in SolidWorks. Meshing was performed in ANSYS using tetrahedral and hexahedral elements. Boundary conditions were set up and the analysis was run to obtain temperature distributions and heat fluxes. Results for the different fin profiles were compared to determine the more efficient design. Prior research on heat transfer analysis of fins using finite element methods is also reviewed.
This document provides an overview of matter and measurement in chemistry. It defines chemistry as the study of matter and changes in matter. Matter is defined as anything that has mass and takes up space, and is composed of atoms as building blocks. Compounds are made of two or more different types of elements. The document also discusses states of matter, properties and changes in matter, units of measurement in the International System of Units (SI), and significant figures in measurements and calculations.
The document discusses thermodynamics from both macroscopic and microscopic viewpoints. It defines key concepts like system, surroundings, open and closed systems, intensive and extensive properties, state, equilibrium, processes, cycles, work, heat transfer, and different types of thermodynamic processes. Specific processes discussed include isobaric, isochoric, isothermal, and polytropic processes. The document also explains the zeroth law of thermodynamics and its importance for temperature measurement.
Basic Principles of Classical and Statistical Thermodynamicshalfaphysicist
Basic Principles of Classical and Statistical Thermodynamics
By
Thomas W. Leland, Jr.(*)
Preparation and editorial by
G.A. Mansoori
Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Illinois at Chicago
810 S. Clinton Street, Chicago, IL 60607-7000, <mansoori@uic.edu>
This document defines key thermodynamic concepts such as systems, surroundings, open and closed systems, homogeneous and heterogeneous systems, state variables, equilibrium, extensive and intensive properties, and thermodynamic processes. Specifically, it discusses:
- A system is the part under study, while surroundings are everything else.
- Open, closed, and isolated systems differ in their ability to exchange matter and energy.
- Homogeneous systems are uniform, while heterogeneous systems have multiple phases.
- State variables like temperature, pressure, and volume define a system's state.
- Equilibrium occurs when properties do not change over time.
- Extensive properties depend on quantity, while intensive properties do not.
- Thermodynamic processes like is
The document discusses the three states of matter - solids, liquids, and gases. It describes their characteristic properties at a microscopic level, including that particles in solids are locked in place, liquids flow freely but maintain a fixed volume, and gases spread freely and assume the shape of their container. It also discusses intermolecular and intramolecular forces, different types of intermolecular forces, gas laws, the kinetic molecular theory of gases, behavior of real gases, and properties of liquids.
This document provides an overview of key concepts in thermodynamics. It defines thermodynamics as the study of energy and its transformations, and notes its importance in predicting chemical reactions. The document outlines concepts like system, surroundings, open and closed systems. It discusses intensive and extensive properties, state of a system, state variables, and state functions. It also explains different types of processes, internal energy and enthalpy, entropy and changes in these quantities. Finally, it summarizes the three laws of thermodynamics.
The document discusses heat and mass transfer. It outlines objectives related to understanding thermodynamics and heat transfer mechanisms. The key mechanisms of heat transfer are conduction, convection and radiation. Heat transfer occurs through these three modes simultaneously in many practical systems. Fourier's law, Newton's law of cooling, and the Stefan-Boltzmann law govern conductive, convective and radiative heat transfer respectively.
This document analyzes the thermal characteristics of flared and rectangular fin profiles using finite element analysis. Solid models of the fin geometries were created in SolidWorks. Meshing was performed in ANSYS using tetrahedral and hexahedral elements. Boundary conditions were set up and the analysis was run to obtain temperature distributions and heat fluxes. Results for the different fin profiles were compared to determine the more efficient design. Prior research on heat transfer analysis of fins using finite element methods is also reviewed.
This document provides an overview of matter and measurement in chemistry. It defines chemistry as the study of matter and changes in matter. Matter is defined as anything that has mass and takes up space, and is composed of atoms as building blocks. Compounds are made of two or more different types of elements. The document also discusses states of matter, properties and changes in matter, units of measurement in the International System of Units (SI), and significant figures in measurements and calculations.
The document discusses thermodynamics from both macroscopic and microscopic viewpoints. It defines key concepts like system, surroundings, open and closed systems, intensive and extensive properties, state, equilibrium, processes, cycles, work, heat transfer, and different types of thermodynamic processes. Specific processes discussed include isobaric, isochoric, isothermal, and polytropic processes. The document also explains the zeroth law of thermodynamics and its importance for temperature measurement.
Basic Principles of Classical and Statistical Thermodynamicshalfaphysicist
Basic Principles of Classical and Statistical Thermodynamics
By
Thomas W. Leland, Jr.(*)
Preparation and editorial by
G.A. Mansoori
Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Illinois at Chicago
810 S. Clinton Street, Chicago, IL 60607-7000, <mansoori@uic.edu>
Notes yb lab 1 and lab 2 hot and cold and tracking the heat MrCool3
This document discusses two labs that investigate heat and temperature. The first lab compares heat and temperature by illustrating how the addition or subtraction of thermal energy affects molecular motion. The second lab focuses on processes that transfer thermal energy between substances, such as conduction which transfers heat through direct contact. Key terms discussed include heat, temperature, thermal energy, thermal equilibrium, and conduction. The document explains that temperature measures molecular kinetic energy while heat is the transfer of energy due to differences in temperature between objects.
This document provides an overview of thermodynamics and related concepts. It defines thermodynamics as the study of energy and its transformation, heat flow, and work potential. Key topics covered include the microscopic and macroscopic approaches to studying thermodynamics, thermodynamic systems and properties, processes like reversible and irreversible processes, and thermodynamic cycles. Dimensional analysis and various thermodynamic units of measurement are also discussed.
This chapter discusses the three states of matter - gases, liquids, and solids. It focuses on the differences in their physical properties. The key gas laws - Boyle's law, Charles's law, and the combined gas law - are introduced. Boyle's law relates the inverse relationship between pressure and volume of a gas at constant temperature. Charles's law describes how the volume of a gas increases directly with temperature at constant pressure. Examples are provided to demonstrate how to apply these gas laws to calculate changes in volume or pressure of a gas under different conditions.
This document discusses chemical equilibriums, including:
1) Equilibriums can be physical (phase changes) or chemical (reactions). At equilibrium, the forward and reverse rates are equal and concentrations/properties remain constant.
2) Equilibrium constants (K) describe the position of equilibrium. Factors like concentration, temperature, and catalysts affect the equilibrium position according to Le Chatelier's principle.
3) Acid-base equilibriums involve acid/base ionization constants (Ka/Kb). Strong acids fully ionize in water while weak acids only partially ionize. The strength of an acid/base depends on how easily it donates/accepts protons.
This document discusses chemical equilibrium, which occurs when the rate of the forward reaction equals the rate of the reverse reaction in a closed system. It defines the equilibrium constant (Kc) and explains that a high Kc value means a high product yield, while a low Kc means a low product yield. It also describes Le Chatelier's Principle, which states that applying stress to a system in equilibrium will cause the equilibrium to shift to reduce the effect of the stress, and discusses how temperature, concentration, and pressure influence the position and value of equilibrium constants.
- Physical chemistry is the branch of chemistry that applies principles and methods of physics to chemical systems. It covers various topics including thermodynamics, kinetics, quantum chemistry, and spectroscopy.
- The four main branches of physical chemistry are thermodynamics, quantum chemistry, statistical mechanics, and kinetics. Thermodynamics studies heat and equilibrium properties, while kinetics examines reaction rates.
- The laws of thermodynamics govern energy transfer in chemical systems. The first law states that energy is conserved, while the second law says entropy increases over time as energy is dispersed.
This document provides an overview of thermodynamics concepts including:
- The various forms of energy and definitions of key terms like system, surroundings, and boundary.
- The three laws of thermodynamics - the zero law states thermal equilibrium is transitive, the first law concerns conservation of energy, and the second law involves entropy and the spontaneity of processes.
- Other concepts like heat, work, internal energy, and free energy are discussed in relation to the first and second laws. Examples are provided to illustrate applications of the principles.
This document defines key thermodynamic concepts and units including:
- Fundamental SI units like the kilogram, meter, second, and kelvin temperature scale.
- Pressure units like pascals, bars, atmospheres, and how absolute, gauge, and differential pressures are defined.
- Instruments for measuring pressure including manometers, mercury barometers, piston gauges, and bourdon tubes.
- Hydrostatic pressure and its relationship to depth and density.
- Temperature as a measure of average kinetic energy, and the concept of thermal equilibrium from the zeroth law of thermodynamics.
The document discusses kinetics and reaction rates. It defines kinetics as the branch of chemistry that studies the speed or rate of chemical reactions. It explains that reaction rates can be measured by changes in concentration, temperature, or pressure over time. The rate depends on factors like the nature of reactants, concentration, temperature, catalysts, surface area, and pressure. Reactions may occur in multiple steps through reaction intermediates rather than a single step. The collision theory and concept of activation energy are introduced to explain why certain collisions result in reactions. Reaction coordinate diagrams are used to illustrate the energy changes in reactions.
Thermodynamics is the branch of physics that studies heat, work, and energy. It is governed by four main laws:
1) The zeroth law establishes that thermal equilibrium is transitive.
2) The first law states that energy is conserved and the change in a system's internal energy equals heat added minus work done.
3) The second law specifies that entropy always increases for isolated systems undergoing spontaneous processes and heat cannot be fully converted to work.
4) The third law affirms that entropy reaches a minimum, zero for perfect crystals, as temperature approaches absolute zero.
1. The document discusses the second law of thermodynamics and concepts related to entropy, including spontaneous and non-spontaneous processes, the Carnot cycle, entropy changes in reversible and irreversible processes, statements of the second law, and free energy functions.
2. It introduces the Carnot cycle as a model for converting heat into work using an ideal gas as a working substance through four steps of isothermal and adiabatic changes.
3. Entropy is defined in relation to reversible processes as the ratio of heat absorbed to temperature (q/T). The second law is explained through entropy changes and the principle that the total entropy change is zero for reversible processes but increases for irreversible processes.
The document discusses several topics in thermodynamics:
1. It defines internal energy (U) as the total energy of a system, composed of different sources like chemical, electronic, nuclear, and kinetic energies. The first law of thermodynamics states that for an isolated system, the total internal energy remains constant.
2. It discusses heat capacity and how the heat capacity of solids approaches zero as temperature approaches absolute zero, following a T^3 relationship. Einstein and Debye proposed models to explain this using quantized vibrational motions of atoms in the crystal lattice.
3. It covers the second law of thermodynamics, defining entropy change for a heat transfer and stating that the total entropy of
This document provides an overview of key concepts related to heat and temperature. It defines temperature as a measure of the average kinetic energy of particles, and explains how thermometers measure temperature changes via thermal expansion. The three main temperature scales are described, including absolute zero as the temperature where molecular motion stops. The document then discusses heat transfer through conduction, convection, and radiation. It also covers concepts like specific heat, states of matter, and how chemical energy is obtained from foods and released in reactions that can be measured using a calorimeter.
Chem 2 - Chemical Equilibrium V: ICE Tables and Equilibrium CalculationsLumen Learning
This document discusses using ICE tables and the equilibrium constant expression to calculate equilibrium concentrations or partial pressures for a chemical reaction. It provides an example problem working through setting up an ICE table, filling in values, solving the equilibrium constant expression as a quadratic equation to find the change value x, and substituting x back into the ICE table and expression to determine the equilibrium partial pressures. The key steps are setting up the ICE table with initial, change, and equilibrium lines; using the equilibrium constant expression to set up an equation in terms of x; solving for x; and checking that substituting the calculated values back into the expression gives the known value of K.
6.2 factors affecting rates of reactionMartin Brown
The document discusses collision theory and factors that affect the rate of chemical reactions. It investigates how concentration, temperature, and particle size impact the rate through experiments. Increasing concentration increases collisions and reaction rate. Smaller particle size increases surface area and reaction rate. Higher temperatures provide more energy for collisions to overcome the activation energy, again increasing reaction rate. Ionic reactions tend to be faster than covalent reactions as ions can move freely in solution without bonds to break first.
Temperature is a measure of the average kinetic energy of molecules, while thermal energy is the total kinetic and potential energy of all molecules in an object. Temperature scales like Fahrenheit and Celsius assign numbers to temperature, with Celsius used in science. Thermal expansion causes objects to expand when heated as molecules move farther apart. While temperature does not change when mixing substances of the same temperature, thermal energy is the total energy and can increase by mixing. The Kelvin temperature is always larger than Celsius, as it is measured from absolute zero.
In this topic (Thermodynamics)the students will be able to analyze and evaluate Zeroth law and First law of thermodynamic cycles used for energy production - work and heat, within the natural limits of conversion.
1. The document is a chapter outline for an engineering thermodynamics course covering topics such as basic concepts, the first and second laws of thermodynamics, entropy, energy, vapor power cycles, gas power cycles, and properties of gases and mixtures.
2. It includes brief descriptions of chapter contents and learning objectives for each of the 8 chapters.
3. The course materials were prepared by Bhavin Vegada and include fundamental thermodynamic concepts such as system and control volume analysis, intensive and extensive properties, processes and cycles, and the criteria for thermodynamic equilibrium.
This document provides an overview of basic thermodynamics concepts. It was prepared by Dr. K.G. Durga Prasad, a professor of mechanical engineering, for a course on basic thermodynamics. The document defines thermodynamics as the study of energy, energy transformations, and how energy transfer affects substance properties. It also outlines key concepts like the zeroth, first, second and third laws of thermodynamics. The document distinguishes between different system types (closed, open, isolated), phases (homogeneous, heterogeneous), properties (intensive, extensive), and the macroscopic and microscopic approaches to studying systems.
Thermodynamics is the study of energy and its transformation. It deals with the relationship between heat, work, and the physical properties of substances. Thermodynamics can be studied through both a microscopic approach considering molecular behavior, and a macroscopic approach considering average properties without molecular details. A thermodynamic system is defined as a quantity of matter bounded by a surface, and can be classified as closed, open, or isolated depending on its interactions with the surroundings. Key thermodynamic properties describe the state of a system.
This document provides an introduction to thermodynamics. It defines thermodynamics as the science dealing with heat, work, and their relation to properties of matter and energy change. The document outlines the four laws of thermodynamics and describes the zeroth law regarding thermal equilibrium, the first law regarding conservation of energy and internal energy, the second law regarding limits on heat conversion and direction of processes, and the third law defining absolute zero entropy. Examples of engineering applications are given in areas like heat engines, refrigeration, and air conditioning. Key concepts discussed include system, surroundings, state, path, process, equilibrium, intensive/extensive properties, and reversible/irreversible processes.
Notes yb lab 1 and lab 2 hot and cold and tracking the heat MrCool3
This document discusses two labs that investigate heat and temperature. The first lab compares heat and temperature by illustrating how the addition or subtraction of thermal energy affects molecular motion. The second lab focuses on processes that transfer thermal energy between substances, such as conduction which transfers heat through direct contact. Key terms discussed include heat, temperature, thermal energy, thermal equilibrium, and conduction. The document explains that temperature measures molecular kinetic energy while heat is the transfer of energy due to differences in temperature between objects.
This document provides an overview of thermodynamics and related concepts. It defines thermodynamics as the study of energy and its transformation, heat flow, and work potential. Key topics covered include the microscopic and macroscopic approaches to studying thermodynamics, thermodynamic systems and properties, processes like reversible and irreversible processes, and thermodynamic cycles. Dimensional analysis and various thermodynamic units of measurement are also discussed.
This chapter discusses the three states of matter - gases, liquids, and solids. It focuses on the differences in their physical properties. The key gas laws - Boyle's law, Charles's law, and the combined gas law - are introduced. Boyle's law relates the inverse relationship between pressure and volume of a gas at constant temperature. Charles's law describes how the volume of a gas increases directly with temperature at constant pressure. Examples are provided to demonstrate how to apply these gas laws to calculate changes in volume or pressure of a gas under different conditions.
This document discusses chemical equilibriums, including:
1) Equilibriums can be physical (phase changes) or chemical (reactions). At equilibrium, the forward and reverse rates are equal and concentrations/properties remain constant.
2) Equilibrium constants (K) describe the position of equilibrium. Factors like concentration, temperature, and catalysts affect the equilibrium position according to Le Chatelier's principle.
3) Acid-base equilibriums involve acid/base ionization constants (Ka/Kb). Strong acids fully ionize in water while weak acids only partially ionize. The strength of an acid/base depends on how easily it donates/accepts protons.
This document discusses chemical equilibrium, which occurs when the rate of the forward reaction equals the rate of the reverse reaction in a closed system. It defines the equilibrium constant (Kc) and explains that a high Kc value means a high product yield, while a low Kc means a low product yield. It also describes Le Chatelier's Principle, which states that applying stress to a system in equilibrium will cause the equilibrium to shift to reduce the effect of the stress, and discusses how temperature, concentration, and pressure influence the position and value of equilibrium constants.
- Physical chemistry is the branch of chemistry that applies principles and methods of physics to chemical systems. It covers various topics including thermodynamics, kinetics, quantum chemistry, and spectroscopy.
- The four main branches of physical chemistry are thermodynamics, quantum chemistry, statistical mechanics, and kinetics. Thermodynamics studies heat and equilibrium properties, while kinetics examines reaction rates.
- The laws of thermodynamics govern energy transfer in chemical systems. The first law states that energy is conserved, while the second law says entropy increases over time as energy is dispersed.
This document provides an overview of thermodynamics concepts including:
- The various forms of energy and definitions of key terms like system, surroundings, and boundary.
- The three laws of thermodynamics - the zero law states thermal equilibrium is transitive, the first law concerns conservation of energy, and the second law involves entropy and the spontaneity of processes.
- Other concepts like heat, work, internal energy, and free energy are discussed in relation to the first and second laws. Examples are provided to illustrate applications of the principles.
This document defines key thermodynamic concepts and units including:
- Fundamental SI units like the kilogram, meter, second, and kelvin temperature scale.
- Pressure units like pascals, bars, atmospheres, and how absolute, gauge, and differential pressures are defined.
- Instruments for measuring pressure including manometers, mercury barometers, piston gauges, and bourdon tubes.
- Hydrostatic pressure and its relationship to depth and density.
- Temperature as a measure of average kinetic energy, and the concept of thermal equilibrium from the zeroth law of thermodynamics.
The document discusses kinetics and reaction rates. It defines kinetics as the branch of chemistry that studies the speed or rate of chemical reactions. It explains that reaction rates can be measured by changes in concentration, temperature, or pressure over time. The rate depends on factors like the nature of reactants, concentration, temperature, catalysts, surface area, and pressure. Reactions may occur in multiple steps through reaction intermediates rather than a single step. The collision theory and concept of activation energy are introduced to explain why certain collisions result in reactions. Reaction coordinate diagrams are used to illustrate the energy changes in reactions.
Thermodynamics is the branch of physics that studies heat, work, and energy. It is governed by four main laws:
1) The zeroth law establishes that thermal equilibrium is transitive.
2) The first law states that energy is conserved and the change in a system's internal energy equals heat added minus work done.
3) The second law specifies that entropy always increases for isolated systems undergoing spontaneous processes and heat cannot be fully converted to work.
4) The third law affirms that entropy reaches a minimum, zero for perfect crystals, as temperature approaches absolute zero.
1. The document discusses the second law of thermodynamics and concepts related to entropy, including spontaneous and non-spontaneous processes, the Carnot cycle, entropy changes in reversible and irreversible processes, statements of the second law, and free energy functions.
2. It introduces the Carnot cycle as a model for converting heat into work using an ideal gas as a working substance through four steps of isothermal and adiabatic changes.
3. Entropy is defined in relation to reversible processes as the ratio of heat absorbed to temperature (q/T). The second law is explained through entropy changes and the principle that the total entropy change is zero for reversible processes but increases for irreversible processes.
The document discusses several topics in thermodynamics:
1. It defines internal energy (U) as the total energy of a system, composed of different sources like chemical, electronic, nuclear, and kinetic energies. The first law of thermodynamics states that for an isolated system, the total internal energy remains constant.
2. It discusses heat capacity and how the heat capacity of solids approaches zero as temperature approaches absolute zero, following a T^3 relationship. Einstein and Debye proposed models to explain this using quantized vibrational motions of atoms in the crystal lattice.
3. It covers the second law of thermodynamics, defining entropy change for a heat transfer and stating that the total entropy of
This document provides an overview of key concepts related to heat and temperature. It defines temperature as a measure of the average kinetic energy of particles, and explains how thermometers measure temperature changes via thermal expansion. The three main temperature scales are described, including absolute zero as the temperature where molecular motion stops. The document then discusses heat transfer through conduction, convection, and radiation. It also covers concepts like specific heat, states of matter, and how chemical energy is obtained from foods and released in reactions that can be measured using a calorimeter.
Chem 2 - Chemical Equilibrium V: ICE Tables and Equilibrium CalculationsLumen Learning
This document discusses using ICE tables and the equilibrium constant expression to calculate equilibrium concentrations or partial pressures for a chemical reaction. It provides an example problem working through setting up an ICE table, filling in values, solving the equilibrium constant expression as a quadratic equation to find the change value x, and substituting x back into the ICE table and expression to determine the equilibrium partial pressures. The key steps are setting up the ICE table with initial, change, and equilibrium lines; using the equilibrium constant expression to set up an equation in terms of x; solving for x; and checking that substituting the calculated values back into the expression gives the known value of K.
6.2 factors affecting rates of reactionMartin Brown
The document discusses collision theory and factors that affect the rate of chemical reactions. It investigates how concentration, temperature, and particle size impact the rate through experiments. Increasing concentration increases collisions and reaction rate. Smaller particle size increases surface area and reaction rate. Higher temperatures provide more energy for collisions to overcome the activation energy, again increasing reaction rate. Ionic reactions tend to be faster than covalent reactions as ions can move freely in solution without bonds to break first.
Temperature is a measure of the average kinetic energy of molecules, while thermal energy is the total kinetic and potential energy of all molecules in an object. Temperature scales like Fahrenheit and Celsius assign numbers to temperature, with Celsius used in science. Thermal expansion causes objects to expand when heated as molecules move farther apart. While temperature does not change when mixing substances of the same temperature, thermal energy is the total energy and can increase by mixing. The Kelvin temperature is always larger than Celsius, as it is measured from absolute zero.
In this topic (Thermodynamics)the students will be able to analyze and evaluate Zeroth law and First law of thermodynamic cycles used for energy production - work and heat, within the natural limits of conversion.
1. The document is a chapter outline for an engineering thermodynamics course covering topics such as basic concepts, the first and second laws of thermodynamics, entropy, energy, vapor power cycles, gas power cycles, and properties of gases and mixtures.
2. It includes brief descriptions of chapter contents and learning objectives for each of the 8 chapters.
3. The course materials were prepared by Bhavin Vegada and include fundamental thermodynamic concepts such as system and control volume analysis, intensive and extensive properties, processes and cycles, and the criteria for thermodynamic equilibrium.
This document provides an overview of basic thermodynamics concepts. It was prepared by Dr. K.G. Durga Prasad, a professor of mechanical engineering, for a course on basic thermodynamics. The document defines thermodynamics as the study of energy, energy transformations, and how energy transfer affects substance properties. It also outlines key concepts like the zeroth, first, second and third laws of thermodynamics. The document distinguishes between different system types (closed, open, isolated), phases (homogeneous, heterogeneous), properties (intensive, extensive), and the macroscopic and microscopic approaches to studying systems.
Thermodynamics is the study of energy and its transformation. It deals with the relationship between heat, work, and the physical properties of substances. Thermodynamics can be studied through both a microscopic approach considering molecular behavior, and a macroscopic approach considering average properties without molecular details. A thermodynamic system is defined as a quantity of matter bounded by a surface, and can be classified as closed, open, or isolated depending on its interactions with the surroundings. Key thermodynamic properties describe the state of a system.
This document provides an introduction to thermodynamics. It defines thermodynamics as the science dealing with heat, work, and their relation to properties of matter and energy change. The document outlines the four laws of thermodynamics and describes the zeroth law regarding thermal equilibrium, the first law regarding conservation of energy and internal energy, the second law regarding limits on heat conversion and direction of processes, and the third law defining absolute zero entropy. Examples of engineering applications are given in areas like heat engines, refrigeration, and air conditioning. Key concepts discussed include system, surroundings, state, path, process, equilibrium, intensive/extensive properties, and reversible/irreversible processes.
This document provides an overview of statistical thermodynamics. It discusses key concepts like macroscopic vs microscopic scales, equilibrium states, extensive vs intensive quantities, and reversible vs irreversible processes. The document also defines important thermodynamic concepts like open and closed systems, adiabatic processes, and temperature. The goal of statistical thermodynamics is to use microscopic approaches to calculate macroscopic properties and relate them using both thermodynamic and statistical physics methods.
1. The document discusses statistical thermodynamics, which deals with systems of large numbers of particles at equilibrium. It examines thermodynamic systems and processes from both a macroscopic and microscopic perspective.
2. Key concepts discussed include extensive and intensive quantities, equilibrium, quasi-static processes, temperature, equations of state, and thermodynamic coefficients like compressibility and thermal expansivity.
3. The ideal gas law is examined as the simplest equation of state, relating pressure, volume, temperature, and number of particles or moles of gas. Temperature scales and their relation to empirical measurements are also summarized.
1) The document discusses basics of thermodynamics including definitions of key terms like system, surroundings, boundary, state, process, and cycle.
2) It covers concepts of extensive and intensive properties, equilibrium states, and different types of processes like quasistatic, isothermal, isobaric, and isochoric.
3) The document also discusses steady flow processes, units and dimensions in thermodynamics, and provides examples of applying concepts to engineering problems.
Basic mechanical engineering unit 1 thermodynamics by varun pratap singh (202...Varun Pratap Singh
Free Download Link (Copy URL):
https://sites.google.com/view/varunpratapsingh/teaching-engagements
Notes for Basic mechanical engineering subject unit 1 thermodynamics for Uttarakhand Technical University
This document provides an introduction to basic thermodynamics concepts. It defines key terms like system, surroundings, boundary, types of systems (closed, open, isolated). It describes the macroscopic and microscopic approaches in thermodynamics. The main thermodynamic properties discussed are intensive and extensive properties, with examples like pressure, temperature, volume, etc. It also covers concepts like continuum, state functions, phases, and control volume.
This document provides an introduction to basic thermodynamics concepts. It defines key terms like system, surroundings, boundary, universe, state variables, intensive and extensive properties, and different types of thermodynamic systems (closed, open, isolated). It also discusses the macroscopic and microscopic approaches in thermodynamics. Specific concepts covered include phases, control volume, continuum, state functions, and commonly used properties like pressure, temperature and volume. The document lays the foundation for understanding basic thermodynamic analysis.
This document outlines a thermodynamics course taught by Md. Toufiq Islam Noor. It introduces key concepts in thermodynamics including systems, properties, processes, equilibrium, and units. Specific topics covered include defining closed, open, and isolated systems, intensive/extensive properties, equilibrium states, and standard SI and other units for mass, length, time, and force. Examples are provided for calculating weight and converting between units.
Lecture 1 introduction of engineering thermodynamicsShevan Sherwany
Here are the key steps to solve this problem using specific volume and pressure:
1. Given: Mass of CO2 = 15 kg
Volume of cylinder = 20 L
2. Calculate specific volume of CO2 using ideal gas law:
v = V/m
v = 20 L / 15 kg = 1.33 m3/kg
3. Use the specific volume to calculate the pressure:
p = mRT/vV
p = (15 kg)(0.0821 kPa⋅m3/kg⋅K)(273 K) / (1.33 m3/kg)(20 L)
p = 101.3 kPa
So in summary,
The document summarizes key concepts in thermodynamics including:
- The second law of thermodynamics which states that heat cannot spontaneously flow from a colder body to a hotter body.
- Closed, open, and isolated systems. A closed system does not allow matter to enter or leave, an open system does, and an isolated system exchanges neither energy nor matter.
- Properties of systems including intensive properties which do not depend on mass like temperature and pressure, and extensive properties which do depend on mass like volume.
- A cycle occurs when a process returns a system to its initial state. An ideal gas follows Boyle's law that pressure and volume are inversely proportional.
This document provides an overview of thermodynamics presented by Ch.Sravanthi. It begins with defining thermodynamics as the branch of physics dealing with energy, equilibrium, and energy transformations governed by physical laws. Thermodynamics is concerned with the amount of heat transfer as a system changes between equilibrium states. Engineering thermodynamics applies basic thermodynamics to solve engineering problems. The main branches of thermodynamics are then outlined as equilibrium thermodynamics including classical and statistical thermodynamics, chemical thermodynamics, and non-equilibrium thermodynamics. Several key concepts are then defined, including system, surroundings, boundary, state, process, cycle, and properties. The document concludes by discussing temperature, the zeroth
This document provides an overview of key concepts in thermodynamics taught in a 3rd semester B.Tech course. It defines fundamental concepts like system, surroundings, boundary, intensive and extensive properties. It describes different types of systems and processes like open, closed, isolated, isobaric, isothermal. The document outlines the zeroth and first laws of thermodynamics as well as properties of pure substances and the concept of thermodynamic equilibrium. It provides the course objectives, outcomes, and their mapping to program outcomes and program specific outcomes.
This document provides an introduction to thermodynamics. It defines thermodynamics as the science of energy transfer and its effect on physical properties. Thermodynamics studies systems, surroundings, properties, processes, and equilibrium from a macroscopic viewpoint. The document outlines concepts such as intensive and extensive properties, homogeneous and heterogeneous systems, quasi-static processes, and the zeroth law of thermodynamics. It provides examples to illustrate these fundamental thermodynamics concepts.
Engineering thermodynamics P K Nag chapter-1 solutionrohit kumar
The document contains review questions and answers related to thermodynamics. It discusses key concepts like macroscopic and microscopic viewpoints, the differences between thermodynamics and heat transfer, extensive and intensive properties, equilibrium, quasi-static processes, and pressure transducers. The document defines important thermodynamic terms and concepts and distinguishes between open and closed systems, changes of state, paths, and processes.
Temperature and Kinetic Theory of Gases slidesTimothy Welsh
The document provides an overview of temperature and the kinetic theory of gases. It begins by defining key terms like kinetic energy, temperature, and the kinetic molecular theory. It then explains the relationships between temperature, kinetic energy of molecules, and molecular motion. The document also discusses different temperature scales and how temperature relates to gas properties like pressure, volume, and number of moles. It introduces the gas laws and how the kinetic molecular theory can explain observed gas behavior.
This document provides an overview of key concepts in thermodynamics taught by Professor Yash B. Parikh. It defines homogeneous and heterogeneous systems, pure substances, dimensions and units (including the SI system), various types of energy (internal, external, chemical, atomic, molecular), intensive and extensive properties, specific properties, states of a system, equilibrium, processes and cycles (including quasi-static processes and iso- processes where a property remains constant like isothermal, isobaric, isometric).
Similar to Engineeringthermodynamicsintroduction 170621082938 (20)
This document outlines the course objectives and units for OML751 - Testing of Materials. The course aims to understand various destructive and non-destructive materials testing methods and their industrial applications. The five units cover: introduction to materials testing; mechanical tests like hardness, tensile, and impact; non-destructive tests such as visual, liquid penetrant, and ultrasonic; material characterization using microscopy and spectroscopy; and other tests including thermal, thermo-mechanical, and chemical analyses.
The document summarizes key concepts in heat transfer by conduction. It defines Fourier's law of conduction, thermal conductivity, and provides equations for one-dimensional steady-state heat conduction through a slab and hollow cylinder. It also defines thermal resistance, overall heat transfer coefficient, critical thickness of insulation, fins, fin effectiveness, and fin efficiency. Examples of heat generation and the difference between transient and steady heat transfer are provided. The lumped system analysis method and Biot number are introduced along with their applicability conditions.
This document contains 15 multiple choice questions about cam mechanisms. The questions cover topics like the different parts of a cam, types of cam followers, displacement and motion of flat and roller followers in contact with circular and straight flanks of a cam. The answers to the 15 questions are listed at the end.
The document contains questions and answers related to maintenance. It covers topics like types of maintenance (corrective, preventive, scheduled), total productive maintenance, reliability centered maintenance, plant maintenance in SAP, failure mode and effects analysis (FMEA), and optimization of maintenance activities. The questions aim to test understanding of key concepts, definitions, processes, and approaches related to industrial maintenance management.
The document discusses the objectives and content of the course ME8492 - Kinematics of Machinery. The course aims to teach students about basic components and layout of linkages in machines, and analyzing the motion, velocity and acceleration of linkages. It covers topics like basics of mechanisms, kinematics of linkages, cam mechanisms, gears and gear trains, and friction in machine elements. The course contains 5 units, with each unit covering important concepts and their applications related to that topic over 9 class periods. Upon completing the course, students will be able to discuss basics of mechanisms, calculate velocities and accelerations, develop CAM profiles, solve problems on gears and gear trains, and examine friction in machine elements.
1. The document provides lecture notes on kinematics of machinery, covering topics such as mechanisms, kinematic pairs, mobility, and straight line motion mechanisms.
2. Key concepts discussed include degrees of freedom, links and joints, kinematic chains, mechanisms versus machines, and types of constrained motion. Common mechanisms like slider crank and four bar linkages are also introduced.
3. The objectives of the course are to understand basic kinematic principles, analyze various mechanisms for displacement, velocity and acceleration, and examine gears, gear trains, cams and other machine elements. The course covers analysis of mechanisms using methods like velocity and acceleration diagrams, instantaneous centers, and cam profiles.
This document provides an overview of topics to be covered in a thermodynamics course, including: microscopic and macroscopic views, thermodynamic systems and properties, processes and cycles, equilibrium, and the phases of pure substances. Specific topics that will be discussed are the p-v-t surface, critical points, and vapor-liquid-solid phases. The document outlines key concepts such as open and closed systems, properties, states, and equilibrium. It also defines terms including pure substances, processes, and cycles.
This document outlines the topics that will be covered in a course on kinematics of machinery. The five units are: basics of mechanisms, kinematics, cams, gears, and friction. Unit I discusses terminology related to machines, mechanisms, kinematic pairs and chains. It also covers degrees of freedom, Grubler's equation, kinematic pairs and examples of common mechanisms. The goal is to understand the motion of machine elements.
Optimization on performance of single-slope solar still linked solar pond via...Er.JOE.S 09943145604
This document describes an experiment to optimize the performance of a single-slope solar still linked to a mini solar pond using Taguchi method. Four parameters were identified that influence the solar still's performance: sodium chloride concentration, the zone in the mini solar pond the still is linked to, the angle of a reflecting mirror at the bottom of the still, and the angle of a reflecting mirror in the pond. Different levels of each parameter were tested. The Taguchi method was used to analyze the results and identify the best performing levels for each parameter. Combining the selected best levels, experimental results showed a 95.54% increase in distillate output compared to a conventional solar still. Theoretical calculations agreed with the experimental results.
Enhancing the productivity of double slope single basin solar still with inte...Er.JOE.S 09943145604
The document describes a study that internally and externally modified a double-slope single-basin solar still to improve its productivity. The internal modification involved spreading pebbles at the bottom of the basin to enhance heat absorption and transfer. The external modification fitted an external mirror to focus additional solar rays into the still. Testing found that the internal modification marginally improved production, while combining internal and external modifications significantly increased productivity by 40.86% compared to an unmodified still. The aim was to evaluate how internal and external modifications impact the performance of a double-slope single-basin solar still.
This document discusses optimizing the performance of a single-slope solar still that is linked to a mini solar pond. Four parameters were identified that influence the solar still's performance: 1) sodium chloride concentration level, 2) the zone of the mini solar pond, 3) the angle of a reflecting mirror at the bottom of the still, and 4) the angle of a mirror fitted in the pond. The Taguchi method was used to determine the best performing levels for each parameter. The results indicated that sodium chloride concentration at 3.5 kg, linking the still to the lower converting zone of the pond, a reflecting angle of 0° at the bottom of the still, and a mirror angle of 135° in the pond were the
This document discusses enhancing the design of a double basin solar still to optimize its performance. The researchers fabricated a double basin still where the lower basin receives direct sunlight through glass covers on its sides. They integrated external energy sources like reflectors, a flat plate collector, and a mini solar pond with the still. Testing found the distillate output increased from 4333 mL/day for a basic double basin still to 5650 mL/day with reflectors and 6249 mL/day with reflectors, a flat plate collector and mini solar pond. The modifications improved the performance of the lower and upper basins, with the lower basin's relative contribution increasing from 29.75% to 40.6%.
The document describes an experimental study that investigated the performance of three different types of single basin double slope solar stills: a conventional still, a still with heat storage materials in the basin, and a still with an external reflector. The study found that the still with heat storage materials maintained higher water temperature and production rates during declining sunshine hours, while the still with a reflector had higher increases during increasing sunshine hours. Overall, the still with heat storage materials showed a 23.08% higher productivity than the conventional still, while the still with a reflector showed a 62.97% higher productivity. The purpose of the study was to evaluate how well heat storage materials and external reflectors improve solar still performance under changing sunlight conditions.
The document discusses the benefits of exercise for mental health. Regular physical activity can help reduce anxiety and depression and improve mood and cognitive functioning. Exercise causes chemical changes in the brain that may help protect against mental illness and improve symptoms.
The document provides details about the Mechanical Engineering Manufacturing Technology Laboratory II at Francis Xavier Engineering College. The lab covers an area of 2100 square feet and contains 12 different types of equipment used for manufacturing processes. This includes lathes, drilling machines, grinders, milling machines, and other specialized equipment like a gear shaper and gear hobbing machine. The equipment varies in size and specifications based on their function.
Gen Z and the marketplaces - let's translate their needsLaura Szabó
The product workshop focused on exploring the requirements of Generation Z in relation to marketplace dynamics. We delved into their specific needs, examined the specifics in their shopping preferences, and analyzed their preferred methods for accessing information and making purchases within a marketplace. Through the study of real-life cases , we tried to gain valuable insights into enhancing the marketplace experience for Generation Z.
The workshop was held on the DMA Conference in Vienna June 2024.
Discover the benefits of outsourcing SEO to Indiadavidjhones387
"Discover the benefits of outsourcing SEO to India! From cost-effective services and expert professionals to round-the-clock work advantages, learn how your business can achieve digital success with Indian SEO solutions.
Ready to Unlock the Power of Blockchain!Toptal Tech
Imagine a world where data flows freely, yet remains secure. A world where trust is built into the fabric of every transaction. This is the promise of blockchain, a revolutionary technology poised to reshape our digital landscape.
Toptal Tech is at the forefront of this innovation, connecting you with the brightest minds in blockchain development. Together, we can unlock the potential of this transformative technology, building a future of transparency, security, and endless possibilities.
Understanding User Behavior with Google Analytics.pdfSEO Article Boost
Unlocking the full potential of Google Analytics is crucial for understanding and optimizing your website’s performance. This guide dives deep into the essential aspects of Google Analytics, from analyzing traffic sources to understanding user demographics and tracking user engagement.
Traffic Sources Analysis:
Discover where your website traffic originates. By examining the Acquisition section, you can identify whether visitors come from organic search, paid campaigns, direct visits, social media, or referral links. This knowledge helps in refining marketing strategies and optimizing resource allocation.
User Demographics Insights:
Gain a comprehensive view of your audience by exploring demographic data in the Audience section. Understand age, gender, and interests to tailor your marketing strategies effectively. Leverage this information to create personalized content and improve user engagement and conversion rates.
Tracking User Engagement:
Learn how to measure user interaction with your site through key metrics like bounce rate, average session duration, and pages per session. Enhance user experience by analyzing engagement metrics and implementing strategies to keep visitors engaged.
Conversion Rate Optimization:
Understand the importance of conversion rates and how to track them using Google Analytics. Set up Goals, analyze conversion funnels, segment your audience, and employ A/B testing to optimize your website for higher conversions. Utilize ecommerce tracking and multi-channel funnels for a detailed view of your sales performance and marketing channel contributions.
Custom Reports and Dashboards:
Create custom reports and dashboards to visualize and interpret data relevant to your business goals. Use advanced filters, segments, and visualization options to gain deeper insights. Incorporate custom dimensions and metrics for tailored data analysis. Integrate external data sources to enrich your analytics and make well-informed decisions.
This guide is designed to help you harness the power of Google Analytics for making data-driven decisions that enhance website performance and achieve your digital marketing objectives. Whether you are looking to improve SEO, refine your social media strategy, or boost conversion rates, understanding and utilizing Google Analytics is essential for your success.
1. Chapter/ Unit No. Basic concepts
1
Topics: ( as per the lesson planning)
1. Introduction
2. Microscopic & macroscopic point of view
3. Thermodynamic system and control volume
4. Thermodynamic properties, processes and cycles
5. Thermodynamic equilibrium
6. Quasi-static process
7. Pure substance
8. Vapour-liquid-solid phase in a pure substance
9. P-v-t surface
10.Critical and triple point of pure substance
Cover page of Lecture Notes
Faculty Name: Asst. Prof. Ajaypalsinh G. Barad
Branch: Mechanical Semester: 3rd Name of Subject: ET
Sign: _______________________
Submission Date: _____________
3. Introduction
Microscopic and macroscopic view
Thermodynamic system and control volume
Thermodynamic properties
State, process and cycle
Thermodynamic equilibrium
Quasi – state process
Pure substance
Vapour-Liquid-Solid phase in a pure substance
21-06-2017
3
Ajaypalsinh Barad
4. Critical and tripal point of pure substance
p-v-T surface
Work and heat transfer
Point function and path function
Temperature and zeroth law of thermodynamics
continuum
21-06-2017
4
Ajaypalsinh Barad
5. Thermodynamic can be defined as the science
of energy.
It deals with the most basic processes
occurring in nature.
One of the most fundamental laws of nature is
the conservation of energy principle.
It simply states that during an interaction,
energy can change from one form to another
but the total amount of energy remains
constant.
21-06-2017
5
Ajaypalsinh Barad
6. The word thermodynamics is made up from
two Greek words:
(i) Thermo - hot or heat
(ii) Dynamic – power or powerful, the study of matter in
motion.
Thermodynamics means study of heat related
to matter in motion.
21-06-2017
6
Ajaypalsinh Barad
7. Thermodynamic may be defined as:
i. Science that deals with the interaction between
energy and material system.
ii. Law of science which deals with the relations
among heat, work and properties of system
which are in equilibrium.
21-06-2017
7
Ajaypalsinh Barad
8. There are basically four laws,
i. Zeroth law : represents the concept of
temperature, and deals with thermal equilibrium.
21-06-2017
8
Ajaypalsinh Barad
9. ii. First law : represents the concept of internal
energy.
21-06-2017
9
Ajaypalsinh Barad
10. iii. Second law : indicates the limit of converting
heat into work and introduce principle of
increase of entropy.
21-06-2017
10
Ajaypalsinh Barad
11. iv. Third law : concerned with the level of
availability of energy and defines the absolute
zero of entropy.
21-06-2017
11
Ajaypalsinh Barad
12. Classical thermodynamics:
A macroscopic approach to the study of
thermodynamics that does not require a knowledge of
the behavior of individual particles.
It provides a direct and easy way to the solution of
engineering problems and it is used in this text.
Statistical thermodynamics:
A microscopic approach, based on the average
behavior of large groups of individual particles.
It is used in this text only in the supporting role.
21-06-2017
12
Ajaypalsinh Barad
13. System: A quantity of matter or a region in space
chosen for study.
Surroundings: The mass or region outside the
system
21-06-2017
13
Ajaypalsinh Barad
14. Boundary: The real or imaginary surface that
separates the system from its surroundings.
The boundary of a system can be fixed or
movable.
Systems may be considered to be closed or
open.
21-06-2017
14
Ajaypalsinh Barad
15. Closed system (Control mass):
A fixed amount of mass, and no mass can cross
its boundary.
21-06-2017
15
Ajaypalsinh Barad
16. Open system :
A properly selected region
in space.
It usually encloses a device
that involves mass flow
such as a compressor,
turbine, or nozzle. Both
mass and energy can cross
the boundary of a control
volume.
21-06-2017
16
Ajaypalsinh Barad
17. Isolated System:
In this system, fixed mass
and fixed energy and there
is no mass or energy
transfer across the system
boundary as shown in fig.
The thermos flask is
example of an isolated
system.
21-06-2017
17
Ajaypalsinh Barad
18. Control volume:
In most of engineering problems of open system, (such as
in an engine, an air compressor, turbine etc) the mass of
the system is not fixed.
Therefore, in the analysis, attention is focused on a
certain volume in space surrounding the system
(equipment), known as the Control volume. The control
volume bounded by the surface is called Control
surface.
21-06-2017
18
Ajaypalsinh Barad
20. Property:
Any characteristic of a system.
Some familiar properties are pressure P, temperature T, volume
V, and mass m.
Properties are considered to be either intensive or extensive.
Intensive properties:
Independent of the mass of a system, such as temperature,
pressure, and density.
Extensive properties:
Whose values depend on the size—or extent—of the system.
Specific properties:
Extensive properties per unit mass. And they became intensive
properties.
21-06-2017
20
Ajaypalsinh Barad
21. State:
It is the condition of the system at an instant of time as
described by its properties.
Consider a system that is not
undergoing any change.
At this point, all the properties
can be measured or calculated
throughout the entire system,
at a given state, all the properties
of a system have fixed values.
If the value of even one property
changes, the state will change to
a different one.
21-06-2017
21
Ajaypalsinh Barad
22. Process:
Any change that a system undergoes from one state to another
state is called a process.
21-06-2017
22
Ajaypalsinh Barad
23. Cycle:
It is defined as a series of state changes such that the final state
is identical with the initial state.
The cycle as shown in fig. consists of two processes as 1-2, and
2-1.
21-06-2017
23
Ajaypalsinh Barad
24. Thermodynamic equilibrium:
The word equilibrium implies a state of balance.
This system is said to exist in a state of equilibrium when no
change in any macroscopic property.
“ A system is said to be in a state of thermodynamic
equilibrium if the value of properties is the same at all points
in the system.”
A system will be in a state of equilibrium, if the condition for
the following three types of equilibrium are satisfied :
i. Thermal equilibrium
ii. Mechanical equilibrium
iii. Chemical equilibrium
21-06-2017
24
Ajaypalsinh Barad
25. Thermal equilibrium:
If the temperature of the system does not change with time and
has same value at all points of the system, the system said in
thermal equilibrium.
21-06-2017
25
Ajaypalsinh Barad
26. Mechanical equilibrium:
A system is in mechanical equilibrium if there are no
unbalanced forces within the system or between surroundings.
The pressure in the system is same at all points and does not
change with respect to time.
21-06-2017
26
Ajaypalsinh Barad
27. Chemical equilibrium:
A system is in chemical equilibrium if its chemical
composition does not change with time and no chemical
reaction takes place in the system.
21-06-2017
27
Ajaypalsinh Barad
28. When a process proceeds in such a way that the
system remains close to an thermodynamic
equilibrium state at all times, it is called a Quasi-
static process.
A quasi-static process is also called a reversible
process. The main characteristic of this process is
infinite slowness.
21-06-2017
28
Ajaypalsinh Barad
29. The quasi-static equilibrium process is an idealized
process and many actual processes can be modeled as
quasi-static equilibrium with negligible error.
This process produces maximum work or consumes
less work, so this processes serve as standards to
which actual processes can be compared.
21-06-2017
29
Ajaypalsinh Barad
31. A substance that has a fixed chemical composition
throughout is called pure substance.
For example water, helium, carbon dioxides etc.
The pure substance must satisfied following conditions:
1. Homogeneous in composition – composition of each part
of the system is same as the composition of every other
part.
2. Homogeneous in chemical aggregation – chemical
elements must be combined chemically in same way in all
parts of the system.
3. Invariable in chemical aggregation – state of chemical
combination of the system does not change with time.
21-06-2017
31
Ajaypalsinh Barad
32. For example,
1) Air – has uniform chemical composition
2) Ice and liquid water – both phases have same chemical
composition and satisfies all three conditions
3) Steam and liquid water – same chemical composition
21-06-2017
32
Ajaypalsinh Barad
33. 4) Mixture of oil and water – not pure substance, as oil is not
soluble in water, it will collect on top of the water
5) Mixture of gaseous air and liquid air – not pure substance,
compositions are different in both the cases.
21-06-2017
33
Ajaypalsinh Barad
34. Pure substance exist in different phases.
There are three principle phases as solid, liquid and gas vapour.
Solid:
The molecules in a solid are arranged in three-dimensional
pattern. The attractive forces of molecules on each other are
large due to small distances between molecules in a solid.
The molecules oscillate about their equilibrium position.
At sufficient high temperatures, the velocity of molecules may
reach a point where the intermolecular forces are overcome and
groups of molecules break away and beginning of melting
process.
21-06-2017
34
Ajaypalsinh Barad
35. Liquid:
The attractive forces of molecules on each other are less in
liquid compared to in solid.
So the molecules are no longer at fixed positions relative to
each other.
In liquid the groups of molecules float about each other,
however the molecules maintain an orderly structure within
each group and retain their original positions with respect to
one another.
21-06-2017
35
Ajaypalsinh Barad
36. Gas vapour:
The molecules are far apart from each other in gas.
So gas molecules move about at random, continually colliding
with each other and the walls of the container because in gas
there is no orderly structure of molecules.
At low temperature the molecules exist as solids, when
temperature increases they may melt into the liquid phase
and then at higher temperatures they evaporates and
become vapour.
21-06-2017
36
Ajaypalsinh Barad
37. For example, Water has three phases as ice, water and steam.
When ice melts, there is a transformation of phase from solid
to liquid which is called the Melting of ice.
When the water solidifies, there is a transformation of phase
from liquid to solid which is called Solidification or
Freezing.
When water evaporates, there is a transformation of phase from
liquid to vapour phase is called Vaporization.
When transformation take place from vapour to liquid, it is
called Condensation.
21-06-2017
37
Ajaypalsinh Barad
38. Critical point:
We know that every substance exists in at least three
phases. However, at particular pressure and
temperature a mixture of saturated liquid and
saturated vapour states are identical. This situation is
known as Critical State of the substance.
21-06-2017
38
Ajaypalsinh Barad
41. We are familiar with two phases being in equilibrium,
but at particular pressure and temperature, all the
three phases of water as solid (ice), liquid (water) and
vapour (steam) can exists in equilibrium.
This is known as triple point state.
21-06-2017
41
Ajaypalsinh Barad
44. The p-v-T surface is graphical representation of the
states of a pure substance which must have two
independent properties and any third as the dependent
property.
It is relationships between pressure, specific volume
and temperature which is represented by a three
dimensional plot.
21-06-2017
44
Ajaypalsinh Barad
46. The heat and work are form of energy.
A closed system and surroundings can interact in two
ways:
(1) By work transfer and
(2) By heat transfer
21-06-2017
46
Ajaypalsinh Barad
48. Thermodynamics Work:
―It is the energy transferred, without transfer of mass
across the boundary of a system because of an
intensive property difference other than temperature
that exist between system and surroundings.‖
Work may be defined as ―a transient quantity which
only appears at the boundary while a change of state
is taking place within a system.‖
21-06-2017
48
Ajaypalsinh Barad
49. Thermodynamics Work:
consider an electrical storage
battery as a system in which the
terminals are connected with a
resistance by means of a switch
as shown in fig.
When the switch is closed, the
current flows through the
resistance coil and the resistance
become warmer.
21-06-2017
49
Ajaypalsinh Barad
50. Thermodynamics Work:
According to definition of mechanical work, it is not work
because there is no force has moved through a distance.
But according to thermodynamics work definition, the battery
does work as the electrical energy crosses the system boundary.
21-06-2017
50
Ajaypalsinh Barad
51. Thermodynamics Work:
The resistance is replaced by an electrical motor with
frictionless pulley which can wind a string and lift the
suspended mass as shown in fig.
Therefore, only effect is the
work done by system, is the
rising of a mass.
So, interaction of battery
with resistance coil is a work,
21-06-2017
51
Ajaypalsinh Barad
52. Displacement work:
Consider a system, formed by a gas contained in a piston
cylinder arrangement as shown in Fig. Due to pressure of gas
acting on the face of the piston, the piston move outward
through a small distance dx, during a small time interval dt.
Assume that pressure p acting on piston is constant. The work
done by the system is,
21-06-2017
52
Ajaypalsinh Barad
58. Heat is defined as form of energy that is transferred
between system and surroundings or between two
systems due to temperature difference.
Two closed systems at different temperature,
Due to temperature difference,
Thermal equilibrium,
“Heat is the form of energy which appears at the
boundary when a system changes its state due to
a difference in temperature between system and
its surroundings."
21-06-2017
58
Ajaypalsinh Barad
60. Similarities:
• not properties of system
• boundary phenomenon
• associated with process, not a state.
• These energies interactions occurs only when a system
undergoes change of state.
21-06-2017
60
Ajaypalsinh Barad
61. Dissimilarities :
Heat is energy interaction due to temperature difference.
Work is energy interaction by reasons other than
temperature difference.
In stable system there can not be work transfer, however,
there is no restriction for the transfer of heat.
Heat is low grade energy while work is high grade energy.
21-06-2017
61
Ajaypalsinh Barad
62. • The temperature as a measure of hotness or
coldness.
• It may be defined as
1. Degree of hotness or coldness
2. Driving force causing the heat transfer
3. Determine the system is in thermal equilibrium
with another system or not
21-06-2017
62
Ajaypalsinh Barad
64. ― If two systems are each in thermal equilibrium with a third
system, they are also in thermal equilibrium with each other.‖
21-06-2017
64
Ajaypalsinh Barad
65. Application of Zeroth law:
• Zeroth law of thermodynamics is the concept of
temperature.
• The third system C is called
thermometer.
• It permits to test the
equality of temperature
without actually bringing
the system in thermal contact.
21-06-2017
65
Ajaypalsinh Barad
66. In macroscopic thermodynamic analysis, we consider
the matter as continuous rather than considering of
discrete particles.
The spaces between and within the molecules are not
considered.
Generally we consider pressure and temperatures of
large number of molecules in the system.
Such continuous substance is known as ―Continuum‖.
21-06-2017
66
Ajaypalsinh Barad
67. The property of a system which does not depends on
path of process, but depends on state, this property is
called point function.
Thermodynamic properties are point functions, for
given state, there is a definite value for each property.
The differential of point functions are exact or perfect
differentials and the integration is simply,
The change in volume depends only on the initial and
final state of the system, not depends on the path the
system follows. 21-06-2017
67
Ajaypalsinh Barad
68. There are certain quantities which can not be located on a
graph by a point but are represented by the area on that
graph. Those quantities are dependent on the path of the
process and are called path function.
Heat and work are inexact differentials. Their change can
not be written as difference between their initial and final
states.
21-06-2017
68
Ajaypalsinh Barad
69. Consider several reversible processes such as P, Q and R
from state 1 to state 2 as shown in fig.
The work done for each process is represented by area under
each curve on p-V diagram.
From the fig., it is clear that the work is different in each
process because process (path) depends on the nature of the
process.
The amount of work involved in each case is not a function
of initial and final (end) states of the process, is not a
property of state function and its depends on the path of the
system follows in going from state 1 to state 2 Therefore,
work is a path function.
21-06-2017
69
Ajaypalsinh Barad
70. A system does not posses work, but work is a mode of
transfer of energy. This transfer occurs only at the
boundaries of the system during a change of state of the
system.
21-06-2017
70
Ajaypalsinh Barad