The document discusses the basic principles of sanitary and plumbing design according to the 1999 National Plumbing Code of the Philippines. It outlines 22 principles that cover topics like ensuring a clean water supply, adequate water pressure, efficient water usage, preventing dangers from water heating devices, proper sewage disposal, and ventilation of plumbing fixtures. It also provides an overview of components of a plumbing system including pipes and fittings, plumbing fixtures, and the drainage system. Additionally, it discusses water sources like surface water and groundwater, as well as various water treatment methods.

1. ENGINEERING UTILITIES
2
(10:30-12:00 TTH)
GROUP 1
Members: Afidchao, Chevrone
Balteng, Kenny Lee
Calpi, Gabriel
Falingao, Sylvester
Lic-cub, Glaiza
Tipal, Secille

2. BASIC PRINCIPLES OF
SANITARY/PLUMBING
DESIGN-PORTABLE
WATER, COMPONENTS OF
PLUMBING SYSTEM &
WATER HEATERS.

3. BASIC PRINCIPLES
• The basic principles of the 1999 National Plumbing Code
of the Philippines is an update of the tenets established in
the “Plumbing Law of the Philippines” approved on 1June
1955 as amended on 28 November 1959.
• The basic goal of the 1999 National Plumbing Code of the
Philippines is to ensure the unqualified observance of the
latest provisions of the plumbing and environmental laws.

4. PRINCIPLE NO.1:
CLEAN WATER DESIGN
•All premises intended for human habitation,
occupancy or use shall be provided with a
supply of pure and wholesome water. Neither
connected with unsafe water supplies nor
subject to hazards of backflow or back-
siphonage.

5. PRINCIPLE NO.2:
VOLUME AND PRESSURE
•Plumbing fixtures, devices, and appurtenances shall
be supplied with water in sufficient volume and the
pressure adequate to enable them to function
satisfactory and without undue noise under all
normal conditions of use.

6. PRINCIPLE NO.3:
EFFICIENCY
• Plumbing shall be designed and adjusted to
use the minimum quality of water consistent
with proper performance and cleaning.

7. PRINCIPLE NO. 4:
EXPLOSITION
• Devices for heating and storing water
shall be so designed and installed as to
prevent dangers from explosion through
overheating.

8. PRINCIPLE NO. 5:
SEWER
• Every building having plumbing fixtures
installed and intended for human habitation,
occupancy or use on premises abutting or
adjacent to a street, alley, or easement where
there is public sewer, shall be connected to
the sewer system.

9. PRINCIPLE NO. 6:
PLUMBING UNIT
• Each family dwelling unit or premises
abutting on a sewer or with a private sewage
disposal system shall have at least one water
closet and one kitchen sink. Further, a
lavatory and bathtub, or shower shall be
installed to meet the basic requirements of
sanitation and personal hygiene.

10. PRINCIPLE NO. 7:
VENTILATION
• Plumbing fixtures shall be made of
smooth, non-absorbent material, free
from concealed fouling surfaces and shall
be located in ventilated enclosures.

11. PINCIPLE NO. 8:
CLEANOUTS
• The drainage system shall be designed,
constructed and maintained to safeguard
against fouling, deposit of solids, clogging,
and with adequate cleanouts so arranged that
pipes may be readily cleaned.

12. • All piping's of plumbing systems shall be of
durable NAMPAP Approved materials, free
from defective workmanship, designed and
constructed by registered master plumbers to
ensure satisfactory device.
PRINCIPLE NO. 9:
NAMPAP

13. PRINCIPLE NO. 10:
TRAP
• Each fixture directly connected to the
drainage system shall be equipped with a
water sealed trap.

14. PRINCIPLE NO. 11:
AIR CIRCULATION
• The drainage piping system shall be
designed to provide adequate circulation
of air free from siphonage, aspiration
(inhalation/suction) or forcing of trap
seals under ordinary use.

15. PRINCIPLE NO. 12:
VENT TERMINALS
• Vent terminals shall extend to the outer
air and installed to pre-empt clogging and
the return of foul air to the building.

16. PRINCIPLE NO.13:
TEST
• Plumbing system shall be subjected to
such tests to effectively disclose all leaks
and defects in the workmanship.

17. PRINCIPLE NO.14:
SEWAGE HARM
• No substance which will clog the pipes,
produce explosive mixtures, destroys the
pipes or their joints or interfere.

18. PRINCIPLE NO.15:
CONTAMINATION
• Proper protection shall be provided to prevent
contamination of food, water, sterile goods
and similar materials by backflow of sewage.
When necessary, the fixture, device or
appliance shall be connected indirectly with
the building drainage system.

19. PRINCIPLE NO.16:
LIGHT
• No water closet shall be located in a
room or compartment which is not
properly lighted and ventilated.

20. PRINCIPLE NO. 17:
SEPTIC TANK
• If water closets or other plumbing fixtures are
installed in buildings where there is no sewer
within a reasonable distance, suitable
provision shall be made for disposing of the
building sewage by some accepted method of
sewage treatment and disposal, such as a
septic tank.

21. PRINCIPLE NO. 18:
SEWAGE BACKFLOW
• Where a plumbing drainage system may
be subject to backflow of sewage, suitable
provision shall be made to prevent its
overflow in the building.

22. PRINCIPLE NO. 19:
RMP
• Plumbing systems shall be maintained
in serviceable condition by Registered
Master Plumbers.

23. PRINCIPLE NO. 20:
ACCESSIBLE
• All plumbing fixtures shall be installed
properly spaced, to be accessible for their
intended use.

24. PRINCIPLE NO. 21:
STRUCTURAL STABILITY
• Plumbing shall be installed by Registered
Master Plumbers with due regard to the
preservation of the strength of structural
members and the prevention of damage to
walls and other surfaces through fixture
usage.

25. PRINCIPLE NO. 22:
SEWAGE TREATMENT
• Sewage or other waste from a plumbing
system which may be deleterious to surface or
sub-surface waters shall not be discharged
into the ground or into any waterway, unless
first rendered innocuous through subjection
to some acceptable from treatment.

26. PLUMBING
•Plumbing is defined as the art and science of
installing pipes, fixtures and other apparatus to
convey and supply water in buildings and to
dispose and discharge waste water and other
liquids, gases and other substances out of
buildings in a safe, orderly, healthy and sanitary
way to ensure the health and sanitation of life and
property.

27. COMPONENTS OF
PLUMBING SYSTEM

28. 1. PIPES AND FITTINGS
Your plumbing system runs throughout your home. You might have
plumbing in your kitchen, basement, bathroom and even garage. The
pipes and fittings include every pipe that runs throughout your home
from the main water supply lines. This includes the safest plumbing
pipe for your water supply. Most system have cold water and hot water
pipes. Each pipe can withstand a certain temperature. These pipes and
fittings can be made of a variety of materials including:
• Copper
• Brass
• Lead
• PVC (Polyvinyl Chloride)
• CPVC (Chlorinated Polyvinyl Chloride)

29. 2. PLUMBING FIXTURES
The plumbing fixtures connect to the pipes and give you access to
your water supply. Plumbing fixtures include:
• Sinks
• Bathtubs
• Hot Water Heater
• Washing Machines
• Dish Washers
• Toilets
Each fixtures needs to be properly installed and maintained to save on
water usage and minimize leaks. Be sure to research how to maintain
your bathroom fixtures to maximize their lifespan and decrease
unwanted plumbing emergencies.

30. 3. THE DRAINAGE SYSTEM
Outside of the clogged toilet, the drainage systems is
key part of your plumbing system that might cause a
costly emergency. Your drains connect the plumbing
fixtures to the waste removal lines and the sewage
system. Be sure to avoid clogging your drains. This
allows sewage and waste to pass trough freely
without clogging.

31. WATER SOURCES
• A supply of good water is more important to
human survival than food. Potable is clean water
that is suitable for human drinking. It must be
available for drinking, cooking, and cleaning. Non
potable water may be used for flushing water
closets (toilets), irrigating grass and gardens,
washing cars, and for any use other than drinking,
cooking, or cleaning. An abundant supply of potable
water that is easily distributed is vital to a
prosperous economy.

32. • Rain and snowmelt are the sources of most of the water
available for our use. When it rains or a snowfield melts,
water flows into streams and rivers or soaks into the
ground.
• By definition, surface water is the rain that runs off
the surface of the ground into streams, rivers, and lakes.
• Groundwater is water found below the surface of the
earth.

33. SURFACE WATER
 Surface water readily provides much of the water
needed by cities, counties, large industry, and
others.
 However, this source is dependent on recurring rain.
During a long period of drought, the flow of water
may be significantly reduced.
 Reservoirs hold surface water during periods of
high runoff and release water during periods of low
runoff.
 Surface water is typically treated to provide the
potable water required. Where non-potable water
may be used, no treatment of the water is
necessary.

34. GROUND WATER
 Groundwater seeps through the soil and is
trapped on impervious stratum, a layer of soil
or rock that water cannot pass through.
 The water collects in pores of permeable
stratum; a layer of porous earth that water can
pass through such as sands, gravels, limestone,
or basalt.
 Saturated permeable stratum capable of
providing a usable supply of water is known as
an aquifer.

35. WATER TREATMENT
Water quality and taste vary considerably from
place to place, depending on the water source
of the area, the chemical and bacteria contents
of the water, and the amount and type of
treatment given the water before it is put into
the system.
Potable water can have an objectionable odor
and taste and even be cloudy and slightly
muddied or colored in appearance.

36. SEVERAL METHODS USED TO IMPROVE WATER QUALITY AND TASTE:
Problems with undesirable taste and odor are overcome by use of
filtration equipment or by aeration of the water.
Bacteria are destroyed by the addition of a few parts per million of
chlorine. The taste of chlorine is then removed with sodium sulfite.
Suspended organic matter that supports bacterial life and suspended
mineral matter are removed by the addition of a flocculating and
precipitating agent, such as alum, before settling or filtration.
 Excessive hardness, which renders the water unsuitable for many
industrial purposes, is reduced by the addition of slaked, or hydrated, lime
or by an ion exchange process.

37. WATER TOWERS AND
ELEVATED
• Storage Tanks
Water towers used in community systems and elevated water
storage tanks used in private systems carry a reserve capacity of
water. They serve many additional purposes:
To introduce pressure to the water supply system
To equalize supply and demand over periods of high
consumption
To supply water during equipment failure or maintenance
To supply water for firefighting demand

38. THE BUILDING WATER
SUPPLY SYSTEM
• Plumbing codes require that a potable water supply be
adequately furnished to all plumbing fixtures.
• The water supply system in a building carries cold and
hot water through distribution pipes and delivers it to the
plumbing fixtures. The water service line carries water
from a district supply pipe to the building.

39. MAIN PARTS OF A WATER
SUPPLY SYSTEM
•Building Supply
•Water Meter
•Building Main
•Riser
•Fixture Branch
•Fixture Connection

40. BUILDING SUPPLY
The building supply or water service is a
large water supply pipe that carries
potable water from the district or city
water system or other water source to
the building.

41. WATER METER
A water meter is required by most
district water supply systems to measure
and record the amount of water used. It
may be placed in a meter box located in
the ground near the street or inside the
building.

42. BUILDING MAIN
The building main is a large pipe that serves as
the principal artery of the water supply system.
It carries water through the building to the
furthest riser. The building main is typically run
(located) in a basement, in a ceiling, in a crawl
space, or below the concrete floor slab.

43. RISER
A riser is a water supply pipe that
extends vertically in the building at least
one story and carries water to fixture
branches. It is typically connected to the
building main and runs vertically in the
walls or pipe chases.

44. FIXTURE BRANCH
A fixture branch is a water supply pipe that
runs from the riser or main to the fixture being
connected. In a water supply system, it is any
part of a piping system other than a riser or
main pipe. Fixture branch pipes supply the
individual plumbing fixtures. A fixture branch is
usually run in the floor or in the wall behind
the fixtures.

45. FIXTURE CONNECTION
A fixture connection runs from the
fixture branch to the fixture, the terminal
point of use in a plumbing system. A
shut-off valve is typically located in the
hot and cold water supply at the fixture
connection.

46. GENERAL WATER
DISTRIBUTION
System Layout
Rigid-Pipe Distribution Configuration
Homerun (Manifold) Distribution
Configuration
Up feed and Down feed Distribution

47. WATER PRESSURE
CONSIDERATIONS
Hydrostatic Pressure
Fluid (gas or liquid) molecules tend to
seek equilibrium (a stability of forces).
When forces acting on a fluid are unequal,
molecules in the fluid move in the
direction of the resultant forces.
Therefore, an elementary property of any
fluid at rest (not flowing) is that the force
exerted on any molecule within the fluid
is the same in all directions.
Water Pressure
Water pressure difference is the driving
force behind fluid flow. Water pressure
available at the water service is lost as water
flows through the piping of a plumbing
system. This pressure loss or pressure drop
in a plumbing system is from friction loss as
the water moves through the system and
pressure loss as water is forced to a higher
elevation (e.g., from the basement to an
upper story).

48. WATER SUPPLY DESIGN
CONCERNS
Water Velocity
Cavitation
Cross-Connections
Backflow
Water Hammer
Air Chambers
Water Hammer Arrestors
Thermal Expansion
Viscosity
Volume Change with
Temperature Change
Freezing
Expanding Water
Aging
Pipe Insulation Testing
Testing
Leaks
Heated Water

49. Water Velocity
 Noise, erosion of inner
pipe walls and valves,
and economy of
installation, operation,
and maintenance
dictate the minimum
and maximum water
velocity in a plumbing
system; as a result,
these have a bearing
on pipe diameter.
Cavitation
 Cavitation is a
physical phenomenon
that occurs in a liquid
when it experiences a
drastic drop in
pressure that causes
the liquid to vaporize
into small vapor
bubbles.
Cross-Connections
 A cross-connection is
an unsatisfactory
connection or
arrangement of piping
that can cause
nonpotable water to
enter the potable water
system. A cross-
connection can cause
used or contaminated
water to mix with the
water supply.

50. Backflow
 Backflow is a type of cross-
connection that occurs when
contaminated water or some
other liquid or substance
unintentionally flows
backwards into distribution
pipes containing potable
water. Simply, it is water
flowing in the opposite
direction from normal flow.
Backflow can allow
contaminants to enter the
potable drinking water
system through cross-
connections.
Water Hammer
 A large pressure develops
when fluid moving
through a pipe is suddenly
stopped. In a plumbing
supply system, the sudden
closing of a valve will
cause fast-flowing water to
stop quickly, resulting in a
large increase in pressure
that is known as water
hammer.
Air Chambers
 Air chambers are 15 in to 5 ft
long pipes or pipe-like devices.
They are installed vertically
above the fixture water
connection and are concealed
in the wall. Air is trapped within
the air chamber. The trapped
air is compressible, which
cushions the pressure surge as
the valve is closed and absorbs
the hydraulic shock.

51. Water Hammer
Arrestors
 Water hammer arrestors
are patented devices that
absorb hydraulic shock.
Such devices, when
installed, must be
accessible for
maintenance. One type
should be placed at the
end of the branch line
between the last two
fixtures served.
Thermal Expansion
 No matter what type of
piping material is used in
the water system, some
expansion in the pipe will
occur. This expansion
must be considered in the
design of the system. The
amount of expansion will
depend on the type of
piping material and the
range of temperatures
that the pipe will be
subjected.
Viscosity
 As water flows through a
pipe, its viscosity
(thickness) decreases with
temperature decrease.
Water at 40°F (4°C) is
twice as viscous as water
at 90°F (32°C) and four
times as much at 170°F
(77°C). As a result,
pumping energy and cost
are higher when water
temperatures are lower.

52. Volume Change with
Temperature Change
 Water is the only
substance that can
exist as a solid, liquid,
and gas at ordinary
temperatures. Like
most substances,
water expands when
it is heated. Unlike
most substances, the
volume of water
increases when it
freezes.
Freezing
A phase change
from liquid (water)
to solid (ice)
results in about a
10% increase in
volume.
Expanding Water
 Liquid water expands
above 39°F (4°C).
Expansion is about
4.37% from 40°F (4.4°C)
to 212°F (100°C). This
volumetric change from
expansion (ΔV) equates
to about 0.0254% per °F
(0.0457% per °C).

53. Aging
 As pipes in a
plumbing system are
used, their inner walls
become increasingly
rough. The effects of
aging in a plumbing
system are related to
piping material,
quality of water (e.g.,
hard versus soft), and
water temperature.
Pipe Insulation
 Pipe insulation is
applied to the outer
walls of piping to
reduce heat loss from
the pipe or prevent
condensation on the
outside pipe walls.
Foam and covered
fiberglass insulation
are common pipe
insulation materials.
Testing
 The water supply
system should be tested
for leaks before it is
covered with finish
materials to determine
if it is watertight. Tests
commonly run on water
systems require that it
be watertight under a
hydrostatic water
pressure of 125 psi for a
minimum of 1 hr.

54. Leaks
A leak of just one drop per second
will waste about 2700 gal (10 200 L)
of water a year. Leaks not only waste
money and water, they can cause
damage to walls, flooring, ceilings,
furniture, and electrical systems.
Leaking pipes also create an
environment for mold and mildew
to thrive.
Heated Water
In modern buildings, hot water is desired
for bathing, cleaning, washing, and other
associated purposes.
By definition, hot water is potable
water that is heated to at least 120°F.
Heated water below 120°F (49°C) is
typically called tempered water.
Hot water used for household functions
such as bathing, dishwashing, and clothes
washing is referred to as domestic hot
water (DHW).
In commercial installations, hot water
used in nondomestic applications is
referred to as building service hot
water (BSHW).

55. COMPONENTS OF
WATER HEATERS

56. STORAGE TANK WATER HEATERS– It consists tank and heating
medium. Typically storage tank sizes include
30,40,50,60,65,75,80,100 and 120 gal capacity.
INSTANTANIOUS WATER HEATERS – Sometimes it is called tankless
water heaters or demand water heaters, supply hot water and demand.
They do nor rely on standby storage in a tank or artificially boost their
capacity. Instead, they have a heating device that is activated by the
flow of water when a hot water valve is opened.
CIRCULATING WATER HEATERS – It consists of a separate storage
tank that stores water heated by a heat exchanger.

57. TANKLESS COIL AND INDIREST WATER HEATERS – No separate
storage tank is needed in the tankless coil water heater because water
is heated directly inside the boiler in hydronic water system. The
indirect water heater circulates water through a heat exchanger in the
boiler, but this heated the water then flows to an insulated storage
tank.
HEAT PUMP WATER HEATERS – It extract energy from outdoor air
and use it to produce hot water very efficiently. Heat pump water
heaters use an electric motor to run a compressor.
SOLAR WATER HEATERS – A solar water heaters typically includes
collector mounted on the roof or in a clear area of the yard, a separate
storage tank near the conventional heater in the home, connecting
pipes, and an electronic controller.

58. GROUP 2
PROPERTIES OF FLUID
FLOW, FLOW RATE AND
PRESSURE DROP

59. • Modern cities have sophisticated
water delivery and wastewater
treatment systems. In buildings, the
plumbing system performs two
primary functions:
1. water supply system - consists of the
piping and fittings that supply hot and
cold water from the building water supply
to the fixtures, such as lavatories, bathtubs,
water closets, dishwashers, clothes
washers, and sinks.
MODERN PLUMBING SYSTEMS

60. 2. waste disposal system - consists
of the piping and fittings required
to take that water supplied to the
fixtures out of the building and into
the sewer line or disposal field. This
system is typically referred to as a
sanitary drainage system or drain,
waste and vent (DWV) system.

61. Wastewater treatment - is also an important
component of waste disposal from building
plumbing systems. Although most buildings rely
upon district or community water treatment
plants to dispose of their sewage, some
buildings and facilities operate their own
operations. These are generally known as septic
or on-site sewage treatment (OSST) systems.

62. • Plumbing system is a network of pipes, fittings, and valves that carry and control
flow of supply water and wastewater to and from points of use known as fixtures.
TYPES OF PLUMBING
• Fixtures are components, receptacles, or pieces of equipment that use water and
dispose of wastewater at the point of water use.
• Piping is a series of hollow channels that carry water to and wastewater from
plumbing fixtures.
• Fittings are used to connect lengths of pipe in the piping network.
• Valves are used to regulate or control flow of water.

63. WATER: THE SUBSTANCE
• Any study of a plumbing system must begin with the substance it carries, water.
Water is the name given to the liquid compound H2O. A molecule of water is
composed of one oxygen atom and two hydrogen atoms. In a pure state, it is
tasteless and odorless.
• Under standard atmospheric pressure (14.696 psi, 101.04 kPa), the boiling point
temperature of water is 212°F (100°C). The temperature at which water boils
decreases with lower atmospheric or system pressure and increases at higher
pressures. Thus, the temperature at which water boils decreases with elevation
increase. For example, at standard atmospheric conditions at an elevation of 5000
ft (1524 m) above sea level, water boils at 202.4°F (94.7°C). It boils at 193.2°F
(89.6°C) at 10 000 ft (3048 m) above sea level. The freezing point of water is 32°F
(0°C).

64. FUNDAMENTAL UNITS
• Several fundamental units describe the properties and behavior of water in building
plumbing systems.
The following are definitions of the fundamental units.
Specific Weight (Density) - is weight per unit volume. Water density varies with temperature;
it is most dense at 39°F (4°C).
Specific Gravity - The specific gravity (s.g.) of a fluid or solid is the ratio of the specific weight
of the fluid or solid to the specific weight of water at a temperature of 39°F (4°C), the
temperature at which water is most dense (62.42 lb/ft3 or 1.00 kg/L). It is a comparison of its
weight with the weight of an equal volume of water. Materials with a specific gravity less
than 1.0 are less dense than water (e.g., oil) and will float on pure water; substances with a
specific gravity more than 1.0 are denser than water and will sink. The specific gravity of
water is assumed to be 1.0 at common plumbing system temperatures.
 Problem: s.g. = 60.5 lb/ft3 / 62.42 lb/ft3 = 0.969

65.  VOLUME
-the amount of space occupied by a substance. Water volume is typically expressed
in cubic inches (in³) or cubic feet (ft³) in the customary system, and in cubic meters
(m³) or liters (L) in the SI system. In plumbing system design, volume is commonly
expressed in gallons (g or gal). There are 7.48 gallons in a cubic foot (ft³). A gallon is
approximately 3.8 L.

66.  VOLUMETRIC FLOW RATE
-Volumetric flow rate (Q), frequently called the flow rate
- is the volume of a substance that passes a point in a system per unit of time.
- Flow rate is usually expressed in liters per second (L/s), liters per minute
(L/min), or cubic meters per second (m³/s) in the SI system. In the customary
system, volumetric flow rate is expressed in cubic feet per second (cfs or ft³/s),
cubic feet per minute (cfm or ft³/min), gal per second (gps or g/s), and gal per
minute (gpm or g/min).
-Volumetric flow rate (Q) may be determined with volume (V) and time:
Q = V/time

67.  VELOCITY
-is the rate of linear motion of a substance in one direction.
-The magnitude of velocity, known as speed, is usually expressed in terms of
distance covered per unit of time.
-In the customary system of weights and measures, velocity is expressed in inches
per second (in/s) or feet per second (ft/s).
-In the international system of measure (the SI system), velocity is expressed in
meters per second (m/s).

68. • In a fluidic system such as a plumbing system, water velocity is expressed as an
average velocity because water molecules each have different speeds and directions
of travel; that is, water molecules flowing in the center of a pipe tend to travel faster
than water molecules at or near the inner wall of the pipe.

69. • Average velocity (v) of a fluid (such as water) flowing through a pipe may be
found by the following equations based upon average volumetric flow rate (Q)
and cross-sectional area (A) or inside diameter (Di). Units must be consistent in
these equations (e.g., volume, area, and diameter must be expressed in units of in,
ft, m, and so on).
v = Q/A = 4Q/𝝅𝑫𝟏
𝟐
• The following equation, in customary units, is useful in plumbing system design. It
may be used to find the average velocity (v) of a fluid flowing through a pipe, in
ft/s, based on the volumetric flow rate (Q), in gpm, and an inside diameter (Di) of
the pipe, in inches:
v = 0.409Q/𝑫𝟏
𝟐

70. PROBLEM:
• Determine the average velocity for water flow in a 3⁄4 in diameter pipe, Type L
copper tube (0.875 in outside diameter and 0.785 in inside diameter) carrying water
at a volumetric flow rate of 10 gpm.
v = 0.409Q/𝐷1
2
= (0.409 x 10 gpm)/(0.785 in)2
= 6.6 ft/s

71.  PRESSURE
• Pressure (P) is the force per unit area exerted by liquid or gas on a surface such as
the sidewall of a container or pipe. In the customary system of measure, pressure
is expressed in pounds per square inch (lb/in2 or psi) or pounds per square foot
(lb/ft2 or psf). In the international system (SI), pressure is expressed in
• Newton per square meter or the Pascal (N/m2 or Pa). Although units of lb/in2 are
dimensionally correct, the acronym “psi” will be used for pounds per square inch
of gauge pressure because it is universally accepted in the plumbing industry. The
acronym “psia” will be used for absolute pressure.

72. • Standard atmospheric pressure (Ps) is the typical barometric pressure of air at sea
level and 70°F (21°C). It is equal to 14.696 psia (101 325 Pa). Atmospheric pressure
varies with weather conditions and elevation.
• Gauge pressure (Pg) is the pressure of a fluid (gas or liquid) excluding pressure
exerted by the atmosphere. Pressure can be expressed in terms of absolute and
gauge pressure: Absolute pressure (Pa) is the pressure of a fluid (gas or liquid)
including pressure exerted by the atmosphere:
𝑷𝒈 + 𝑷𝒔 = 𝑷𝒂

73. PROBLEM:
At sea level, atmospheric pressure is 14.7 psia (101 325 Pa). A pressure gauge
placed at the bottom of an 8 ft (2.45 m) deep tank filled with water measures a
water pressure at the tank bottom of 3.5 psi (24 130 Pa). Determine the absolute
and gauge pressure. Gauge pressure at the bottom of the tank is 3.5 psi (24 130 Pa).
Absolute pressure at the bottom of the tank is 18.2 psia, as found by:
𝑃
𝑔 + 𝑃𝑠 = 𝑃𝑎
3.5 psi + 14.7 psi = 18.2 psia
(24,130 Pa + 101,325 Pa = 125,455 Pa)

75. PLUMBING???
Is an essential aspect of any modern building, from homes to commercial
buildings
Is responsible for the delivery of clean water and removal of waste water

76. BASIC COMPONENTS OF A PLUMBING
SYSTEM

77. 1. PIPES AND FITTING
Responsible for the delivery of clean water and the removal of wastewater
Come in different materials such as pvc, copper, and galvanized steels depends
on the specific needs of plumbing system

78. TYPES OF PIPES

79. A. PVC PIPE (POLY VINYL CHLORIDE)
PVC, or polyvinyl chloride, plastic is
a common type of pipe in residential
and commercial buildings. PVC pipes
are versatile and can be used
indoors, outdoors, and
underground.
Pros of PVC pipe
• Strong and durable.
• Inexpensive and cheaper than
copper.
• Non-toxic.
• Cons of PVC pipe
Requires two steps to make a
connection, primer, and cement.
Can only handle fluids up to 140
degrees Fahrenheit.

80. B. PE PIPE (POLYETHYLENE)
pipes offer durable and flexible solutions for a wide
range of applications.
Polyethylene piping is resistant to corrosion in all
ground conditions and its flexibility allows it to
withstand ground movements.

81. C. CI PIPE (CAST IRON)
• Cast-iron pipe is not frequently used today in residential plumbing,
though some older homes may have cast-iron piping. Cast-iron pipe is
typically used for commercial or civic piping and water distribution, as
well as sewer and drain lines.
Pros of cast-iron pipe
• Heat-resistant.
• Reduces the sound of fluids.
• Strong and durable.
Cons of cast-iron pipe
• Subject to rust and mineral buildup.
• Heavy.

82. D. GI PIPE (GALVANIZED IRON)
Galvanized steel piping was originally introduced as an alternative to lead
pipe. It was generally used for drain, waste, and vent piping before the
1980s. Now, galvanized steel is common in gas piping. Galvanized pipe
has threaded connections that make it easy to connect.
Pros of galvanized steel pipe
• Strong and durable.
• Cheaper than copper.
Cons of galvanized steel pipe
• Can rust and contaminate fluids with lead.
• Mineral buildup can cause clogging.

83. E. PEX PIPE
PEX, or cross-linked polyethylene, plastic piping comes in three types: A, B, and C. A
is the most flexible, B is slightly less flexible, and C is the stiffest, suitable for quick
repairs. Not all varieties of PEX pipe are available in all areas. Pex Pipe is used for
water supply lines and generally comes in two colors: red for hot and blue for cold.
Pros of PEX piping
• Extremely flexible, so fewer connections and therefore fewer possibilities for leaks.
• Corrosion-resistant if used properly.
• Cheaper than copper.
Cons of PEX piping
• Requires special tools for making connections.
• Cannot be used outdoors.

84. F. ABS PIPE
• ABS, or acrylonitrile butadiene styrene, is a black plastic pipe mainly used
for drain, waste, and vent piping. ABS pipe can be used both indoors and
outdoors, is lightweight, and is joined by using a one-step cement.
Pros of ABS pipe
• Strong and durable.
• Can withstand cold temperatures.
• Inexpensive.
• Easy to connect.
Cons of ABS pipe
• Contains BPA, which may cause cancer.

85. G. COPPER PIPE
• Copper pipe is the most widely used hard pipe for water supply in residential
and commercial applications. There are rigid copper pipes and flexible varieties
as well. It comes in three wall thicknesses: M, L, and K. Connections are made
by soldering flux onto the joint where the pipe and fitting or connection meet.
• Pros of copper pipes
• Durable with a long life span (50+ years).
• Corrosion-resistant.
• Can tolerate hot and cold water.
• Cons of copper pipes
• Expensive.
• Hard to use in tight spaces.
• Must be welded together.

86. H. CPVC
• CPVC, or chlorinated polyvinyl chloride, plastic is similar to PVC pipe and has
similar uses. The added chlorine makes the plastic harder and more durable than
PVC. CPVC can withstand hot fluids up to 200 degrees Fahrenheit but is more
expensive than PVC.
Pros of CPVC pipe
• Can handle hot fluids up to 200 degrees Fahrenheit.
• Cheaper than copper.
• Strong and durable.
Cons of CPVC pipe
• More expensive than PVC.
• Requires a two-step connection process, consisting of primer and cement.

87. I. HDPE
• high-density polybutylene, or HDPE, piping is only used underground and
may be required for certain types of piping per code. HDPE is flexible piping
that works well in cold weather, but cannot be placed in direct sunlight.
Pros of high-density polybutylene
• Durable.
• Corrosion-resistant.
• Flexible so requires fewer connections.
• Good in cold weather.
• Non-toxic.
Cons of high-density polybutylene
• Can crack in high temperatures.
• Melts in direct sunlight.

88. J. BLACK IRON
• Black iron was used as a water supply piping but is now mainly
used for gas or propane lines and fire sprinklers. Black iron pipe
is strong, durable, and withstands high temperatures well.
Pros of black iron pipe
• Heat-resistant.
• Durable.
Cons of black iron pipe
• Heavy.
• Difficult to install.

89. 2. PLUMBING FIXTURES
Connect to the pipes and give you access to the water supply
Draw fresh water and discharge wastewater down to drainage
Examples: hot water heater, toilets, faucets

90. A. BATHTUBS
used for soaking and relaxing in water. They are typically found in
bathrooms, and come in a range of sizes and styles to suit different
needs and preferences.
Bathtub designs can include clawfoot tubs, which have a separate
freestanding tub and feet; freestanding tubs, which are not attached to
any walls; and built-in tubs, which are installed in a designated alcove
or space. Bathtubs also come in various materials, including acrylic,
porcelain, and cast iron, and can have features such as built-in jets for a
massaging effect and adjustable water flow and temperature.

91. B. BIDETS
They are typically found in bathrooms next to the toilet, and consist of a basin
with a built-in nozzle for directing a stream of water. Bidets can be used for
cleaning the genitals and anus after using the toilet, and offer an alternative
to toilet paper.
Bidet designs can include standalone units with a separate basin and seat, or
attachments that can be installed on an existing toilet. Some bidets also have
additional features such as adjustable water flow and temperature, air dryers,
and deodorizers.

92. C. WATER FILTERS
used for purifying drinking water. They consist of a cartridge or filter that
removes impurities, and are typically found under kitchen sinks. Water filters
provide clean and safe drinking water, and can be pitcher filters, faucet-
mounted filters, or under-sink filters.
They can also play a role in improving water quality and can be found in a
range of styles and sizes. Water filters are a convenient and effective plumbing
fixture that serve an important function in providing clean drinking water in
the home.

93. D. LAUNDRY TUBS
used for washing clothes. They are typically found in utility rooms or laundry
rooms, and consist of a basin with a faucet for filling and draining water.
Laundry tub designs can include freestanding tubs, which have a separate
basin and legs; built-in tubs, which are installed in a designated alcove or
space; and double tubs, which have two basins for washing and rinsing
clothes. Laundry tubs also come in various materials, including stainless steel,
porcelain, and acrylic, and can have features such as built-in drainboards for
drying clothes and built-in storage for laundry supplies.

94. E. SHOWERS
• They consist of a showerhead, attached to a plumbing system, which provides a
flow of water for washing. Showers come in various styles, including stand-alone
units with a separate showerhead and enclosure, rainfall showers with a ceiling-
mounted showerhead, and steam showers with added features for a spa-like
experience.
• In addition to their practical use, showers can also play a role in interior design
and can be found in a range of styles and designs to match the aesthetic of a
home or building. Modern showers also offer a variety of features, such as
adjustable water flow and temperature, massage settings, and built-in shelves
and benches.

95. F. SINK
 used for washing hands, brushing teeth, and cleaning dishes. They are
typically found in kitchens and bathrooms, and come in a range of styles
and sizes to suit different needs and preferences.
Sink designs can include pedestal sinks, which have a separate pedestal
base and basin; wall-mounted sinks, which are mounted to the wall; and
undermount sinks, which are installed under the countertop.

96. G. TAP
connections for water hoses
an industry term for that sub-category of plumbing
fixtures consisting of tap valves, also called water taps
(British English) or faucets (American English), and their
accessories, such as water spouts and shower heads.

97. H. FAUCETS
They are typically found in kitchens and bathrooms, and come
in a range of styles and designs to suit different needs and
preferences. Faucet designs can include single handle faucets,
which have one lever for controlling the water flow and
temperature; double handle faucets, which have separate
handles for hot and cold water; and touchless faucets, which
are activated by a motion sensor.

98. I. GARBAGE DISPOSAL
 used for grinding up food waste. They are typically found in
kitchen sinks, and consist of a motorized grinding mechanism
that is activated by a switch or button. Garbage disposals allow
for food waste to be easily and conveniently disposed of,
without the need for a separate trash can for food waste.

99. J. TOILETS
• It consists of a ceramic bowl, connected to a plumbing system, which
allows for the waste to be flushed away and treated. The bowl is typically
located at a comfortable height for sitting, and has a seat and lid for
added comfort and cleanliness.
• Toilets can be divided into two main categories: gravity-fed and pressure-
assisted. Gravity-fed toilets use the force of gravity to flush waste through
the plumbing system, while pressure-assisted toilets use a pressurized air
chamber to force waste through the pipes.

100. K. WATER HEATER
Found in basements or utility rooms, and consist of a tank that stores and
heats water. Water heaters are connected to a plumbing system, and provide
hot water for showers, sinks, and appliances.
Water heater designs can include storage tank heaters, which have a tank that
stores and heats a supply of water; tankless heaters, which heat water on
demand without the need for a tank; and solar heaters, which use energy from
the sun to heat water.

101. 3. THE DRAINAGE SYSTEM
Key part of plumbing system that might cause a costly emergency
For removal lines and the sewage system
Its an interconnection of pipes from different part of the house of the building
that leads all water and waste materials to main sewer line

102. TYPES OF FITTING MATERIALS IN
PLUMBING SYSTEM
Used in plumbing system to join pipes of same size or different sizes to
regulate the flow or to measure the flow.
 pipe fitting is used in plumbing system to join multiple pipes of same
size or different sizes, to regulate the flow or to measure the flow. They
are made up of different materials like copper, iron, brass, PVC etc.

103. 1. ELBOW PIPE FITTING
Used to change the direction of flow between two pipes
Available with an angle of 22.5 °, 45 °, and 90 °

104. 2. REDUCER PIPE
FITTING
Reduces the flow size from larger to smaller by reducing size of pipe.
2 types:
1. concentric- cone shape with gradual decreasing around the pipe
2. eccentric- having one edge parallel to connecting pipes due to which air
accumulation is not possible

105. 3. TEE TYPE
T-shape
Having one inlet and two outlets, outlets are arranged at 90° to the main line
connection.

106. 4. CROSS TYPE
Contains 4 openings in 4 directions
Generates more amount of stress on pipes as the temperature changes
Generally used for fire sprinkler system

107. 5. COUPLING
Used to connect the pies of the same diameter
Two types:
1. compression- connected between two pipes and it prevent leakage by
the arrangement of gasket or rubber seals on both sides
2. slip- easier to install and it contains two pipes which are arranged as one
into other

108. 6. UNIONS
Same function to coupling but this can be removed whenever needed.

109. 7. ADAPTORS
Generally used for copper and pvc
One end of adapter is plain which is glued to the plain pipe end

110. 9. OLET
Used when there is standard sizes of fitting are not suitable for the requirement
Sometimes the inlet pipe size is larger compared to outlet pipes in t-sections
then also Olets are used

111. 10. PLUG
Generally used to close pipe opening during inspection and repairs.

112. 11. CAP
Same function with the plug but cap contains a female thread

113. 12. VALVES
Used to stop or regulate flow of fluid
Types:
1. gate valve-used for isolation only
2, globe valve- used for throttling
3. check valve- used for preventing reverse flow
4. butterfly- used for isolation as well as throttling
5. diaphragm- used for isolation as well as throttling

114. THANK YOU !!!!!!
Group names:
Padua, don
Sicang, elsie marie
Lang-ay, Emily
Badeng, mark renuel
Cabay. Monroe
Doyog, leon

115. SOLID WASTE
MANAGEMENT
Shakira Baguiwen
Kener Cadsi
Oliver Fiayongan
Mae Lanie Langcato
Jhunlee Pascua
Crystal Siline

116. WASTE
• Waste is an unavoidable by-product of most human activity. Discarded as worthless,
defective or of no use. Any unnecessary resource use or release of substances into
the water, land or air that could harm human or the environment.

117. THREE TYPES OF WASTE
MANAGEMENT
• Solid Waste Management
• Liquid Waste Management
• Gaseous Waste Management

118. Solid waste management is a term used to refer to the process of collecting and
treating solid wastes. It also offers solutions for recycling items that do not belong to
garbage or trash. Waste management is about how solid waste can be changed and
used as a valuable resource.
Solid waste management, the collecting, treating, and disposing of solid material that is
discarded because it has served its purpose or is no longer useful.
The newest concept of waste management talks about 7R’s
1. Rethink
2. Refuse
3. Reduce
4. Reuse
5. Recycle
6. Regulate and
7. Research
Solid Waste Management

119. Source Typical waste generators Types of solid wastes
Residential
Single and multifamily dwellings Food wastes, paper, cardboard, plastics,
textiles, leather, yard wastes, wood, glass,
metals, ashes, special wastes (e.g. bulky items,
consumer electronics, white goods, batteries,
oil, tires), and household hazardous wastes
Industrial
Light and heavy manufacturing,
fabrication, construction sites, power
and chemical plants
Housekeeping wastes, packaging, food
wastes, construction and demolition
materials, hazardous wastes, ashes, special
wastes
Commercial
Stores, hotels, restaurants, markets,
office buildings, etc
Paper, cardboard, plastics, wood, food wastes,
glass, metals, special wastes, hazardous
wastes
Institutional
Schools, hospitals, prisons,
government centres
Same as commercial
Construction and
demolition
New construction sites, road repair,
renovation sites, demolition of
buildings
Wood, steel, concrete, dirt, etc.

120. Source Typical waste generators Types of solid wastes
Municipal services
Street cleaning, landscaping, parks,
beaches, other recreational areas,
water and wastewater treatment
plants
Street sweepings, landscape and tree
trimmings, general wastes from parks,
beaches, and other recreational area, sludge
Process
Heavy and light manufacturing,
refineries, chemical plants, power
plants, mineral extraction and
processing
Industrial process wastes, scrap materials, off
specification products, slag, tailings
All of the above should be included as “municipal solid waste.”
Agriculture
Crops, orchards, vineyards, dairies,
feedlots, farms
Spoiled food wastes, agricultural wastes,
hazardous wastes (e.g. pesticides)

121. MAJOR T7PES OF SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT
1. Municipal Solid Waste(MSW)
-is generated from households, offices,
hotels, shops, schools and other institutions. The
major components are food waste, paper, plastic,
rags, metal and glass, although demolition and
construction debris is often included in collected
waste, as are small quantities of hazardous
waste, such as electric light bulbs, batteries,
automotive parts and discarded medicines and
chemicals.

122. 2. Industrial Solid Waste
-is typically produced during the
manufacturing products, agricultural
production or during the extraction of
natural resources. That is basically any
process that turns raw materials into
products that are sold or distributed. This
can include scrap metal, excess plastic,
wood chips, fly ash from power plants,
construction debris.

123. 3.Agricultural Waste and Residues
- are all parts of crops that are not
used for human or animal food. Crop
residues consist mainly of stem,
branchs, and leaves. It is estimated that
on average, 80% of the plant of such
crops consists of agricultural waste.
Agricultural waste include rice straw,
wheat straw, rice husk, and corn stover.

124. 4. Hazardous Waste
-is waste that has substantial
or potential threats to public
health or the environment. Types
of waste that are commonly
hazardous include cleaning
solvents, spent acids and bases,
metal fishing waste, painting
waste, sludges from air and water
pollution control units, and many
other discarded materials.

125. WASTE PROCESSING AND CONTROL
1. Municipal Solid Waste
(a) Collection and Transfer In many cities of the region, municipal solid waste (MSW) is
gathered in a variety of containers ranging from old kerosene cans and rattan baskets to
used grocery bags and plastic drums or bins. In some cities, neighbourhood-dumping areas
have been designated (formally or informally) on roadsides from which bagged and loose
waste is collected.
Classification of Collection System
classified based on
• availability of collection services,
• The mode of operation and
• The types of waste materials collected
Primary Collection
-collection of solid waste from the source of generation and transportation of waste to
the final site, but more often it involves transportation to communal collection bins or
points, processing or transfer station
Secondary Collection
-collection of waste from communal bins, storage points or transfer station, and
transportation to the final disposal site.

126. Basic Collection Scheme
• Based on the availability of service
1. Communal system
• The principal disadvantage of this system is that containers/collection points are located in
a public place (lacking ownership by the public) which, in many situations, leads to
indiscriminate disposal of waste outside the container.
• Thus, the actual economy of this system mostly depends on public co-operation
• It is therefore essential to pay more attention to improving the design, and operation and
maintenance practices of a communal system to increase public acceptance, and to optimize
optimize the productivity of this system
• The use of portable storage containers maximises the productivity of labour and vehicles
of such collection system
2. Block Collection
• Waste generators are responsible for bringing their waste to collection vehicles
• This system has low to medium labour and vehicle productivity, but it minimises the
spread of waste on streets

127. 3. Kerbside/alley
This is the most common collection method in industrialised countries and
in the wealthier communities of some developing countries.
• Waste generators place the waste containers or bags (sacks) on the kerb or
in the alley on a specific day (or specific days) for collection by external
actors.
• A regular and well organized collection service is essential so that
generators know exactly when to leave out their waste.
4. Door to door collection
This is more common in industrialized countries, but an increasing number
of micro-enterprises and/or community-based organizations are forming in
wealthier communities in many developing countries to perform this task.
• This system has yet to receive public attention, but as with the use of bags
for waste it maximizes the productivity of crew, as retrieval of containers is
not required.

128. Collection method
• Based on mode of operation
1) Hauled Container System
An empty storage container (known as a drop-off box) is hauled to the
storage site to replace the container that is full of waste, which is then
hauled to the processing point, transfer station or disposal site
2) Stationary Container System
In this system, containers used for the storage of waste remain at the
point of collection. The collection vehicles generally stop alongside the
storage containers, and collection crews load the waste from the storage
containers into the collection vehicles and then transport the waste to the
processing, transfer or disposal site

129. Frequency of Waste collection
• quantity of waste
• rate of generation
• characteristics of waste
• climate
• density and type of housing
• availability of space within the premises
• size and type of storage facilities (small, large,
individual or communal)
• attitude of generator

130. (b)Material Recovery, Reuse and Recycling
-recycling or recovering resources takes useful but discarded items
for the next use. Plastic bags, tins, glass, and containers are often recycled
automatically since, in many situations, they are likely to be scarce
commodities. Traditionally, these items are processed and cleaned before
they are recycled. The process aims at reducing energy loss, consumption
of new material, and reduction of landfills. Most developed countries
follow a strong tradition of recycling to lower volumes of waste.

131. c) Disposal Methods for MSW
(i) Open Dumping
Open dumping is the most
widespread method of solid waste
disposal in the region and typically
involves the uncontrolled disposal of
waste without measures to control
leachate, dust, odour, landfill gas or
vermin. In some cities, open burning of
waste is practised at dumpsites. The
scarcity of available land has led to the
dumping of waste to very high levels;
waste thickness is often over 12 metres
and may be over 20 metres, which was
the case of the Quezon City dumpsite
in the Philippines

132. (ii) Sanitary Landfill
this is the most popular solid waste disposal method used today. In this
solid waste management method, garbage is spread out in thin layers,
compacted, and covered with soil or plastic foam to contain the smell.
Modern landfills typically have the bottom of the landfill covered with an
impervious liner, usually made of several layers of thick plastic and sand. This
liner protects the groundwater from beng contaminated because of leaching
or percolation. When the landfill is full, it is covered with layers of sand, clay,
topsoil, and gravel to prevent water seepage.

133. (iii) Composting
composting is a biological process in which
microorganisms, sprecially fungi, and bacteria,
convert degradable organic waste into
substances like humus.
The finished product of compost, which
resembles soil, contains high levels of carbon
and nitrogen. This environmentally friendly and
nutriet-rich compost serves as excellent
manure, providing an ideal medium for plant
growth. It can be utilized for various
agricultural purposes, promoting sustainable
and ecofriendly farming practices.

134. (iv) Incineration
this method involves burning solid waste at
high temperatures until it becomes ashes.
Incinerators are sealed to ensure that they do not
give off extreme amounts of heat to the
environment when burning solid wastes. This
method of solid waste management can be done
by individuals, municipalities, and even institutions.
The good thing about it is that it reduces the
volume of waste by 80% to 90%.
2. Industrial Waste
The methods employed in the disposal of industrial solid waste are broadly
the same as those used to dispose of MSW and comprise open dumping, land
filling (both semi-engineered and sanitary landfilling) and incineration.

135. 3. Agricultural Waste and Residue
(a) Composting- is an effective solution for managing plant residues, trimmings,
manure, and other agricultural products which decompose into nutrient-rich compost. The
best part is that it can be practiced in small-scale and large-scale settings- from home
gardens to small farms to large agriculture organization.
(b) Biogas Generation- biogas production has emerged as a highly effective waste
management method, especially useful in developing country. These digesters convert
waste into biogas, renewable energy source that can be used for cooking, heating, and
electricity generation.
(c) Mulching- agricultural solid waste used as mulch helps conserve soil moisture,
suppress weed growth, and enhance nutrient retention. Mulching protects the soil erosion
and temperature fluctuations, improving crop health and productivity.
(d) Recycling Packaging materials – proper recycling involves collecting, sorting, and
processing plastic materials to transform them into a new products or raw materials for
manufacturing.

136. 4. Biomedical Waste
(a) Autoclaving- the process of autoclaving involves steam
sterilization. Instead of incineration, which can expensive,
autoclaving simply introduces very hot stream for a determined
amount of time. At the end of the process, microorganisms have
been completely destroyed. This process is particularly effective
because it costs much less than other methods, and doesn’t
present any personal health risk.
(b) Incineration- the major benefits of incineration are that it is quick, easy and simple. It
effectively removes the waste entirely, and safely removes any microorganisms. However,
when burning hazardous materials, emissions can be particularly dangerous. Some states
prefer for waste disposal companies to look towards incineration as their first choice, but
materials must be reviewed and determined as safe to burn.
(c) Microwaving- during this process, waste is shredded, mixed with water and then
internally heated to kill microorganisms and other harmful elements. One of the main
benefits of thus process is the shredding aspect; it lower the volume of biomedical waste,
and it is reportedly more energy efficient to use this method than to incinerate. While it
can’t be used for all biomedical waste, it can be utilized for a good 90% of it, just like
autoclaving.

137. 5. Radioactive Waste
(a) Incineration- the combustible elements of both radioactive and other
wastes can be incinerated to reduce volume. The waste is incinerated in a
specially engineered kiln at temperatures up to around 1000 degree Celsius.
The gases and fumes produced during incineration are treated and filtered
prior to emission into the atmosphere, and emissions must conform to
international standards and national regulations.
(b) Compaction- is a straightforward means of
reducing waste volumes and is used for
processing mainly solid industrial waste.
Compaction can range from low-force
compaction systems( 5 tonnes) through to
presses with a compaction force over 1000
tonnes, referred to as supercompactors.
Volume reduction factors are typically between
3 and 10, depending on the waste material
being treated.

138. (c) Cementation- Cementation through
the use of specially formulated grouts
provides a means to immobilize
radioactive material that is in various
forms of sludges and precipitates/gels or
activated materials, as well as fragmented
solids. In general the solid waste is placed
into containers. The grout is then added
into the container and allowed to set.
Sludges and flocks are placed in a
container and grouting mix, in powder
form, is added. The two are mixed and left
to set. In each case the container with the
now monolithic block of concreted waste
is then suitable for storage of concreted
waste is then suitable for storage and
disposal.

139. (d) Vitrification- The immobilization of
higher level waste requires the formation of
an insoluble, solid waste form that will
remain stable for many thousands of years.
To allow incorporation into the glass matrix
the waste initially calcined(dried) to a
granular powder. The product is then
incorporated into molten glass, poured into
a robust stainless steel canister about 1.3
meters high an allowed to cool, forming a
solid matrix. The containers are then welded
closed and are ready for storage and final
disposal.

140. Liquid Waste Management
- it is the handling of liquid waste activities in a systematic way
way that ensures proper disposal and incineration of waste liquid
waste/ wastewater or sewage disposal.
-Wastewater, oil, grease, sludge, and toxic home or industrial
chemicals all fall under category of liquid waste. Liquid waste
disposal can be treated in a variety of methods, including
dewatering, incineration, root zone and composting. But
whichever technique you pick, must do it correctly.

141. Classification of liquid Disposal
1. Sanitary Sewage
-Human waste and wash water are found in sanitary sewage, which generally comes
from a house or neighborhood. Latrine, washing and bathing, laundry, toilet, and
kitchen sink water are all included. Water makes up 99.9% of its make up, with 0.1%
organic and inorganic contaminants.
2. Storm Sewage
- Surface runof that runs into municipal sewers after severe rainstorm are referred to as
storm sewage. This type of sewage frequently comprises mud, branches, and other rubbish,
which must be screened away by filters at plants where sewage treatment is given.
3. Industrial sewage
- industrial sewage is generated by manufacturing operations. Pharmaceutical production,
paper and textile manufacturing, chemical processing, and oil and gas refining are just a few of
the business that create industrial sewage.
4. Mixed Sewage
- Mixed sewage is a mixture of two or three different sewage types. During its journey to
the plant where sewage treatment will be given, storm mess can mingle with sanitary sewage,
or else a conventional treatment of industrial wastewater form a neighboring facility.

142. 7 methods of Liquid Waste Treatment
1. Dewatering
- it works well to compact
nonhazardous waste and make it more
suitable for disposal. In this process, the
facility generally pumps the liquid waste
into a sturdy bag and removes the water,
leaving only solid waste. A landfill
typically does not accept free liquid, but
solid, nonhazardous waste can go to the
landfill for disposal. The water receives
filtration and treatment as necessary.

143. 2. Sedimentation
- Sedimentation is similar to dewatering.
dewatering. During sedimentation, a facility
leaves its liquid waste in a sedimentation
basin. As long as liquid waste flows quickly,
its velocity is often enough to keep solid
particles in suspension, so the design of a
sedimentation basin reduces that velocity..
The facility can then remove the solids,
leaving the solid sediment waste behind.
Once the water and solid waste have
separated, the water can undergo
treatment. And the solid waste can co to a
landfill.

144. 3. Composting
-alternatively, facilities can turn their liquid nonhazardous waste into
compost. The facility first removes the water from the waste, leaving
behind organic matter that contains nutrients like nitrogen, potassium and
and sodium. Using naturally occurring microorganisms, the facility can
then turn the material into organic fertilizer that will also contain these
beneficial nutrients to help crops and other plants grow.

145. 4. Incineration
-sometimes facilities dispose of their hazardous
waste by incinerating it. The heat from specialized
furnaces can remove acids, chemicals, oils, rock
tailings, slag and other waste matter, leaving only
water behind. There are two types for this techniques:
(a)Fluidized- bed furnace: is an industrial furnace
uses pressure to cause a bed of soil particulate
matter or solid-fluid mixtures to behave like a fluid.
These incinerators contain one heated, bubbling
bed of sand, ash or limestone with oxygen pumped
in to facilitate heat combustion.
(b) Multiple- hearth furnace: uses many stacked
chambers to incinerate large volume of waste at
different stages, all steady, consistent rates.
Because the chambers are stacked, they are
compact and easy to fit into cramped quarters, and
they are also relatively inexpensive to build and
install.

146. 5. Root- Zone Treatment
-is most useful for relatively clean
domestic wastewaters like kitchen
water and bathroom shower and sink
water. This treatment is a complex
method that sends liquid waste
through a sedimentation tank and
then through various additional
filtration processes- including,
ultimately, the roots of growing plants.
The result is water that meets the
necessary standards for release into
the environment.

147. 6. Solidification
-involves adding binding agents to wastewater until the waste forms a
compact, rigid, easily disposable solid. Many solidification process use lime
lime ash, sawdust, cement kiln dust, lime kiln dust, gypsum, phosphate or
fly dust to add bulk and rigidity to liquid waste, or they may used asphalt
or cement for added reinforcement. After solidification, companies can
ship the solid block of waste to approved landfills for disposal or waste-to-
to-energy facilities for incineration and energy generation.
-solidification is one of the cheapest methods of waste disposal, and
easy to perform, but the extra solid materials tends to make for a
tremendous amount of refuse.

148. 7. Disposal
-the remaining alternative is to dispose of the liquid waste as it is, often
with the assistance of a professional waste management company. In this
case, the facility collects its liquid waste in the appropriate drums. Then the
waste management company pucks them up, transports them and disposes
them according to applicable state and federal guidelines. This option is
particularly appealing for companies that wish to remain compliant with
regulations without investing significant time and energy into keeping up
with them.

149. Gaseous Waste Management
- refers to any waste materials that is in the form of gas, which is released
into the atmosphere as a result of human activities. Gaseous waste can come
from a variety of sources, including industrial processes, transportation, and
agricultural practices. It can have a number of negative impacts on the
environment and human health.
Examples of gaseous waste:
(a)Carbon dioxide(CO2)
(b)Nitrogen Oxides (NOx)
(c)Sulfur Oxide (SOx)
(d)Volatile organic compaounds (VOCs)
(e)Methane (CH4)
These gaseous are emitted as byproducts of activities such as burning fossils
fuels, industrial manufacturing , and waste disposal.

150. Methods of Gaseous Treatments
1. Settling Chambers- this
method used to collect dust
particles of sizes greater that
loom in a place called settling
chamber. The size , shape of the
the particles along with density
and viscosity of the gas decides
the design of settling
chambers.

151. 2. Filters
- filters built by fabrics are the
simplest method to separate particles
from gas. About 99% of matters are
filtered out when their size are of the
order of 0.0l micrometer. In this
method the waste gas is allowed to
pass through a filter bag and the
particles are collected on the inside
are repeatedly removed.

152. 3. Electrostatic Method
- in this method, electrostatic
forces are used to move the
particles to the collection surface.
This is done by passing the waste
gas between high voltage
discharge electrodes. The
majority of the panicles in the
gas becomes charged and
collected on electrodes. This
method is the most efficient to
remove all sizes of particles
present in the gas waste.

153. 4. Absorption
- this method is used for mainly gaseous pollutants like carbon dioxide
etc. in this method a mass of waste gases is transferred into the liquid. The
most important in this method is the selection of suitable liquid.
5. Adsorption
- this is different from absorption. In adsorption, gases, vapours, or liquids
gather o a solid surface due to surface chemical force. The amount adsorbed
substances depends directly on the internal surface area of sloid. The most
important adsorbent used in industries are bauxile, silica gel, aluminum, etc.

154. The End !!!

155. ALTERNATIVE WASTE SYSTEM
GROUP 5
Assayco, Coehn Bumay-et, Richard Jr.
Coway, Remigie Gomesa, Marneil
Pachingel, Cloissa

156. WASTEWATER
-Wastewater contains the waste products, excrement, or other
discharge from the bodies of human beings or animals, and other noxious or
poisonous substances that are harmful to the public health, or to animal or
aquatic life, or to the use of water for domestic water supply or for recreation.
- It is a combination of the liquid and water-
carried wastes from residences, commercial
buildings, Industrial plants, and institutions,
together with any groundwater, surface water and
Storm water that has infiltrated the public sewage
System.

157. Domestic
Wastewater
WASTEWATER
Commercial
Wastewater
Industrial
Wastewater
Gray Water
Black Water

158. DOMESTIC WASTEWATER
-Wastewater from residences, apartments, motels, office buildings, and other
similar type of building. There are two types of domestic water: gray water
and black water.
Gray water is wastewater that typically
contains the residues of washing
processes. It is generated in the
bathtub, shower, sink, lavatory, and
clothes washing machine.
Black water is wastewater that
contains fecal matter and urine. It is
produced in water closets (toilets),
urinals, and bidets.

159. COMMERCIAL WASTEWATER
Commercial wastewater is nontoxic, nonhazardous wastewater from
commercial and institutional food service operations and beauty salons. It
is usually similar in composition to domestic wastewater, but may
occasionally have one or more of its constituents exceed typical domestic
ranges.

160. INDUSTRIAL WASTEWATER
Industrial wastewater is process and nonprocess wastewater from
manufacturing, commercial, laboratory, and mining operations, including
the runoff from areas that receive pollutants associated with industrial or
commercial storage, handling, or processing.

161. WASTEWATER CONSTITUENTS
Wastewater is mostly water by weight.
Wastewater released by residents, business, and industries is approximately
99.94% water. Only about 0.06% of the wastewater is dissolved and suspended
solid.
The wastewater constituents of most concerns are those that have the potential
to cause disease or detrimental environmental effects. These include the
following:
•Organisms •Inorganics
• Pathogens • Nutients
• Organic Matter • Solids
• Oil and Grease • Gases

162. ON-SITE SEWAGE TREATMENT(OSST)
On-site sewage treatment (OSST) systems, traditionally called septic
systems, usually consist of the building sewer, which leads from the
building into a septic tank and then into a distribution box that feeds the
fluid (effluent) into a drainage field or disposal field.
OSST systems treat wastewater from
rural and suburban homes, mobile
home developments, apartments,
schools, retail facilities, and
businesses that do not have access
to a community wastewater
treatment and disposal system.

163. An OSST system consists of a primary treatment component, such as a
septic tank, and a disposal component, which is typically the drainage
field.
Household and human wastes flow
in a pipe from the building’s
sanitary drainage system to the
septic tank.
Inside the septic tank, anaerobic
and aerobic bacteria convert the
waste into minerals, gas and liquid
waste called the effluent
Clarified effluent leaves the septic
tank and flows in a pipe to a
drainage field.

164. PRIMARY TREATMENT
EQUIPMENT
Wastewater from a building is first treated in primary treatment equipment
such as tanks or filters. In the primary treatment process, anaerobic
digestion and settlement of solids in wastewater takes place.

165. SEPTIC TANK
The septic tank is a watertight, covered container designed to settle out and
hold solid wastes and partially treat wastewater with beneficial bacteria.
It allows heavier solids to settle
to the bottom of the tank and
lighter particles such as grease
and soap float to the top of the
tank.
The lighter particles form a
layer known as the scum
The remaining solids
accumulate as sludge in the
bottom of the tank

166. AEROBIC TANK
Aerobic tanks are a substitute for a septic tank. They consist of a trash
tank, an aeration chamber, and a settling chamber.
Premanufactured aerobic tanks
use wastewater treatment
processes similar to municipal
wastewater treatment
processes. The clarified effluent
is then usually discharged into
a drainage field.

167. PUMP TANK
A pump tank is a watertight container used to temporarily store clarified
effluent before it flows into a drainage field.
Wastewater is first treated in an aerobic
or septic tank. The effluent then flows by
gravity into the pump tank.
When the level of stored effluent reaches
a preset elevation, a float switch turns
on the pump. The pump discharges the
effluent to the drainage field several
times a day.
Pump tank materials are typically
concrete; plastic (fiberglass and
polyethylene) tanks are also used.

168. SAND FILTERS
A sand filter is a lined, impermeable container containing a bed of
granular material that provides additional treatment of effluent as it flows
from the primary treatment tank to the drainage field. They are usually
placed underground with the top surface covered with grass. At sites that
have near-surface bedrock or a high water table, sand filters are usually
constructed with aboveground concrete walls.

169. TRASH/GREASE TANK
A trash tank is occasionally used in conjunction with an aerobic tank. The
trash tank removes materials that treatment microorganisms are unable to
degrade.
Grease tanks are used with septic and aerobic tanks, usually in
commercial applications.

170. CESSPOOL
A cesspool is a covered underground container that receives untreated
sewage directly from a building and discharges it into soil. Openings in
the cesspool walls allow untreated sewage to pass through and seep into
the surrounding soil.
Because of health concerns tied to the
discharge of raw sewage, use of a
cesspool is considered unacceptable
today in most applications in developed
countries.

171. TYPES OF ON-SITE SEWAGE TREATMENT
1) Septic Tank Systems
This is the most common type of
on-site sewage system. It
consists of a septic tank, which
is a large underground container
where wastewater from the
building is stored and partially
treated. Heavy solids settle to
the bottom of the tank while
greases and lighter solids float to
the top. The solids stay in the
tank while the wastewater is
discharged to the drainfield for
further treatment and dispersal.

172. 2) Aerobic Treatment Unit(ATU)
Aerobic Treatment Unit use many
of the same processes as a
municipal sewage plant, but on a
smaller scale. An aerobic system
injects oxygen into the treatment
tank. The additional oxygen
increases natural bacteria
activity within the system that
then provides additional
treatment for nutrients in the
effluent. Some aerobic systems
may also have a pretreatment
tank and a final treatment tank
including disinfection to further
reduce pathogen levels.

173. 3) Mound System
Mound systems are an option in areas
of shallow soil depth, high
groundwater, or shallow bedrock. The
constructed sand mounds contains a
drainfield trench. Effluent from the
septic tank flows to a pump chamber
where it is pumped to the mound in
prescribed doses. Treatment of the
effluent occurs as it discharges to the
trench and filters trough the sand, and
then disperses into the native soil.

174. 4) Drip Disribution System
The drip distribution system is a type
of effluent dispersal that can be used
in many types of drainfields. The main
advantage of this system is that no
large mound of soil is needed as the
drip laterals are inserted into the top 6
to 12 inches of soil. The disadvantage
of the drip distribution system is that
it requires a large dose tank after the
septic tank to accommodate the timed
dose delivery of wastewater to the drip
absorption area.

175. 5) Conventional System
A decentralized wastewater treatment
system consisting of a septic tank and a
trench or bed surface wastewater
infiltration system(drainfield). A
conventional septic system is typically
installed at a single-family home or
small business.
The gravel/stone drainfield is a design
that has existed for decades. The effluent
is piped from the septic tank to a
shallow underground trench of stone or
gravel. A geofabric or similar material is
then placed on top of the trench so sand,
dirt, and other contaminants do not
enter the clean stone.

176. 6) Chamber System
This type of system consist of a series
of connected chambers. The area
around and above the chambers is
filled with soil. Pipes carry wastewater
form the septic tank to the chambers.
Inside the chambers, the wastewater
comes into contact with the soil.
Microbes on or near the soil treat the
effluent.

177. 7) Recirculating Sand Filter System
Sand filter systems can be constructed
above or below ground. Effluent flows
from the septic tank to a pump
chamber. It is then pumped to the sand
filter. The sand filter is often PVC-lined
or a concrete box filled with a sand
material. Effluent is pumped under low
pressure through the pipes at the top
of the filter. The effluent leaves the
pipes and is treated as it filters though
the sand. The treated wastewater is
then discharged to the drainfield.

178. 8) Evapotranspiration System
Evapotranspiration systems have
unique drainfields. The base of the
evapotranspiration system drainfield
is lined with a watertight material.
After the effluent enters the
drainfield, it evaporates into the air.
Unlike other septic systems designs,
the effluent never filters to the soil
and never reaches groundwater.

179. 9) Constructed Wetland System
A constructed wetland mimics the
treatment processes that occur in
natural wetlands. Wastewater flows
from the septic tank and enters the
wetland cell. The wastewater then
passes through the media and is
treated by microbes, plants, and
other media that remove pathogens
and nutrients. The wetland cell
typically consists of an
impermeable liner, and gravel and
sand fill, along the with the
appropriate wetland plants, which
must be able to survive in a
perpetually saturated environment.

180. 10) Cluster/ Community System
A cluster decentralized wastewater
treatment system is under some
form of common ownership and
collects wastewater from two or
more dwellings or buildings. It
conveys the wastewater to a
treatment and dispersal system
located on a suitable site near the
dwelling or buildings. It is common
to find cluster systems in places like
rural subdivisions.

181. SEPTIC TANK
Septic tank is a receptacle or vault used to collect organic waste
discharged from the house sewer. The main function of a septic tank is to
liquefy and precipitate solid waste purifying odorous materials.
Septic tanks are constructed of concrete, metal, fiberglass, or plastic
(fiberglass and polyethylene) and are commonly placed underground with
the top surface covered with grass. An access cover built into the top of
the tank allows periodic inspection and removal of sludge and scum that
collects in the tank.

182. CONSTRUCTION OF SEPTIC TANK
Septic Tank is constructed from either of the following materials:
1. Reinforced concrete
2. Plastered concrete hollow blocks
3. Prefabricated asbestos
4. Thin metal and plastic
The most popular and widely used material for construction of septic tank
is plastered hollow blocks or reinforced concrete. Others have not gained
acceptance due to cost and durability.

183. GENERAL CONDITIONS IN CONSTRUCTING A
SEPTIC TANK
1. The concrete or masonry septic tank is usually constructed in rectangular
form. The reason is to retard the even flow of the waste, which is necessary,
to avoid disturbing the decomposition processes inside the tank.
2. The minimum inside dimension of a septic tank is 90 cm wide by 150 cm
long.
3. For effective decomposition of the organic materials inside the septic tank, a
120 cm depth of the liquid content is necessary. It is not impractical though,
to construct a tank of greater depth, provided that the depth should not be
deeper than the natural ground water table.
4. The inlet and outlet inverts of the septic tank shall be long turn sanitary tee.
The inverts are installed in the wall of the tank at least 120 cm from its
bottom floor equally spaced from both sides.
5. The invert is extended down the liquid of the tank not more than 30 cm. this
is to assure smooth delivery of the incoming sewage below the scum line.
Scum refers to the lighter organic materials that rises to the surface of the
water.

184. 6. The bottom of the digestion chamber should be sloped to one low point. The
purpose is to gather the settles organic materials into one mass to favor the
propagation of the anaerobic bacteria.
7. The septic tank, should be provided with a manhole, extended a few centimeters
above the surface of the soil to overcome infiltration of surface water. This
manhole will serve the purpose of cleaning, inspection and repair of the tank.
8. Septic tank for large plumbing installations are provided with suspended
compartment attached to the ceiling slab of the tank. The baffle plate is extended
down the bottom of the tank about 40 centimeters below the scum line. Each
compartment of the tank separated by baffle plate is provided with manhole.
9. The Septic Tank, should be constructed near the surface of the ground, because
the correction of the waste depends upon the extent of oxidation and the existence of
anaerobic bacteria. Another kind of bacteria that split and digest the effluent is the
aerobic bacteria. A kind of bacteria that survive only in the subsoil not more than
150 centimeters below the surface. Oxidation of the effluent deeper than 150 cm
would become extremely difficult.

185. • SIZE OF SEPTIC TANK
So far, there is no mathematic formula ever formulated to arrive in determining a
definite size of a septic tank. However, sanitary authorities agreed in principles
that:
1. For a family of 6 persons, the minimum tank capacity should be approximately
1.3 cubic meters with a minimum size of 90 centimeters wide by 150 centimeters
long and 120 centimeters depth.
2. A very large tank is not advisable, because the bacterial activities would be
retarded. The size of the tank is proportionally based on the number of persons
expected to be served. In other words, the volume of the tank has a rational
proportion with the volume of incoming waste for bacterial activities to be in
favorable condition.
3. For residential installation, the practice is to allow 5 to 6 cubic feet of tank
volume per person. Thus, a septic tank that will serve a family of 12 persons
must have a liquid capacity of 6 x 12 = 72 cubic feet or 538 gallons. (one cubic
foot is 748 gallons)

186. LOCATION OF SEPTIC TANK
Location of the septic tank shall observe the following considerations:
1. The septic tank may be located closer to the building it will serve, providing a
minimum distance of 2 meters from the outside wall.
2. As much as possible, the septic tank should not be located closer to the doors
or windows.
3. Septic tank should be at least 15 meters away from any source of water supply.
The farther the better.

187. REQUIREMENTS FOR A SATISFACTORY DISPOSAL OF HUMAN WASTE
1. There should be no contamination of ground surface that may enter into the
spring or wells.
2. There should be no contamination of surface water.
3. The surface soil should not be contaminated.
4. Excreta should not be accessible to animals, flies, cockroaches, vermin and
the like.
5. There should be no odor and unsightly conditions.

188. SAFETY PRECAUTIONS
In most cases septic tanks are poorly aerated or ventilated. It lacks free oxygen.
Under this condition, an individual entering into septic tank for making repairs or
cleaning purposes, may meet almost instant death.
Septic tank may contain harmful and dangerous gases
When repair work or cleaning is to be made, be sure that the septic tank is well
ventilated, by removing the manhole cover few days in advance of the work.
Another precaution is to supply fresh air inside the tank, while work is being done.
Remember that the tank may contain inflammable gases that might be ignited to
cause a terrific explosion. If light is needed to work in the dark, an electric
emergency light with properly insulated cord should be used. In the absence of
electric supply, a flashlight powered by dry cell battery is equally safe.

190. LIFE SAFETY SYSTEM
GROUP 6:
Baguiwen, Sheldon Karl d.
cabfit, melecio w.
coyupan, adelaida b.
guimpatan, Marrero a.
pan-ag, alzen john c.

191. INTRODUCTION
In the context of engineering, a life safety system refers to any
system designed to protect and evacuate the building population in
emergencies, including fires, earthquakes, and less critical events such as
power failures.
These systems are primarily or exclusively designed and installed
to prevent the loss of life during the course of an event and provide early
warning that affect life safety. They are not necessarily intended to
protect property or ensure business continuity.

192. KEY ELEMENTS OF LIFE SAFETY
SYSTEM
1. Fire Detection Systems
2. Emergency Lighting and Exit Signs
3. Fire Suppression Systems
4. Emergency Communication Systems
5. Ventilation Systems
6. Evacuation Systems
7. Regular Maintenance and Inspection

193. 1. FIRE DETECTION SYSTEMS
• These include electronic heat and smoke detectors that can activate
audible alarms and alert building occupants to the presence of fire.

194. EXAMPLES:
A. Smoke Detectors
- A device that senses smoke
and it is operated by using a light
sensor or a physical process to detect
the presence of smoke particles in the
air.
-When smoke is detected, the
alarm is triggered, alerting the
occupants of potential danger.

195. B. Beam Detectors
- A detection device that
uses a beam of light to detect
smoke. They are typically used in
large, open spaces like warehouses
or atriums where other types of
detectors may not be as effective.

196. C. Flame Detectors
- a sensor designed to detect
and respond to the presence of a
flame or fire. These detector are
typically used in high-risk industries
such as oil and gas, aviation, and
chemical manufacturing, where
quick detection of fire is critical.

197. 2. EMERGENCY LIGHTING AND EXIT
SIGNS
• In the event of a power outage during an emergency, these systems
provide illumination to guide occupants to safety.
• Exit signs direct the flow of evacuation to the nearest safe exit.

198. EXAMPLES:
A. LED Exit Signs
- A type of emergency light
system that uses Light Emitting Diodes
(LEDs) as the light source. They are
commonly installed in buildings,
especially in areas where people need
clear and visible indications of
emergency exits during power outages
or emergencies.

199. B. Emergency Light Sticks and Torches
- Are essential tools in emergency
situations when there is a power outage or
low visibility. They provide portable and
reliable sources of light that can be easily
carried and used during emergencies.
- Also known as glow sticks or
chemical light sticks, are self-contained light
sources that emit light through a chemical
reaction.

200. C. Emergency Spotlight
- Also known as a portable LED
floodlight, is a versatile lighting device
that provides a powerful and
concentrated beam of light in
emergency situations. It is designed to
be portable and easy to carry, allowing
for flexible use in various scenarios.

201. 3. FIRE SUPPRESSION SYSTEMS
• These include systems like sprinkler systems, fire extinguishers,
and other methods of suppressing a fire to control and extinguish
fires.

202. EXAMPLES:
A. Fire Sprinkler System
- An active fire protection
method, which is designed to control
or extinguish a fire in its early stages.
It consists of a water supply system
that provides adequate pressure and
flow rate to a water distribution
piping system, to which fire
sprinklers are connected.

203. B. CO2 Fire Extinguishers
- A type of fire extinguisher that is
used to extinguish Class B ( flammable
liquids and gases) and Class E ( electrical)
fires.
-One of the main advantages is
that it does not leave no residue after use,
unlike other types of fire extinguishers.

204. C. Foam Suppression Systems
- A type of fire protection system
that is used to extinguish large fires,
particularly those involving flammable or
combustible liquids. It works by mixing
water with a foaming agent to create a
foam that can smother the fire.
- The foam acts by cooling the fire
and coating the fuel, preventing its contact
with oxygen, resulting in suppression of the
combustion.

205. 4. EMERGENCY COMMUNICATION
SYSTEMS
• These systems allow for communication with occupants during an
emergency to provide instructions and updates.

206. EXAMPLES:
A. Public Address Systems
- Also known as PA system,
is an electronic system that consist
of microphones, amplifiers,
loudspeakers, and related
equipment. Its primary purpose is
to amplify and broadcast sound,
allowing a speaker’s voice, music,
or other audio sources to be heard
by a large audience in a public or
semi-public space.

207. B. Emergency Cell Broadcast
Systems (ECBS)
- Used as an alert broadcast
system to disseminate emergency
alerts and warnings to mobile
devices. The ECBS utilizes cell
broadcast services (CBS) to deliver
emergency messages to mobile
phones within specific geographic
area.

208. 5. VENTILATION SYSTEMS
• These systems help control the spread of smoke and heat in a building
during a fire, aiding in evacuation and firefighting efforts.

209. EXAMPLES:
A. Motorized Smoke Damper
- A device installed in ductwork
that automatically closes when
triggered by a smoke detection
system. The primary purpose of a
motorized smoke damper is to
prevent the spread of smoke and fire
through the ductwork to other parts
of the building.

210. B. Exhaust Fan and Ventilation
- A type of ventilation system that
extract smokes and hot gases that helps
in making it easier for occupants to
evacuate and for the firefighters to
access the building.

211. C. Emergency Escape Breathing Device
(EEBD)
- A type of self-contained
breathing apparatus used for emergency
escape in situations that are Immediately
Dangerous to Life or Health (IDLH).
These situations can include fires,
chemical spills, or any ither incident
where the surrounding atmosphere is
toxic or oxygen-deficient.

212. 6. EVACUATION SYSTEMS
• These systems include clearly marked exits and evacuation routes, as
well as communication systems to guide occupants safely out of the
building.

213. EXAMPLES:
A. Evacuation Map
- A diagram that shows the
safest emergency exit routes in a
building. It’s a crucial part of any
building’s safety measures as it
provides occupants with a quick
reference on how to safely exit the
building during emergency, such
as a fire and earthquake.

214. B. Internal Emergency Escape Chutes
- A specially constructed
evacuation structure that provides a
quick and safe way for people to
evacuate from tall buildings during
emergencies such as fires.
- A vertical tube that runs
from the top floor to the ground. It
is constructed from fire-resistant
materials like fiberglass, which can
withstand high temperatures and
prevent the spread of fire.

215. 7. REGULAR MAINTENANCE AND
INSPECTION
• All elements of the life safety system need to be regularly maintained
and inspected to ensure they function correctly during an emergency.

216. IMPORTANCE OF LIFE SAFETY
SYSTEMS
1. Human Preservation
-The most important role of life safety systems is to protect
individuals in the event of an emergency, such as a fire, earthquake,
or other disaster.
-These systems are design early, provide warnings, and facilitate safe
evacuation.

217. 2. Property Protection
-While the primary goal of life safety systems is to save lives,
they also help protect property.
- Systems like fire suppression can help limit damage and
potentially save a building or other assets from complete destruction.

218. 3. Legal Compliance
- Many jurisdictions require the installation of certain life safety
systems by law, especially in public buildings and workplaces.
Compliance with these regulations can help avoid legal penalties.

219. 4. Reduced Liability
- In the event of an incident, having a property installed and
maintained life safety system can help demonstrate that the
necessary precautions were taken, potentially reducing liability.

220. 5. Peace of Mind
- Knowing that a building is equipped with life safety systems can
provide peace of mind to occupants, knowing that they will be alerted
and able to respond in case of an emergency.

221. 6. Business Continuity
- By minimizing the potential damage and disruption caused
by emergencies, life safety systems can help ensure business
continuity.

222. CHALLENGES AND SOLUTIONS IN
IMPLEMENTING LIFE SAFETY SYSTEMS
1. Complexity of Systems
- Life safety systems such as fire alarm systems, emergency lighting, and
ventilation systems, can be complex to design and install.
- Engineers need to ensure these systems are reliable and effective, and
this can be significant challenge, especially in a large buildings.

223. Solution:
-Training and education are key. Professionals involved in the
design, installation, and maintenance of life safety systems need to be
well- trained and up-to-date with the latest technologies and
standards. Using integrated systems that combine multiple functions
can also reduce complexity.

224. 2. Regulatory Compliance
- Engineers must ensure that life safety systems comply with a
range of regulations and standards, which can vary by country or region.
This can be challenge, particularly when working on international
projects.

225. Solution:
- Regular audits and inspections can help ensure compliance.
Working with knowledgeable professionals who understand the
relevant regulations and standards is also important.

226. 3. Integration with Other Systems
- Life safety systems often need to be integrated with other
building systems, such as HVAC (Heating, Ventilation, and Air
Conditioning) or electrical systems.
- This integration can be complex and requires careful planning
and coordination.

227. 4. Maintenance and Testing
- Once installed, life safety systems need regular maintenance and
testing to ensure they remain effective.
- This can be logistical challenge, particularly in a large or
occupied buildings.

228. Solution:
- Regular, scheduled maintenance is crucial. This includes
testing the system, checking for damage, and replacing worn-out
components. Automated monitoring systems can also alert building
owners or manager to problems.

229. 5. Technological Advancements
-With the rapid pace of technological advancements, keeping up-
to-date with the latest technologies and integrating them into existing
systems can be challenging.

230. Solution:
- Ongoing training and professional development can help
professionals stay up-to-date with the latest technologies.
Participating in industry groups and attending conferences can also
be beneficial.

231. 6. Training and Awareness
- Ensuring that all building occupants are aware of the life safety
systems in place and know how to respond in an emergency is another
significant challenge.
- This requires regular training and communication.

232. 7. Cost Constraints
- Life safety systems can be expensive to install and
maintain.
- Engineers often have to work within budget constraints,
which limit the options available.

233. ROLES OF LIFE SAFETY SYSTEM IN
VARIOUS INDUSTRIES
1. Construction
-In this industry, life safety systems like
fire alarms, fire suppression systems, and
emergency lightings are installed during the
construction of buildings. They’re designed to
alert occupants of an emergency, control
fires, and provide safe evacuation routes.

234. 2. Manufacturing
- Factories and manufacturing plants
often have extensive life safety systems in
place to protect workers. These can include
fire detection and suppression systems,
emergency exit signs, and safety equipment
like helmets and gloves. Some factories also
have systems to detect harmful gases or
chemicals.

235. 3. Healthcare
- Hospitals and other
healthcare facilities use life safety
systems to ensure the life safety of
patients, staff, and visitors. These can
include fire safety systems,
emergency power systems, medical,
gas systems, and nurse call systems.

236. 4. Hospitality
- Hotels, restaurants, and other
hospitality venues use life safety systems to
protect guests and staff. These can include
fire detection and suppression systems,
emergency lighting, and safe evacuation
routes.
- In larger venues, public address
systems may also be used to communicate
in emergencies.

237. 5. Education
- Schools, colleges, and
universities use life safety systems to
protect students, staff, and visitors.
These can include fire detection and
suppression systems, emergency
lighting, and safe evacuation routes.
Some institutions also have systems for
lockdowns or other security
emergencies.

238. 6. Transportation
- Airports, train stations, and other
transportation hubs use life safety
systems to protect the public. These can
include fire detection and suppression
systems, emergency lighting, and safe
evacuation routes. Some also have
systems to detect harmful substances or
security threats.

239. 7. Data Centers
- These facilities, which house
critical IT equipment, use life safety
systems to protect against fires, which
could cause significant data loss. These
systems include fire detection and
suppression systems, often using cleaning
agents that won’t harm electronic
equipment.

240. 8. Oil and Gas
- in this industry, life safety
systems are crucial for preventing and
responding to potential disasters.
These can include fire and gas
detection systems, emergency
shutdown systems, and blowout
preventers.

241. THE END………
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