The document discusses various types of genetic mutations including point mutations, deletions, insertions, inversions, substitutions, silent mutations, nonsense mutations, and frame shifts. It also summarizes the process of genetic engineering including extracting DNA from one organism, combining it with DNA from another, and introducing it into cells to produce a desired trait like insulin production. Additionally, it mentions cloning, the Flavr-Savr tomato as the first genetically modified food, proposals for featherless chickens, early human tissue engineering experiments, and the development of Golden Rice.

1. Mutation

3. DNA: AAT-GGC-CGA-TTG-ACG
RNA:
Amino acids:
TTA-CCG-GCT-AAC-TGC
UUA-CCG-GCU-AAC-UGC
AAU-GGC-CGU-UUG-ACG
Asn-Gly-Arg-Leu-Thr

4. DNA: AAT-GGC-CGA-TTG-ACG
RNA:
Amino acids:
TTA-CCG-GCT-AAC-TGC
UUA-CCG-GCU-AAC-UGC
AAU-GGC-CGU-UUG-ACG
Asn-Gly-Arg-Leu-Thr

5. Any change in the sequence of nitrogen
base in the DNA, any mistakes in the
transcription of genetic information from
DNA to RNA or pairing of codon and
anticodon can cause changes in the kind,
sequence and number of amino acids of
paroteins synthesized by cells.

6. Deletion – when a
base is deleted
from the sequence.

7. Insertion – when
a base is added
to the sequence.

8. Inversion – when
a segment of a
chromosome is
reversed end to
end.

9. Substitution – when
one or more bases in
the sequence is
replaced by the
same number of
bases (for example, a
cytosine substituted
for an adenine).

10. Point mutation – a
change in one base
in the DNA
sequence

11. Silent mutation -
When a base pair is
substituted but the
change still codes
for the same amino
acid in the
sequence.

12. Nonsense
mutation - When a
substitution results
in the formation of a
STOP codon before
all of the codons
have been read &
transla-ted by the
ribosome.

13. Frame Shift -
When a deletion or
insertion results in a
different base pair
being the beginning
of the next codon,
changing the whole
sequence of amino
acids.

14. Frame Shift -
When a deletion or
insertion results in a
different base pair
being the beginning
of the next codon,
changing the whole
sequence of amino
acids.

15. The genetic engineering is the direct manipulation of
genes for practical purposes. It has been made
possible with the discovery of the complex and
microscopic nature of DNA and its component
nucleotides.

18. Genetically modified organisms (GMO’s) can be
done with plants, animals, or bacteria and other very
small organisms. It allows scientists to move desired
genes from one plant or animal into another.

19. Basic Ideas about Genetic Engineering (
 Genetic engineering is often called genetic
modification, the process of altering the DNA in an
organism’s genome.
 This may mean changing one base pair (A-T or
C-G), deleting a whole region of DNA, or introducing
an additional copy of a gene.

20. Basic Ideas about Genetic Engineering (
 It may also mean extracting DNA from another
organism’s genome and combining it with the DNA
of that individual.
 Genetic engineering is used by scientists to enhance
or modify the characteristics of an individual
organism.

21. Basic Ideas about Genetic Engineering (
 Genetic engineering can be applied to any organism,
from a virus to a sheep.
 For example, genetic engineering can be used to
produce plants that have a higher nutritional value or
can tolerate exposure to herbicides.

23. The Genetic Engineering Process (Your
Genome, 2017)
1. A minute piece of circular DNA called a plasmid (a
small, circular, double-stranded DNA molecule that is
distinct from a cell's chromosomal DNA) is extracted
from the bacteria or yeast cell.

25. The Genetic Engineering Process (Your
Genome, 2017)
2.A small section is then cut out of the circular plasmid
by restriction enzymes, ‘molecular scissors’.
3.The gene for human insulin is infused into the gap in
the plasmid. This plasmid is now genetically modified.

27. The Genetic Engineering Process (Your
Genome, 2017)
4.The genetically modified plasmid is introduced into a
new bacteria or yeast cell.
5.This cell then divides rapidly and starts making insulin.

29. The Genetic Engineering Process (Your
Genome, 2017)
6.To form massive amounts of the cells, the genetically
modified bacteria or yeast are grown in large
fermentation vessels that contain all the nutrients
they need. The more the cells divide, the more insulin
is produced.

30. The Genetic Engineering Process (Your
Genome, 2017)
 7.When fermentation is done, the mixture is filtered
to discharge the insulin. The insulin is then purified
and packaged into bottles and insulin pens for
distribution to patients with diabetes.

33. Cloning is a technique
scientists use to make exact
genetic copies of living
things. Genes, cells, tissues,
and even whole animals can
all be cloned.

34. The Flavr-Savr
(“Flavor Savor”)
tomato was the first
genetically modified
organism that was
licensed for human
consumption. The trait
modified in this tomato
is its ripening process.

35. Featherless chickens could be
the future of mass poultry farming
in warmer countries, says an Israeli
geneticist who has created a bare-
skinned “prototype”. The new
chicken would be lower in calories,
faster-growing, environmentally
friendly, and more likely to survive
in warmer conditions

37. Twenty years ago, Harvard surgeons Joseph and his
brother Charles Vacanti, along with MIT engineer Bob
Langer, experimented with techniques to create human
body parts in the lab. They implanted the shape of a
human ear in the back of a mouse as part of research to
better understand how they could help grow body parts
for humans. They published their results in 1997. After
BBC aired a documentary on tissue engineering, the world
saw the bizarre animal: The Vacanti Mouse.

39. Golden Rice is a new type of rice that
contains beta carotene (provitamin A, a plant
pigment that the body converts into vitamin A
as needed). This compound is what gives this
grain its yellow-orange or golden color, hence
its name. Golden Rice is developed through
genetic engineering.