Rod Ellis is a renowned linguist who proposed 10 principles for effective second language instruction. The principles are: (1) instruction should develop both formulaic expressions and rule-based competence, (2) focus predominantly on meaning but also form, (3) develop implicit and explicit knowledge, (4) account for learners' built-in syllabus, (5) provide extensive second language output opportunities, (6) interaction is central to proficiency, (7) consider individual differences, and (8) assess both free and controlled production.

1. ELLIS' TEN PRINCIPLES FOR
THE SLA CLASSRROOM

2. ROD ELLIS
Professor Ellis, a renowned linguist, received
his Doctorate from the University of London
and his Master of Education from the
University of Bristol.
Dr. Ellis, who is known as the "Father of
Second Language Acquisition", has served
as the Director of the Institute of Language
Teaching and Learning at the University of
Auckland.

3. Principle 1: Instruction needs to ensure that learners
develop both a rich repertoire of formulaic expressions
and a rule-based competence.
Formulaic expressions are common phrases or expressions
that are learned and used as a whole unit rather than as
single words.
Also, learners need to internalize the grammatical rules so
that they will be able to create their own sentences.

4. Principle 2: Instruction needs to ensure that learners
focus predominantly on meaning.
Providing opportunities for learners to communicate in a
natural way, focused on what the learner wants to say
rather than on how to say it.
A task-based approached is recommended, where
teachers and learners engage in activities using the
second language as a way to communicate and "not as an
object to be analyzed and studied."

5. Principle 3: Instruction needs to ensure that learners also
focus on form.
Through inductive or deductive grammar lessons. An inductive
approach to grammar teaching is designed to encourage learners
to notice pre-selected forms in the input to which they are exposed;
a deductive approach seeks to make learners aware of the explicit
grammatical rule.
It is widely accepted now that acquisition requires attention to form.
Some ways for teachers to focus on form are described below:
1.

6. 2. Through communicative tasks designed to provide
opportunities for learners to practice specific grammatical
structures while focused primarily on meaning.
3. Through opportunities for learners to plan how they will
perform a communicative task before they start it and/ or by
corrective feedback.

7. Principle 4: Instruction needs to focus on developing
implicit knowledge of the second language while not
neglecting explicit knowledge.
According to Anderson's distinction between declarative knowledge
and procedural knowledge described above, researchers have
concluded that implicit or procedural knowledge is the basis for
the ability to communicate fluently in a second language.
This knowledge, then, should be the final goal of instruction.

8. Theories disagree as to how to develop this type of
knowledge, but the theorists agree that learners need to
participate in communicative activities to develop implicit
knowledge.
Explicit knowledge, on the other hand, has value in
assisting language development by facilitating the
development of implicit knowledge.
Grammar discovery tasks are recommended to lead
learners to figure out grammar rules.

9. Principle 5: Instruction needs to take into account the
learner's built in syllabus.
Corder introduced the term "built-in syllabus" to refer to the capacity that any
learner of a second language has of "learning grammar as implicit knowledge".
Studies demonstrated that learners, whether instructed or not, master
grammatical structures sequentially and following "a relatively fixed and
universal order, but that instructed learners could achieve a higher level of
competence.
This led Ellis to conclude that it is beneficial to teach grammar, but it should be
done 'in a way that is compatible with the natural process of acquisition.'

10. Principle 6: Successful instructed language requires
extensive second language output.
It is expected that in a second language acquisition situation, learners will have
access to a meaningful amount of input outside the classroom.
That might not be the case in many multilingual environments.
Teachers should assure adequate access to input, maximizing the use of the second
language in the classroom.
Teachers also should provide opportunities to learners outside the classroom, such as
an extensive reading program with graded readings at the level of the learners.
Schools need to establish readings centers that provide carefully selected language
learning material for learners to read on their own time.

11. Principle 7: Successful instructed language learning also
requires opportunities for output.
Swain coined the term "pushed output" to include outputs that
stretch learners to express explicit, clear messages (1985 cited in
Ellis, 2008 b).
This does not refer to controlled practice exercises, but to
communicative tasks in a language program, such as encouraging
conversations on topics learners might be interested to contribute
to; or taking turns in long conversations to help develop discourse
skills.

12. Principle 8: The opportunity to interact in the
second language is central to developing second
language proficiency.
It is a big challenge for teachers to create the right
kind of interaction that fosters acquisition.

13. Five Key Requirements for Creating
Language Interaction in the Classroom
create contexts of language use where learners have a reason to
attend to language,
allow learners to initiate topics and to control topic development,
provide opportunities for learners to use the language to express
their own personal meanings,
help learners to participate in language-related activities that are
beyond their current level of proficiency, and
offer a full range of contexts that provide opportunities for
learners to engage in full performance in the language.

14. Principle 9: Instruction needs to take
account of individual differences in
learners.
Using a variety of learning activities

15. Principle 10: In assessing learners' second
language proficiency, it is important to
examine free as well as controlled production.
Metalinguistic judgment (e.g., a grammatically judgment test
[metalinguistic judgment or metalinguistic awareness refers to the
ability to reflect about or think about language somewhat analytically])
Selected response (e.g., multiple choice)
Constrained constructed response (e.g. gap-filling exercises)
Free constructed response (e.g., communicative task)
Four types of measurement have been identified by Norris and Ortega
(2000 cited by Ellis, 2008 b):
1.
2.
3.
4.

16. Of the four, free constructed response is considered the best
way to measure second language proficiency because it is
closes to the way language is used outside the classroom.
However, Norris and Ortega found that selected response and
constrained constructed response are more typically used.
Teachers will do well to include a free constructed response
type of evaluation of language proficiency.