This paper examines the importance of L2 teachers having strong metalinguistic awareness, or knowledge about language (TMA). It addresses three questions: 1) Do L2 teachers need to know about language? 2) If so, why and how? 3) What impact does a teacher's level of metalinguistic awareness have on the input available for student learning? The paper first takes a theoretical stance, proposing a model where TMA plays a crucial role in language teaching and learning by influencing input. It then reports empirical evidence from observing and interviewing three Hong Kong secondary school L2 teachers to examine the three questions and validity of the TMA construct.
This document discusses bringing discourse analysis into the language classroom. It makes three key points:
1) Discourse analysis requires a change in perspective where communication, not just language, is the focus of study. This reflects how language is actually used.
2) There are three premises to consider when bringing discourse analysis to the classroom: a) communicative competence, b) considering context, language variation and real data, and c) the negotiation of intentions and interpretation.
3) Specific concepts from discourse analysis can be introduced to help students reflect on discourse and communication, and guidelines are provided for designing a language syllabus with a discourse-based approach.
This document discusses different settings for second language learning, including natural acquisition settings, structured-based instructional settings, and communicative instructional settings. It outlines key differences in how language is presented and practiced in each setting. The document also discusses factors that influence language learning like teaching methods, language input, authentic vs non-authentic language examples, and the balance between complexity, accuracy and fluency in the classroom.
This document discusses the importance of context in language comprehension and learning. It presents research showing that providing contextual information and activating students' background knowledge can improve comprehension. Visual aids like pictures and videos are found to help lower-level learners, while techniques like discussing vocabulary, titles and questions are also effective, especially for more advanced learners. The role of schema theory is explained, which holds that comprehension involves both bottom-up processing of textual details and top-down processing using context and expectations. Contextualizing language instruction and practice is recommended over isolated teaching of forms.
In the recent years, many new fields in second language acquisition have emerged. instructed second language acquisition (ISLA) is also among them. ISLA due to Loewen (2015T is an academic subfield that is about learning a language other than the first one. cognitive-inter actionist methods offered efficient features of L2 instruction. This chapter discusses about Loewen definition of ISLA and emphasizes the roles of both native speaker-learner and learner-learner interaction.
This document provides an overview of listening comprehension models and strategies. It discusses three main models of listening comprehension: top-down processing, bottom-up processing, and interactive processing. Top-down uses background knowledge while bottom-up analyzes linguistic elements. Interactive processing shows how the two interact. The document also categorizes learning strategies into cognitive, metacognitive, memory, compensation, affective, and social strategies based on Oxford's taxonomy. It concludes that strategies fall on a continuum between cognitive and metacognitive/social/affective and can involve clusters of interrelated strategies.
Communicative methodology (communicative language teaching) UMBBChiglouma
This document outlines the communicative methodology approach to teaching language. It defines communicative competence and discusses the roles of teachers, students, and instructional materials. The communicative methodology emphasizes interaction, fluency over accuracy, and using the target language in meaningful contexts. It provides advantages like increasing engagement but also challenges like requiring more preparation from teachers. The document compares this approach to previous methods like the grammar translation and audiolingual methods.
This document discusses research on second language reading. It addresses several areas of interest in L2 reading, including its importance for academic learning and ability to learn independently. Key differences between L1 and L2 reading are identified, such as differing language proficiency levels and socio-cultural backgrounds. Several aspects of L2 reading are then examined in more detail, including word recognition, vocabulary knowledge, use of context, reading rate and fluency, and the role of metacognition. Research findings on each of these topics are presented and sometimes conflicting findings are noted. Throughout, the document emphasizes that results from L1 reading research may not directly apply to L2 reading due to important linguistic and individual differences between the two.
This document discusses foreign language teaching methods. It analyzes the Grammar-Translation Method, Structuralist Methods, and the Communicative Approach. It then introduces the Task-Based and Process models as alternatives. Key points made include:
- The Grammar-Translation Method emphasized translating written language and learning grammatical rules, but paid little attention to speaking skills.
- Structuralist Methods focused on language structures but neglected syntax.
- The Communicative Approach aimed to develop communicative competence but had limitations.
- The Task-Based and Process models are presented as more recent approaches that address innovations in education and connections between curriculum, teaching methods, and teacher development.
This document discusses bringing discourse analysis into the language classroom. It makes three key points:
1) Discourse analysis requires a change in perspective where communication, not just language, is the focus of study. This reflects how language is actually used.
2) There are three premises to consider when bringing discourse analysis to the classroom: a) communicative competence, b) considering context, language variation and real data, and c) the negotiation of intentions and interpretation.
3) Specific concepts from discourse analysis can be introduced to help students reflect on discourse and communication, and guidelines are provided for designing a language syllabus with a discourse-based approach.
This document discusses different settings for second language learning, including natural acquisition settings, structured-based instructional settings, and communicative instructional settings. It outlines key differences in how language is presented and practiced in each setting. The document also discusses factors that influence language learning like teaching methods, language input, authentic vs non-authentic language examples, and the balance between complexity, accuracy and fluency in the classroom.
This document discusses the importance of context in language comprehension and learning. It presents research showing that providing contextual information and activating students' background knowledge can improve comprehension. Visual aids like pictures and videos are found to help lower-level learners, while techniques like discussing vocabulary, titles and questions are also effective, especially for more advanced learners. The role of schema theory is explained, which holds that comprehension involves both bottom-up processing of textual details and top-down processing using context and expectations. Contextualizing language instruction and practice is recommended over isolated teaching of forms.
In the recent years, many new fields in second language acquisition have emerged. instructed second language acquisition (ISLA) is also among them. ISLA due to Loewen (2015T is an academic subfield that is about learning a language other than the first one. cognitive-inter actionist methods offered efficient features of L2 instruction. This chapter discusses about Loewen definition of ISLA and emphasizes the roles of both native speaker-learner and learner-learner interaction.
This document provides an overview of listening comprehension models and strategies. It discusses three main models of listening comprehension: top-down processing, bottom-up processing, and interactive processing. Top-down uses background knowledge while bottom-up analyzes linguistic elements. Interactive processing shows how the two interact. The document also categorizes learning strategies into cognitive, metacognitive, memory, compensation, affective, and social strategies based on Oxford's taxonomy. It concludes that strategies fall on a continuum between cognitive and metacognitive/social/affective and can involve clusters of interrelated strategies.
Communicative methodology (communicative language teaching) UMBBChiglouma
This document outlines the communicative methodology approach to teaching language. It defines communicative competence and discusses the roles of teachers, students, and instructional materials. The communicative methodology emphasizes interaction, fluency over accuracy, and using the target language in meaningful contexts. It provides advantages like increasing engagement but also challenges like requiring more preparation from teachers. The document compares this approach to previous methods like the grammar translation and audiolingual methods.
This document discusses research on second language reading. It addresses several areas of interest in L2 reading, including its importance for academic learning and ability to learn independently. Key differences between L1 and L2 reading are identified, such as differing language proficiency levels and socio-cultural backgrounds. Several aspects of L2 reading are then examined in more detail, including word recognition, vocabulary knowledge, use of context, reading rate and fluency, and the role of metacognition. Research findings on each of these topics are presented and sometimes conflicting findings are noted. Throughout, the document emphasizes that results from L1 reading research may not directly apply to L2 reading due to important linguistic and individual differences between the two.
This document discusses foreign language teaching methods. It analyzes the Grammar-Translation Method, Structuralist Methods, and the Communicative Approach. It then introduces the Task-Based and Process models as alternatives. Key points made include:
- The Grammar-Translation Method emphasized translating written language and learning grammatical rules, but paid little attention to speaking skills.
- Structuralist Methods focused on language structures but neglected syntax.
- The Communicative Approach aimed to develop communicative competence but had limitations.
- The Task-Based and Process models are presented as more recent approaches that address innovations in education and connections between curriculum, teaching methods, and teacher development.
The Effect of Instructional Methods and Locus of Control on Students’ Speakin...iosrjce
The aims of this study was to determine the effect of teaching methods and locus of control on
students' ability to speak in English. This study used an experimental method with 2 x 2 factorial design
involving 44 students of class IX SMA 01 Cibinong Bogor, West Java. In determining the sample, the
researchers used a technique multi-stage cluster random sampling, ie 22 students as the experimental group
were treated by using the Direct Method and 22 students as a control group treated with the use of Grammar
Translation Method (GTM). For collecting data, researchers used to test the ability to speak and questionnaire
variables for variable locus of control were further analyzed using ANOVA Two Paths and followed by Tuckey
test. The findings show that: (1) The ability to speak the students taught by using the Direct Method is higher
than those taught using grammar translation method (GTM); (2) Students with internal locus of control has the
ability to speak better than those who an external locus of control; (3) Students with internal locus of control
are taught using the Direct Method has a significant difference in the ability to speak with those who taught
Grammar translation is by using Method (GTM); (4) Students are taught with external locus of control by using
the direct method is no different with them yag taught using translation Grammar Method (GTM); (5) There is
an interaction between teaching methods and locus of control on their speaking ability
This document discusses applying Bloom's Taxonomy of educational objectives to grade English texts in terms of difficulty for non-native English translators. The study had 30 Iranian English translation students take a translation test with 6 passages graded based on the cognitive processes (knowledge, comprehension, application, etc.) required. Results found translator performance quality aligned with expected difficulty based on Bloom's levels, except for the synthesis text. The findings support using Bloom's Taxonomy to assess translation quality and reliability, and to teach translation skills.
The current study examined the effects of using L1 in teaching grammatical instruction on the Iranian EFL learners’ grammatical accuracy. To fulfill the purpose of the study, 40 out of 50 EFL learners were selected through an Oxford placement test at Nasr Zabangostar Institute in Amol city. They were divided into two groups: an experimental group and a control group. A pre-test of grammar was administered before the treatment. For treatment, the teacher explained the grammatical structures in their first language. In each session, one grammatical point was selected and taught in L1. In the control group, the grammatical points were taught in English as their target language. After treatment, a post-test of grammar was administered to screen the probable change. The result indicated that a significant effect on learners’ grammatical accuracy and the performances of the experimental group in grammatical accuracy was better than the control group after they were given instruction.
The document summarizes three language teaching approaches: Multiple Intelligences, the Lexical Approach, and the Natural Approach.
Multiple Intelligences recognizes different types of intelligence and focuses on individual learner differences. The Lexical Approach views words and phrases as the basic building blocks of language over grammar.
The Natural Approach is based on meaningful communication without translation. It focuses on acquiring language through comprehensible input and reducing anxiety.
【Book Presentation】Ellis and shintani (2014). chapter 1 (JACET Reading Research Group April, 2015 by KANAZAWA Yu)
【輪読】Ellis and shintani (2014). chapter 1(リーディング研究会2015年4月例会_担当者:金澤)
Target: Ellis, R. and Shintani, N. (2014). Exploring language pedagogy through second language acquisition. New York; Routledge.
This study examined the impact of cohesive devices in English textbooks on Iranian high school students' reading comprehension. 64 students were divided into experimental and control groups. The experimental group read passages from a textbook that highlighted cohesive devices, while the control group practiced past exam questions. Both groups took a pre-test and post-test of reading comprehension. Results of t-tests and effect size calculations showed that the experimental group performed significantly better on the post-test, indicating that exposure to cohesive devices in texts helped improve their reading comprehension. A correlation also suggested that students with higher English proficiency benefited more from the cohesive devices. The findings suggest explicit instruction of cohesive devices could aid EFL reading comprehension.
This document discusses a study that investigated the impact of English metaphorical awareness on vocabulary retention in 60 intermediate EFL learners in Iran. The experimental group received 20 minutes of tasks involving pictorial idioms, poems, and matching for 16 sessions to increase their metaphorical awareness, while the control group received regular vocabulary exercises. The experimental group significantly outperformed the control group on tests of vocabulary retention, supporting the positive impact of metaphorical awareness training. Prior research suggests metaphorical awareness can help EFL learners better understand polysemic words and idioms by recognizing conceptual metaphors.
1) The document discusses a study that compared the effectiveness of input-oriented tasks (like glossing) and output-oriented tasks (like gap-filling and composing) on improving EFL learners' vocabulary.
2) 64 Iranian EFL learners were divided into two groups - one received input tasks and the other received output tasks over 15 sessions.
3) Both groups showed improvement on a vocabulary test, but the study found no significant difference between the groups, suggesting that neither input nor output tasks were superior for vocabulary learning.
Principles Of Instructed Second Language LearningDee Reid
The document outlines 10 principles for effective instructed second language learning:
1. Develop formulaic expressions and rule-based competence.
2. Focus predominantly on meaning.
3. Focus on form.
4. Develop implicit and explicit language knowledge.
5. Consider learners' natural language development.
6. Provide extensive language input.
7. Provide opportunities for student language output.
8. Encourage student interaction in the target language.
9. Account for individual learner differences.
10. Include both controlled and free student production.
This document discusses models of communicative language ability and the role of grammar within those models. It summarizes Lado's skills-and-elements model which viewed language as separate skills of phonology, structure, and lexicon. Later models recognized grammar's relationship to meaning and context. Canale and Swain's model defined grammatical competence as rules of form and meaning, but did not distinguish their relationship. Bachman and Palmer's comprehensive model views language ability as consisting of organizational knowledge, including grammatical and textual knowledge, and pragmatic knowledge, including functional and sociolinguistic knowledge. It defines the components of grammar and their relationship to meaning and language use.
The Grammar Translation Method was originally developed for teaching Latin and Greek as dead languages. It focuses on learning grammar rules and translating texts word-for-word between the target language and native language. While it has disadvantages like not developing communicative skills, it still has value for certain goals and contexts. The method is based on theories of developing logical thinking and exposure to literature. It remains commonly used due to teacher skills required and ease of testing grammar knowledge through translation exercises. Overall, its appropriate use depends on the learning objectives and needs of the students.
This study aims at explaining the confusion that led by the misuse of English grammatical structures when conveying meanings in written English texts. Indicating how committing certain errors in written English structures constrains Sudanese English learners’ performance. Investigating English grammatical structures experienced by Sudanese learners who are preparing to graduate with B.A. in English. Therefore, the roles that grammatical structures play in models of communicative competence are discussed in this paper. Additionally, the study explains the role of mastering these structures in communicative purposes. The obtained results revealed that Sudanese students are incompetent in using grammar well enough for some real-communicational purpose. Grammatical structures play a role in language communicative competence for the learners of English language. Learners’ mastery of the language communicative ability is affected when language learners are unable to successfully communicate in L2 without cultural knowledge of what is considered appropriate according to a particular context in the target language.
The major thrust of this research has been a psycholinguistic analysis of effectiveness of topic familiarity and two types of translation tasks (from L1 to L2 and L2 to L1) on retention of incidental vocabulary learning for a longer duration. The effects of translation tasks and topic familiarity have been studied individually .However, the relative effect of topic familiarity conditions and translation in two directions have not been attended to in longer period of time. In doing so, thirty intermediate EFL students were asked to translate a few texts in two directions with two conditions of topic (un)familiarity .Each text contains some unknown words .The students were tested on these unknown words and the responses were examined in immediate and delayed post tests. The delayed post test session held after 2 weeks. The results show that, unlike the revised hierarchical model (RHM), translation task directions did not have significant effect on incidental vocabulary learning while retention was more effective with topic familiar texts in the both tests .In addition, topic familiarity of the texts play an important part in the process of incidental vocabulary learning. The article concludes with some suggestions for task designing and vocabulary teaching.
The document discusses the Grammar Translation Method, a traditional approach for teaching Latin and ancient Greek. The goal was to develop logical thinking, intellectual abilities, and the ability to read original texts through translating sentences and analyzing grammar rules. While originally used for "dead" languages, it was later applied to modern foreign language teaching. Key features included teaching in the native language with little active use of the target language, focusing on memorizing vocabulary lists and grammar rules, translating texts, and giving little attention to pronunciation or communication. Some advantages were that it required few teacher skills and tests were easily scored, but disadvantages were that it could be boring and not develop communicative skills. The method is still sometimes used due to standardized tests not assessing communication and
Grammar is the basic of a language. Without learning grammar language learning is incomplete. Now a day, communicative English has diminished the importance of teaching grammar. As a result, proper English learning is being hampered in many levels. Learners are using English without learning it. Communicative English has strengthened the speaking skills of the learners. But without proper use of Grammar non-native learners are not being able to write in English as much as they speak. Of course, linguistic competence and communicative competence is not the same thing but without one the other is vague. The misconception about the implementation of the modern method Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) is that it does not incorporate Grammar. From this misconception Grammar is being ignored and it has become important to bring about a change in the selection and grading procedures of communicative grammar teaching materials. This paper deals with the importance of explicit and implicit grammar, suggestion about the implementation of strong and weak version of CLT, needs analysis, selection and grading procedures to choose appropriate materials for teaching communicative English grammar in different levels of CLT classroom in Bangladesh.
Observing learning and teaching in the second language classroomAlobaidi77
- The document summarizes research on observing learning and teaching in second language classrooms. It describes key differences between natural and instructional language acquisition settings. It also outlines several studies that developed observation schemes to analyze teaching practices, corrective feedback, teacher questioning behaviors, and the social and political contexts impacting second language learning.
This document summarizes the key differences between tasks and exercises in second language teaching. Tasks are distinguished from exercises based on four criteria: 1) a primary focus on meaning, 2) a communicative gap that motivates language use, 3) participants using their own resources, and 4) a clearly defined communicative outcome. Tasks are argued to develop implicit linguistic knowledge, while exercises can develop explicit knowledge. The document discusses three approaches to incorporating tasks in language teaching based on theories of the relationship between implicit and explicit knowledge: a task-supported approach, a task-based approach, and a modular approach.
When you compare two elements and their characteristics, is easier to visualize similarities and differences, and in the case of the approaches is easier to different the different aspects of the concepts involved, therefore identifying what's the role of the teacher, the student and the ability makes a way easier when it comes the time to pick up the role that the teacher would like to play or the ability that the teacher would like to emphasize, always based on the type of students, so the content can be presented in a more close and effective way.
Relationship between Creativity and Tolerance of Ambiguity to Understand Metaphorical Polysemy: A Pilot Study
Maha Ounis,
University of Sfax, Tunisia
The Sixth International Conference on Languages, Linguistics, Translation and Literature
9-10 October 2021 , Ahwaz
For more information, please visit the conference website:
WWW.LLLD.IR
Theorizing Soundwalls: Listening Within The NoiseJaclyn Heyen
This document discusses the concept of soundwalls and listening modes. It defines key terms like soundscape, listening-in-search, listening-in-readiness, background listening, inclusive soundwalls, seclusive soundwalls, and intrusive soundwalls. It also describes an art installation called Tinny Scoots that was created by the author to explore these concepts. The author proposes further studying how listening modes are affected by soundwalls and how soundwalls impact social interactions.
The Effect of Instructional Methods and Locus of Control on Students’ Speakin...iosrjce
The aims of this study was to determine the effect of teaching methods and locus of control on
students' ability to speak in English. This study used an experimental method with 2 x 2 factorial design
involving 44 students of class IX SMA 01 Cibinong Bogor, West Java. In determining the sample, the
researchers used a technique multi-stage cluster random sampling, ie 22 students as the experimental group
were treated by using the Direct Method and 22 students as a control group treated with the use of Grammar
Translation Method (GTM). For collecting data, researchers used to test the ability to speak and questionnaire
variables for variable locus of control were further analyzed using ANOVA Two Paths and followed by Tuckey
test. The findings show that: (1) The ability to speak the students taught by using the Direct Method is higher
than those taught using grammar translation method (GTM); (2) Students with internal locus of control has the
ability to speak better than those who an external locus of control; (3) Students with internal locus of control
are taught using the Direct Method has a significant difference in the ability to speak with those who taught
Grammar translation is by using Method (GTM); (4) Students are taught with external locus of control by using
the direct method is no different with them yag taught using translation Grammar Method (GTM); (5) There is
an interaction between teaching methods and locus of control on their speaking ability
This document discusses applying Bloom's Taxonomy of educational objectives to grade English texts in terms of difficulty for non-native English translators. The study had 30 Iranian English translation students take a translation test with 6 passages graded based on the cognitive processes (knowledge, comprehension, application, etc.) required. Results found translator performance quality aligned with expected difficulty based on Bloom's levels, except for the synthesis text. The findings support using Bloom's Taxonomy to assess translation quality and reliability, and to teach translation skills.
The current study examined the effects of using L1 in teaching grammatical instruction on the Iranian EFL learners’ grammatical accuracy. To fulfill the purpose of the study, 40 out of 50 EFL learners were selected through an Oxford placement test at Nasr Zabangostar Institute in Amol city. They were divided into two groups: an experimental group and a control group. A pre-test of grammar was administered before the treatment. For treatment, the teacher explained the grammatical structures in their first language. In each session, one grammatical point was selected and taught in L1. In the control group, the grammatical points were taught in English as their target language. After treatment, a post-test of grammar was administered to screen the probable change. The result indicated that a significant effect on learners’ grammatical accuracy and the performances of the experimental group in grammatical accuracy was better than the control group after they were given instruction.
The document summarizes three language teaching approaches: Multiple Intelligences, the Lexical Approach, and the Natural Approach.
Multiple Intelligences recognizes different types of intelligence and focuses on individual learner differences. The Lexical Approach views words and phrases as the basic building blocks of language over grammar.
The Natural Approach is based on meaningful communication without translation. It focuses on acquiring language through comprehensible input and reducing anxiety.
【Book Presentation】Ellis and shintani (2014). chapter 1 (JACET Reading Research Group April, 2015 by KANAZAWA Yu)
【輪読】Ellis and shintani (2014). chapter 1(リーディング研究会2015年4月例会_担当者:金澤)
Target: Ellis, R. and Shintani, N. (2014). Exploring language pedagogy through second language acquisition. New York; Routledge.
This study examined the impact of cohesive devices in English textbooks on Iranian high school students' reading comprehension. 64 students were divided into experimental and control groups. The experimental group read passages from a textbook that highlighted cohesive devices, while the control group practiced past exam questions. Both groups took a pre-test and post-test of reading comprehension. Results of t-tests and effect size calculations showed that the experimental group performed significantly better on the post-test, indicating that exposure to cohesive devices in texts helped improve their reading comprehension. A correlation also suggested that students with higher English proficiency benefited more from the cohesive devices. The findings suggest explicit instruction of cohesive devices could aid EFL reading comprehension.
This document discusses a study that investigated the impact of English metaphorical awareness on vocabulary retention in 60 intermediate EFL learners in Iran. The experimental group received 20 minutes of tasks involving pictorial idioms, poems, and matching for 16 sessions to increase their metaphorical awareness, while the control group received regular vocabulary exercises. The experimental group significantly outperformed the control group on tests of vocabulary retention, supporting the positive impact of metaphorical awareness training. Prior research suggests metaphorical awareness can help EFL learners better understand polysemic words and idioms by recognizing conceptual metaphors.
1) The document discusses a study that compared the effectiveness of input-oriented tasks (like glossing) and output-oriented tasks (like gap-filling and composing) on improving EFL learners' vocabulary.
2) 64 Iranian EFL learners were divided into two groups - one received input tasks and the other received output tasks over 15 sessions.
3) Both groups showed improvement on a vocabulary test, but the study found no significant difference between the groups, suggesting that neither input nor output tasks were superior for vocabulary learning.
Principles Of Instructed Second Language LearningDee Reid
The document outlines 10 principles for effective instructed second language learning:
1. Develop formulaic expressions and rule-based competence.
2. Focus predominantly on meaning.
3. Focus on form.
4. Develop implicit and explicit language knowledge.
5. Consider learners' natural language development.
6. Provide extensive language input.
7. Provide opportunities for student language output.
8. Encourage student interaction in the target language.
9. Account for individual learner differences.
10. Include both controlled and free student production.
This document discusses models of communicative language ability and the role of grammar within those models. It summarizes Lado's skills-and-elements model which viewed language as separate skills of phonology, structure, and lexicon. Later models recognized grammar's relationship to meaning and context. Canale and Swain's model defined grammatical competence as rules of form and meaning, but did not distinguish their relationship. Bachman and Palmer's comprehensive model views language ability as consisting of organizational knowledge, including grammatical and textual knowledge, and pragmatic knowledge, including functional and sociolinguistic knowledge. It defines the components of grammar and their relationship to meaning and language use.
The Grammar Translation Method was originally developed for teaching Latin and Greek as dead languages. It focuses on learning grammar rules and translating texts word-for-word between the target language and native language. While it has disadvantages like not developing communicative skills, it still has value for certain goals and contexts. The method is based on theories of developing logical thinking and exposure to literature. It remains commonly used due to teacher skills required and ease of testing grammar knowledge through translation exercises. Overall, its appropriate use depends on the learning objectives and needs of the students.
This study aims at explaining the confusion that led by the misuse of English grammatical structures when conveying meanings in written English texts. Indicating how committing certain errors in written English structures constrains Sudanese English learners’ performance. Investigating English grammatical structures experienced by Sudanese learners who are preparing to graduate with B.A. in English. Therefore, the roles that grammatical structures play in models of communicative competence are discussed in this paper. Additionally, the study explains the role of mastering these structures in communicative purposes. The obtained results revealed that Sudanese students are incompetent in using grammar well enough for some real-communicational purpose. Grammatical structures play a role in language communicative competence for the learners of English language. Learners’ mastery of the language communicative ability is affected when language learners are unable to successfully communicate in L2 without cultural knowledge of what is considered appropriate according to a particular context in the target language.
The major thrust of this research has been a psycholinguistic analysis of effectiveness of topic familiarity and two types of translation tasks (from L1 to L2 and L2 to L1) on retention of incidental vocabulary learning for a longer duration. The effects of translation tasks and topic familiarity have been studied individually .However, the relative effect of topic familiarity conditions and translation in two directions have not been attended to in longer period of time. In doing so, thirty intermediate EFL students were asked to translate a few texts in two directions with two conditions of topic (un)familiarity .Each text contains some unknown words .The students were tested on these unknown words and the responses were examined in immediate and delayed post tests. The delayed post test session held after 2 weeks. The results show that, unlike the revised hierarchical model (RHM), translation task directions did not have significant effect on incidental vocabulary learning while retention was more effective with topic familiar texts in the both tests .In addition, topic familiarity of the texts play an important part in the process of incidental vocabulary learning. The article concludes with some suggestions for task designing and vocabulary teaching.
The document discusses the Grammar Translation Method, a traditional approach for teaching Latin and ancient Greek. The goal was to develop logical thinking, intellectual abilities, and the ability to read original texts through translating sentences and analyzing grammar rules. While originally used for "dead" languages, it was later applied to modern foreign language teaching. Key features included teaching in the native language with little active use of the target language, focusing on memorizing vocabulary lists and grammar rules, translating texts, and giving little attention to pronunciation or communication. Some advantages were that it required few teacher skills and tests were easily scored, but disadvantages were that it could be boring and not develop communicative skills. The method is still sometimes used due to standardized tests not assessing communication and
Grammar is the basic of a language. Without learning grammar language learning is incomplete. Now a day, communicative English has diminished the importance of teaching grammar. As a result, proper English learning is being hampered in many levels. Learners are using English without learning it. Communicative English has strengthened the speaking skills of the learners. But without proper use of Grammar non-native learners are not being able to write in English as much as they speak. Of course, linguistic competence and communicative competence is not the same thing but without one the other is vague. The misconception about the implementation of the modern method Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) is that it does not incorporate Grammar. From this misconception Grammar is being ignored and it has become important to bring about a change in the selection and grading procedures of communicative grammar teaching materials. This paper deals with the importance of explicit and implicit grammar, suggestion about the implementation of strong and weak version of CLT, needs analysis, selection and grading procedures to choose appropriate materials for teaching communicative English grammar in different levels of CLT classroom in Bangladesh.
Observing learning and teaching in the second language classroomAlobaidi77
- The document summarizes research on observing learning and teaching in second language classrooms. It describes key differences between natural and instructional language acquisition settings. It also outlines several studies that developed observation schemes to analyze teaching practices, corrective feedback, teacher questioning behaviors, and the social and political contexts impacting second language learning.
This document summarizes the key differences between tasks and exercises in second language teaching. Tasks are distinguished from exercises based on four criteria: 1) a primary focus on meaning, 2) a communicative gap that motivates language use, 3) participants using their own resources, and 4) a clearly defined communicative outcome. Tasks are argued to develop implicit linguistic knowledge, while exercises can develop explicit knowledge. The document discusses three approaches to incorporating tasks in language teaching based on theories of the relationship between implicit and explicit knowledge: a task-supported approach, a task-based approach, and a modular approach.
When you compare two elements and their characteristics, is easier to visualize similarities and differences, and in the case of the approaches is easier to different the different aspects of the concepts involved, therefore identifying what's the role of the teacher, the student and the ability makes a way easier when it comes the time to pick up the role that the teacher would like to play or the ability that the teacher would like to emphasize, always based on the type of students, so the content can be presented in a more close and effective way.
Relationship between Creativity and Tolerance of Ambiguity to Understand Metaphorical Polysemy: A Pilot Study
Maha Ounis,
University of Sfax, Tunisia
The Sixth International Conference on Languages, Linguistics, Translation and Literature
9-10 October 2021 , Ahwaz
For more information, please visit the conference website:
WWW.LLLD.IR
Theorizing Soundwalls: Listening Within The NoiseJaclyn Heyen
This document discusses the concept of soundwalls and listening modes. It defines key terms like soundscape, listening-in-search, listening-in-readiness, background listening, inclusive soundwalls, seclusive soundwalls, and intrusive soundwalls. It also describes an art installation called Tinny Scoots that was created by the author to explore these concepts. The author proposes further studying how listening modes are affected by soundwalls and how soundwalls impact social interactions.
1. The document discusses the history and importance of listening skills in language learning. It was not until the 1960s that listening began to be seen as an active rather than passive skill.
2. The cognitive processing of listening involves both top-down and bottom-up processing. Effective listening instruction incorporates tasks that require learners to listen and then do something with the information, as well as activities that develop strategic listening skills.
3. Developing listening skills requires using authentic materials, making the content relevant to learners, and providing opportunities for learners to practice both global and selective listening.
The document discusses the four main language skills of listening, speaking, reading, and writing that are important goals in language learning. It focuses on listening skills, describing listening as the ability to accurately receive messages. It provides tips for teachers on preparing, engaging, and following up with students during listening activities or lessons. These include introducing topics, specifying what to listen for, and extending the topic after through discussion or other exercises. The document also outlines different types of listening like appreciative, empathetic, comprehensive, and critical listening. It provides dos and don'ts for being an effective listener, such as being mentally prepared, avoiding distractions, asking clarifying questions, and sending appropriate non-verbal signals.
This document discusses different types of listening including appreciative, empathic, comprehensive, and critical listening. It also discusses causes of poor listening such as not concentrating, listening too hard, jumping to conclusions, and focusing on delivery or appearance rather than content. Additionally, it provides tips for becoming a better listener such as taking listening seriously, being an active listener, resisting distractions, suspending judgment, developing note-taking skills, and focusing on main points, evidence, and technique.
Morphology of flowering plants - I (root, stem & leaf)Aarif Kanadia
This document provides information on plant root morphology from Dr. Aarif. It discusses the key parts and regions of the root including the root cap, meristematic region, elongation region, root hair region, and maturation region. It describes the functions of roots and modifications such as taproots and adventitious root systems. Taproots are further divided into storage roots like conical, fusiform, and napiform roots. Adventitious roots can form prop roots, stilt roots, and climbing roots. The document also discusses underground modifications like rhizomes, tubers, corms, and bulbs which allow for food storage, perennation, and vegetative propagation.
This article discusses an approach to ESL/EFL teaching that aims to help teachers bridge the gap between theoretical knowledge and practical application in the classroom. It proposes integrating an understanding of language variation across communication contexts, using corpus-based descriptive grammar, and incorporating scaffolded language learning activities based on sociocultural theory. This specific approach is intended to address challenges faced by K-12 teachers in connecting theory to practice by providing concrete models of language use.
This document discusses bringing discourse analysis into the language classroom. It makes three main points:
1. Discourse analysis requires a change in perspective from language as an autonomous system to language as a means of communication. This reflects how language is studied in linguistics.
2. There are three premises to consider when bringing discourse analysis to the classroom: a) communicative competence, b) the role of context and language variation, and c) the negotiation of intentions and interpretations in communication.
3. Developing learner awareness of discourse involves reflecting on appropriate language use based on context rather than just form. This requires reexamining traditional teaching methods.
Students’ Perceptions of Grammar Teaching and Learning in English Language Cl...iosrjce
The use of grammar teaching in the field of second language acquisition has been extensively
studied, but there is a lacuna in the literature, regarding the students’ perception of its importance. To
investigate this aspect, the study was conducted on a group of 15 students studying in Semester Five, in the
English Language Department of Misurata University, Libya. The students were interviewed in groups of three
with nine specific questions, and the responses were audio-taped and transcribed verbatim. The findings
revealed that although they all came from the same cultural, linguistic and educational backgrounds, they had
different perceptions regarding the form focused instruction of grammar. The information gathered is of
considerable significance to ESL teachers who intend to meet students’ needs as well as reduce conflicts caused
by different perspectives between teachers and students regarding whether or not grammar teaching should be
encouraged in the classroom.
This document discusses pragmatics in foreign language contexts. It defines pragmatics and interlanguage pragmatics, which examines how learners acquire the pragmatic systems of a target language. Pragmatic competence is part of communicative competence and involves appropriate language use. Research has studied how factors like input, proficiency, length of stay, transfer from other languages, and instruction influence pragmatic development. Studies show differences between native and non-native speakers' speech acts and perceptions. Classroom research requires considering theories, data collection methods, and obtaining appropriate data to understand pragmatic learning.
this is the study teacher Educationof firset 4 chapter of the book written by Burn & Richards Terend of teacher education from 1960s up to now and idiological and power influence on this terend
Task-Based Language Teaching, an analytic approach focusing on form, with a task-based syllabus starting with output and putting emphasis on learning outcomes, may have a positive impact on the development of learners’ language proficiency and thinking skills in L2 classrooms. By implementing a TBLT approach which is free from the limitation of synthetic approach focusing on forms and analytic approach focusing on meaning, L2 learners can benefit from its efficiency promoting both in communication competence and linguistic awareness. In addition to the advantage of TBLT approaches, a task-based syllabus, as one of the typical backward design, focusing on output or learning outcomes, are more effective in enhancing learners’ language proficiency than that in other syllabuses focusing on input or process. Moreover, learners’ thinking skills can be achieved in a task-based syllabus integrating language proficiency with thinking skill tasks.
The document discusses Task-Based Language Teaching (TBLT), an approach to language instruction centered around the use of tasks. Some key points:
- TBLT uses tasks as the core unit of planning and instruction, drawing on principles of Communicative Language Teaching. Tasks involve real communication and using language for meaningful purposes.
- A task is an activity or goal carried out using language. Examples include problem-solving, decision-making, information sharing. Tasks can be designed based on real-world or pedagogical needs.
- Proponents argue tasks provide better opportunities for language learning than traditional form-focused instruction. Tasks require negotiation of meaning and meaningful communication.
- The teacher
The Communicative Approach emphasizes interaction and communication as both the means and goal of language learning. It developed in response to criticisms of previous audiolingual and situational teaching methods. Key aspects of the Communicative Approach include focusing on communicative competence over grammatical rules, using functional and notional categories to organize syllabi, and incorporating meaningful, task-based learning activities. Proponents argue this makes language learning more relevant, motivating, and learner-centered. However, critics note it may neglect formal language structures and be difficult to implement in some classrooms. Overall, the Communicative Approach aims to make language teaching more functional and interactive.
This document discusses the communicative language teaching (CLT) approach. It emphasizes that CLT focuses on interaction as both the means and ultimate goal of language learning. It views language as a social practice for communication. The goals of CLT are to enable students to communicate in the target language by providing opportunities to use language communicatively. Students practice communication through activities like games and problem-solving tasks using authentic materials. The teacher facilitates communication and interaction between students. Errors are tolerated as students practice communicating meaning over strict accuracy.
This document summarizes an academic paper presented at an international conference on language teaching. The paper discusses an approach to ESL/EFL instruction that integrates an understanding of how language varies across communication contexts, uses corpus-based descriptive grammar, and incorporates scaffolded language learning activities based on sociocultural theory. It argues this approach can help bridge the gap between theoretical knowledge and classroom application for teachers by providing specific models of language use.
This document summarizes a paper that discusses an approach to ESL/EFL instruction aimed at helping teachers bridge the gap between theory and practice. The approach integrates:
1) A focus on how language varies across communication contexts to make instruction more accurate and effective.
2) The use of corpus-based descriptive grammar to provide representative models of natural English usage across contexts.
3) The implementation of scaffolded language learning activities based on sociocultural theory, where learning occurs through social interaction.
This document summarizes an academic paper presented at an international conference on language teaching. The paper discusses an approach to ESL/EFL instruction that integrates an understanding of how language varies across communication contexts, uses corpus-based descriptive grammar, and incorporates scaffolded language learning activities based on sociocultural theory. It argues this approach can help bridge the gap between theoretical knowledge and classroom application for teachers by providing specific models of language use.
This document provides an overview of effective approaches to teaching pragmatics in ESL/EFL classrooms. It discusses how pragmatics instruction has traditionally focused on lists and dialogues, which do not develop pragmatic competence. More recent approaches integrate explicit and implicit instruction through awareness raising, interactive practice, and learner control. An effective approach uses a multi-phase process including explicit input, noticing activities, reflection, practice in various contexts, and developing learner abilities as researchers. Technology can also provide rich input for pragmatics learning inside and outside the classroom. Teachers must consider learners' individuality and freedom of choice when teaching pragmatics.
This document discusses the relationship between second language acquisition research and language teaching. It reviews how SLA research influenced communicative language teaching in the early 1980s and more recent proposals to integrate focus on form into meaning-based curricula. The document outlines four macro-options for focus on form interventions based on SLA research: input processing, input enhancement, form-focused output, and negative feedback. It also discusses issues related to choosing linguistic forms for focused instruction and how individual learner factors and context can affect benefits.
The document discusses the history and evolution of language teaching methodology over the 20th century. It begins by explaining how the concept of systematic language teaching methods emerged. It then defines methodology and distinguishes between methods and approaches. Several influential methods from the mid-20th century are described, including Situational Language Teaching, Audio-Lingualism, and Communicative Language Teaching. The document concludes by speculating about potential future directions for language teaching methodology.
A Review Of Second Language Teaching And Learning Through Short Fiction And C...Wendy Berg
This document discusses using short fiction and the communicative approach to teach second languages more effectively. It begins by noting that the traditional Grammar Translation Method focuses too much on memorization and translation, leaving students unable to communicate. The document then advocates for using literature and communicative activities to develop students' communicative competence. Short stories in particular are recommended because they can enhance listening, speaking, reading and writing skills through their authenticity and cultural content. When combined with a communicative approach that prioritizes using language in real-life situations, short stories provide motivating materials that introduce students to the target language culture. The document concludes that this approach is more effective for teaching language than the Grammar Translation Method.
Putting language teaching puzzle pieces togetherjonacuso
This document discusses the complex process of language teaching and learning. It argues that the classroom alone is not enough for successful language acquisition and that teachers must understand multiple variables that affect both students and instruction. These variables include the differences between a student's first and second languages, their motivations for learning, and what language teaching entails beyond communication. A teacher's role is to comprehend these variables, a student's motivations, and the full scope of linguistic concepts in order to integrate them into a coherent methodology that facilitates learning. The goal is to move beyond basic training and consider how linguistics and learning theory can enhance instructional practice.
The teacher taught grammar deductively by explaining rules and then providing examples to clarify and correct mistakes. She believes this direct approach is best for Spanish speakers learning English. The teacher used strategies like relating grammar to learning goals and providing language input. She employed meaningful and communicative drills but not mechanical drills. Overall, the teacher's approach was consistent with theories about presenting grammar deductively and tailoring instruction to students' needs.
Current Approaches.pptxggggggggggggggggggggggggggzgekaragz3
This document discusses current approaches to materials and methods in English language teaching. It addresses misconceptions about communicative language teaching and examines how current materials have evolved from traditional approaches while incorporating the best elements. Current materials emphasize authentic real-world language, diverse learner needs, and integrated skills. They organize content around topics and functions as well as formal linguistic elements. Vocabulary is taught through meaningful contexts, and tasks are used to make language learning goal-oriented and focus on both accuracy and fluency. Individual learner differences are also considered in materials design.
This study aimed to determine the effectiveness of using the mother tongue language as a tool for teaching mathematics to grade 3 pupils in Hondagua Elementary School. A total of 115 grade 3 pupils were surveyed about their performance in examinations on the four fundamental operations. Most respondents were 8 years old females. Examination results showed that half of respondents scored 10 out of 10 in multiplication, making it the most learned operation, while division was least learned with most scoring below average. The study concluded that using the mother tongue language benefits learning as it allows pupils to easily understand concepts.
Ivanti’s Patch Tuesday breakdown goes beyond patching your applications and brings you the intelligence and guidance needed to prioritize where to focus your attention first. Catch early analysis on our Ivanti blog, then join industry expert Chris Goettl for the Patch Tuesday Webinar Event. There we’ll do a deep dive into each of the bulletins and give guidance on the risks associated with the newly-identified vulnerabilities.
How to Interpret Trends in the Kalyan Rajdhani Mix Chart.pdfChart Kalyan
A Mix Chart displays historical data of numbers in a graphical or tabular form. The Kalyan Rajdhani Mix Chart specifically shows the results of a sequence of numbers over different periods.
Skybuffer SAM4U tool for SAP license adoptionTatiana Kojar
Manage and optimize your license adoption and consumption with SAM4U, an SAP free customer software asset management tool.
SAM4U, an SAP complimentary software asset management tool for customers, delivers a detailed and well-structured overview of license inventory and usage with a user-friendly interface. We offer a hosted, cost-effective, and performance-optimized SAM4U setup in the Skybuffer Cloud environment. You retain ownership of the system and data, while we manage the ABAP 7.58 infrastructure, ensuring fixed Total Cost of Ownership (TCO) and exceptional services through the SAP Fiori interface.
Salesforce Integration for Bonterra Impact Management (fka Social Solutions A...Jeffrey Haguewood
Sidekick Solutions uses Bonterra Impact Management (fka Social Solutions Apricot) and automation solutions to integrate data for business workflows.
We believe integration and automation are essential to user experience and the promise of efficient work through technology. Automation is the critical ingredient to realizing that full vision. We develop integration products and services for Bonterra Case Management software to support the deployment of automations for a variety of use cases.
This video focuses on integration of Salesforce with Bonterra Impact Management.
Interested in deploying an integration with Salesforce for Bonterra Impact Management? Contact us at sales@sidekicksolutionsllc.com to discuss next steps.
GraphRAG for Life Science to increase LLM accuracyTomaz Bratanic
GraphRAG for life science domain, where you retriever information from biomedical knowledge graphs using LLMs to increase the accuracy and performance of generated answers
Skybuffer AI: Advanced Conversational and Generative AI Solution on SAP Busin...Tatiana Kojar
Skybuffer AI, built on the robust SAP Business Technology Platform (SAP BTP), is the latest and most advanced version of our AI development, reaffirming our commitment to delivering top-tier AI solutions. Skybuffer AI harnesses all the innovative capabilities of the SAP BTP in the AI domain, from Conversational AI to cutting-edge Generative AI and Retrieval-Augmented Generation (RAG). It also helps SAP customers safeguard their investments into SAP Conversational AI and ensure a seamless, one-click transition to SAP Business AI.
With Skybuffer AI, various AI models can be integrated into a single communication channel such as Microsoft Teams. This integration empowers business users with insights drawn from SAP backend systems, enterprise documents, and the expansive knowledge of Generative AI. And the best part of it is that it is all managed through our intuitive no-code Action Server interface, requiring no extensive coding knowledge and making the advanced AI accessible to more users.
Your One-Stop Shop for Python Success: Top 10 US Python Development Providersakankshawande
Simplify your search for a reliable Python development partner! This list presents the top 10 trusted US providers offering comprehensive Python development services, ensuring your project's success from conception to completion.
Taking AI to the Next Level in Manufacturing.pdfssuserfac0301
Read Taking AI to the Next Level in Manufacturing to gain insights on AI adoption in the manufacturing industry, such as:
1. How quickly AI is being implemented in manufacturing.
2. Which barriers stand in the way of AI adoption.
3. How data quality and governance form the backbone of AI.
4. Organizational processes and structures that may inhibit effective AI adoption.
6. Ideas and approaches to help build your organization's AI strategy.
5th LF Energy Power Grid Model Meet-up SlidesDanBrown980551
5th Power Grid Model Meet-up
It is with great pleasure that we extend to you an invitation to the 5th Power Grid Model Meet-up, scheduled for 6th June 2024. This event will adopt a hybrid format, allowing participants to join us either through an online Mircosoft Teams session or in person at TU/e located at Den Dolech 2, Eindhoven, Netherlands. The meet-up will be hosted by Eindhoven University of Technology (TU/e), a research university specializing in engineering science & technology.
Power Grid Model
The global energy transition is placing new and unprecedented demands on Distribution System Operators (DSOs). Alongside upgrades to grid capacity, processes such as digitization, capacity optimization, and congestion management are becoming vital for delivering reliable services.
Power Grid Model is an open source project from Linux Foundation Energy and provides a calculation engine that is increasingly essential for DSOs. It offers a standards-based foundation enabling real-time power systems analysis, simulations of electrical power grids, and sophisticated what-if analysis. In addition, it enables in-depth studies and analysis of the electrical power grid’s behavior and performance. This comprehensive model incorporates essential factors such as power generation capacity, electrical losses, voltage levels, power flows, and system stability.
Power Grid Model is currently being applied in a wide variety of use cases, including grid planning, expansion, reliability, and congestion studies. It can also help in analyzing the impact of renewable energy integration, assessing the effects of disturbances or faults, and developing strategies for grid control and optimization.
What to expect
For the upcoming meetup we are organizing, we have an exciting lineup of activities planned:
-Insightful presentations covering two practical applications of the Power Grid Model.
-An update on the latest advancements in Power Grid -Model technology during the first and second quarters of 2024.
-An interactive brainstorming session to discuss and propose new feature requests.
-An opportunity to connect with fellow Power Grid Model enthusiasts and users.
Best 20 SEO Techniques To Improve Website Visibility In SERPPixlogix Infotech
Boost your website's visibility with proven SEO techniques! Our latest blog dives into essential strategies to enhance your online presence, increase traffic, and rank higher on search engines. From keyword optimization to quality content creation, learn how to make your site stand out in the crowded digital landscape. Discover actionable tips and expert insights to elevate your SEO game.
HCL Notes und Domino Lizenzkostenreduzierung in der Welt von DLAUpanagenda
Webinar Recording: https://www.panagenda.com/webinars/hcl-notes-und-domino-lizenzkostenreduzierung-in-der-welt-von-dlau/
DLAU und die Lizenzen nach dem CCB- und CCX-Modell sind für viele in der HCL-Community seit letztem Jahr ein heißes Thema. Als Notes- oder Domino-Kunde haben Sie vielleicht mit unerwartet hohen Benutzerzahlen und Lizenzgebühren zu kämpfen. Sie fragen sich vielleicht, wie diese neue Art der Lizenzierung funktioniert und welchen Nutzen sie Ihnen bringt. Vor allem wollen Sie sicherlich Ihr Budget einhalten und Kosten sparen, wo immer möglich. Das verstehen wir und wir möchten Ihnen dabei helfen!
Wir erklären Ihnen, wie Sie häufige Konfigurationsprobleme lösen können, die dazu führen können, dass mehr Benutzer gezählt werden als nötig, und wie Sie überflüssige oder ungenutzte Konten identifizieren und entfernen können, um Geld zu sparen. Es gibt auch einige Ansätze, die zu unnötigen Ausgaben führen können, z. B. wenn ein Personendokument anstelle eines Mail-Ins für geteilte Mailboxen verwendet wird. Wir zeigen Ihnen solche Fälle und deren Lösungen. Und natürlich erklären wir Ihnen das neue Lizenzmodell.
Nehmen Sie an diesem Webinar teil, bei dem HCL-Ambassador Marc Thomas und Gastredner Franz Walder Ihnen diese neue Welt näherbringen. Es vermittelt Ihnen die Tools und das Know-how, um den Überblick zu bewahren. Sie werden in der Lage sein, Ihre Kosten durch eine optimierte Domino-Konfiguration zu reduzieren und auch in Zukunft gering zu halten.
Diese Themen werden behandelt
- Reduzierung der Lizenzkosten durch Auffinden und Beheben von Fehlkonfigurationen und überflüssigen Konten
- Wie funktionieren CCB- und CCX-Lizenzen wirklich?
- Verstehen des DLAU-Tools und wie man es am besten nutzt
- Tipps für häufige Problembereiche, wie z. B. Team-Postfächer, Funktions-/Testbenutzer usw.
- Praxisbeispiele und Best Practices zum sofortigen Umsetzen
Introduction of Cybersecurity with OSS at Code Europe 2024Hiroshi SHIBATA
I develop the Ruby programming language, RubyGems, and Bundler, which are package managers for Ruby. Today, I will introduce how to enhance the security of your application using open-source software (OSS) examples from Ruby and RubyGems.
The first topic is CVE (Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures). I have published CVEs many times. But what exactly is a CVE? I'll provide a basic understanding of CVEs and explain how to detect and handle vulnerabilities in OSS.
Next, let's discuss package managers. Package managers play a critical role in the OSS ecosystem. I'll explain how to manage library dependencies in your application.
I'll share insights into how the Ruby and RubyGems core team works to keep our ecosystem safe. By the end of this talk, you'll have a better understanding of how to safeguard your code.
Digital Marketing Trends in 2024 | Guide for Staying AheadWask
https://www.wask.co/ebooks/digital-marketing-trends-in-2024
Feeling lost in the digital marketing whirlwind of 2024? Technology is changing, consumer habits are evolving, and staying ahead of the curve feels like a never-ending pursuit. This e-book is your compass. Dive into actionable insights to handle the complexities of modern marketing. From hyper-personalization to the power of user-generated content, learn how to build long-term relationships with your audience and unlock the secrets to success in the ever-shifting digital landscape.
Digital Marketing Trends in 2024 | Guide for Staying Ahead
Blog
1. Why Do L2 Teachers Need to ‘Know About
Language’? Teacher Metalinguistic
Awareness and Input for Learning
Stephen Andrews
Department of Curriculum Studies, University of Hong Kong
This paper sets out to examine the importance in the instructed-learning setting of the
L2 teacher’s ‘knowledge about language’ (her metalinguistic awareness, or TMA).
Three questions are examined in relation to TMA: (1) Do L2 teachers need to ‘know
about language?’ (2) If so, why, and in what ways? and (3) What impact does the
level/nature of a teacher’s metalinguistic awareness have on the input which is made
available for learning? The paper first of all adopts a theoretical stance in relation to
these three questions. A model of TMA is proposed where it is seen as performing a
crucial role in the language teaching/language learning process because of its potential
impact upon input for learning. The paper then examines empirical evidence relating
to the three questions and to the validity of the TMA construct by reporting on data
gathered from classroom observation and semi-structured interviews with three L2
teachers working in secondary schools in Hong Kong.
Introduction
The arguments in support of the assertion that L2 teachers need a sound
‘knowledge about language’ (‘teacher metalinguistic awareness’, or TMA, in the
terminology used in this paper) may seem self-evident, since for hundreds of
years grammar, and a focus on form, have been at the heart of language teaching,
first of classical languages and then of modern languages. Throughout these
centuries, as Howatt (1984) records, there has been the occasional dissident to
challenge the grammar-based orthodoxy. But until the 1960s the majority of the
differences of opinion with regard to grammar centred upon how it should be
3. cannot promote this implicit knowledge, and that there is no interface between
the two types of knowledge, i.e. learning cannot become acquisition. As a result,
the only value of formal instruction is in helping to develop explicit knowledge,
which is seen by Krashen as having very limited use, for the purposes of monitoring, and then only
when the learner has time to monitor her output. Prabhu’s
views are a little different: it is not so much that formal instruction cannot
promote the learning of grammar, but rather that grammar is learnt more effectively through
communication. Though Krashen’s position has been challenged
by many writers, among them McLaughlin (1987) and Gregg (1984), his ideas
and those of Prabhu have nevertheless had a profound influence on language
teaching and helped to destabilise perceptions of the role of form-focused
instruction.
In the past ten years, for a variety of reasons, the pendulum has started to
swing back, with grammar and form-focused instruction enjoying something of
a return to favour. In part this was caused by the reaction against Krashen’s
views, with his assumption that there is no interface between explicit and
implicit knowledge being dismissed as simplistic (Sharwood Smith, 1981: 166),
and with many of his critics arguing, as Mitchell (1994: 90) describes, that ‘…
learning can become acquisition’. During this period, the nature of the role
played by the learner’s conscious mental processes in L2 acquisition has been
widely discussed in the literature (see, for example, the studies cited in Schmidt,
1993: 207). One of the suggestions which has come to the fore in these more recent
reassessments of the role of explicit knowledge of grammar in L2 learning is that
‘consciousness-raising’ (Rutherford, 1987) or ‘input enhancement’ (Sharwood
Smith, 1991) — i.e. focusing the learner’s attention on highlighted aspects of
input — has a valuable role to play in the language learning process. Other
4. factors have also contributed to a renewed interest in the role of explicit knowledge of grammar,
in the teaching of L1 as well as L2. In the UK, for instance, the
Language Awareness movement (with its origins in the work of Hawkins, 1981,
1984) has been highly influential.
In spite of this revived support for the value of focusing on form, there is still
uncertainty, for many teachers, about the role of grammar and how it is most efficiently taught
and learnt. Among teachers who are themselves products of an
education system in which the formal teaching of grammar was anathema, this
uncertainty is often accompanied by considerable worry and doubt about their
own KAL (or metalinguistic awareness), and about the impact it might have in
the teaching/learning process. It is this knowledge (TMA) which forms the focus
of the rest of the paper.
The paper sets out to address three questions in relation to TMA:
162 Language and Education(1) Do L2 teachers need to ‘know about language’?
(2) If so, why? and in what ways?
(3) What impact does the level/nature of a teacher’s metalinguistic awareness
have on the input which is made available for learning?
The discussion is in two main parts. In the first, a theoretical stance is adopted
in relation to these three questions, and a model of TMA is proposed where it is
seen as performing a crucial role in the language teaching/language learning
process because of its potential impact upon input for learning. The second part
of the paper examines empirical evidence relating to the three questions and to
the validity of the TMA construct by reporting on data gathered from classroom
observation and semi-structured interviews with L2 teachers.
What is ‘Teacher Metalinguistic Awareness’ (TMA)?
Before proceeding further, we should discuss what is meant by TMA — is it
5. any different from the explicit (declarative) knowledge of language referred to
earlier in relation to learners? As a starting point it might be helpful to consider
Thornbury’s (1997: x) definition of teachers’ language awareness as ‘… the
knowledge that teachers have of the underlying systems of the language that
enables them to teach effectively’. If we explore the nature of that knowledge a
little further, its relationship with explicit language knowledge and the reasons
for using the term TMA may become clearer.
The term ‘metalinguistic’ as used in this paper is meant to reflect the qualitative differences
between the language knowledge/awareness of the educated
user of a language and that required by the teacher of that language. In order to
be an effective communicator in the language, in both the spoken and written
media, the former needs to draw on both implicit and explicit language knowledge. In the same
way, the teacher of that language also needs to be able to draw
on such knowledge. The extent to which she is able to do so determines how well
she is able to act as a model for her students. However, effective L2 teaching
requires of the teacher more than just the possession of such knowledge and the
ability to draw upon it for communicative purposes. The L2 teacher also needs to
reflect upon that knowledge and ability, and upon her knowledge of the underlying systems of the
language, in order to ensure that her students receive maximally useful input for learning. These
reflections bring an extra cognitive
dimension to the teacher’s language knowledge/awareness, which informs the
tasks of planning and teaching. It is in acknowledgement of the importance of
this cognitive dimension that the term ‘metalinguistic’is employed in the present
paper.
At the same time, the term ‘awareness’ is used in preference to ‘knowledge’ in
order to emphasise the important difference between the possession of knowledge and the use
made of such knowledge — the declarative and procedural
6. dimensions. As part of her explicit language knowledge, a teacher might, for
example, have a highly developed knowledge of metalanguage. However,
whether such knowledge was used appropriately would be determined by that
teacher’s metalinguistic awareness. Depending on the context, the
metalinguistically aware teacher might well make minimal use of metalanguage
in the classroom, however extensive her own knowledge might be.
Teacher Metalinguistic Awareness and Imput for Learning 163In principle, TMA is applicable to the
full range of a teacher’s language knowledge and awareness. The focus of the present paper,
however, is limited to
grammar. Explicit knowledge of grammar is seen as forming the core of any L2
teacher’s metalinguistic awareness.
How Might TMA Ideally Reveal Itself When the Focus is on Form?
Having now defined TMA, and noted that the present paper is focusing
specifically upon grammar, it is appropriate to consider how TMA might ideally
manifest itself in teacher behaviour where the pedagogical approach incorporates a focus on
form. This is discussed both by Andrews (1994), and also by
Leech (1994) in his analysis of the ‘mature communicative knowledge’ of
grammar required by the teacher.
According to Leech, the ‘model’ teacher of languages should be able to put
across ‘… a sense of how grammar interacts with the lexicon as a communicative
system …’ and ‘… be able to analyse the grammatical problems that learners
encounter’. At the same time, such a teacher should ‘… have the ability and confidence to evaluate
the use of grammar, especially by learners, against criteria of
accuracy, appropriateness and expressiveness’, and ‘… be aware of the
contrastive relations between native language and foreign language’. Lastly, the
‘model’ teacher should ‘… understand and implement the processes of simplification by which
overt knowledge of grammar can best be presented to learners at
7. different stages of learning’ (Leech, 1994: 18)
As with any such list, one might wish to suggest certain modifications. For
instance, one might want to add another aspect of simplification to those
mentioned by Leech, to suggest that the ‘model’ (i.e. metalinguistically aware)
teacher should control her own use of language to a level appropriate to her
students. Whatever minor adjustments one might feel inclined to make, such a
list nevertheless provides a useful inventory of facets of teacher behaviour when
observing samples of TMA in action.
Is TMA Important Only in L2 Classrooms Where the Focus is on
Form?
Before moving on, it is important to consider the extent to which postulating a
construct ‘teacher metalinguistic awareness’ with explicit knowledge of
grammar at its core presupposes a form-focused
1
approach to language teaching.
This question is of particular importance given the challenges to form-focused
instruction referred to earlier, and the fact that the force of these challenges still
reverberates within the profession.
It should be clear from the preceding discussion that TMA can potentially play
a crucial role in determining the success of any form-focused approach designed
to develop learners’ explicit knowledge. For instance, within a traditional‘P-P-P’
(Presentation-Practice-Production) teaching sequence, TMA is a significant
factor at each stage from lesson preparation through to the provision of corrective feedback.
Less obviously perhaps, the adoption of an approach which is primarily
meaning-focused
2
8. may in fact pose no less of a challenge to a teacher’s
metalinguistic awareness, and TMA may be no less crucial to the success of such
164 Language and Educationan approach. For example, the selection of suitable learning tasks in a
meaning-focused approach may involve considering such factors as the potential
linguistic demands of the task and the linguistic capacity of the learners to cope
with those demands. Also, learners following a course which adopts a meaning-focused approach
may in fact attend to form, and therefore demand from the
teacher explanations of formal features, and feedback on the form of their
attempts at producing English. In addition, approaches to teaching which claim
to be meaning-focused may in any case be covertly form-focused or may have a
form-focused strand.
Even within those approaches which are the least sympathetic to
form-focused instruction (such as those inspired by Krashen), one could argue
that TMA plays a significant part in the effectiveness or otherwise of what takes
place in the classroom. Krashen’s Input Hypothesis (Krashen, 1981, 1985), for
example, proposes that ‘comprehensible input’ is a major causative factor in L2
acquisition. If a teacher wanted her classroomto be a major source of comprehensible input and
therefore an ‘acquisition-rich’ environment, then she would
presumably need to make decisions about the current stage of development of
her students’ ‘acquired systems’, and:
· select texts providing comprehensible input;
· devise tasks entailing an appropriate level of linguistic challenge; and
· control her own language to a level a little beyond the students’ current
level of competence.
All of these tasks would pose considerable challenges to the teacher’s
metalinguistic awareness.
The Role of TMA in Structuring Input for Learners
9. There may continue to be disagreements about the precise nature of the part
which input plays in language learning (compare, for instance, the views
expressed in Long, 1981 and White, 1987). There is, however, no doubt that
learners need to be exposed to L2 input as a precondition for learning to take
place.
In the context of any L2 classroom, the three main sources of input for learners
are materials, other learners, and the teacher herself. The model below is
intended to show how a teacher’s metalinguistic awareness can interact with the
language produced by all three sources, operating as a kind of ‘filter’ affecting
the way in which each source of input is made available to the learner. The
language in teaching materials, for example, may be filtered as a result of having
been specifically selected by the teacher or mediated through teacher presentation. On the other
hand, it may be available to students in ‘unfiltered’ form, as
when a textbook is studied at home independently of the teacher. The language
produced by learners may also be ‘filtered’ through the teacher’s metalinguistic
awareness, as a result, for instance, of teacher correction, or it may be available to
other learners in unfiltered form, as in unmonitored group discussion. Even the
language produced by the teacher herself may not necessarily be filtered by the
teacher’s metalinguistic awareness. In any language lesson the teacher may
produce language where she is fully aware of the potential of that language as
input for learning and therefore structures it accordingly. In the same lesson,
Teacher Metalinguistic Awareness and Imput for Learning 165however, there will almost certainly
be many teacher utterances which are less
consciously monitored, and which are not intended by the teacher to lead to
learning, but which are nevertheless potentially available to the learner as input
(see Figure 1).
10. There are a number of factors which affect the extent to which TMA interacts
with each of these three sources of input. Time constraints, for instance, have a
major impact:limits on the time available for preparation have a significant influence upon the
teacher’s ability to filter the input from materials, while the ‘real
time’ constraints and distractions of the classroom inevitably restrict the
teacher’s scope for filtering potential input which occurs spontaneously during
the lesson. The quality of all three sources of ‘filtered’ input will also be critically
influenced by the extent of the teacher’s explicit knowledge, her confidence in
her own knowledge, and her awareness in making use of her knowledge.
The Impact of TMA upon Input for Learning — Some Preliminary
Findings
The remainder of the paper attempts to shed light on the potential impact of
TMA upon the input which is made available for learning. Drawing upon data
gathered as part of an in-depth study of the TMA of 17 Hong Kong secondary
school teachers of English, the paper examines preliminary evidence from a
sample of three of these teachers. These three teachers were selected as being
representative of different levels of metalinguistic awareness. As part of the
166 Language and Education
Figure 1in-depth study all 17 teachers were observed on two occasions when they were
giving a grammar-based lesson as part of their normal teaching sequence. The
first of the two lessons was videotaped, while the second was audiotaped. Each
teacher was also interviewed twice, using a semi-structured format. The interviews were
audiotaped for subsequent analysis. In the following discussion,
which draws upon the interview and classroom data, a neutral stance is taken
towards the teachers’ approach to the teaching of grammar, since evaluative
comment on methodology is beyond the scope of the present paper. Instead, the
11. focus is on what was revealed about each teacher’s metalinguistic awareness,
and its effect upon the quality of the input made available to the students for
learning.
The teachers described in the paper are all Hong Kong Chinese, with at least
three years’ full-time teaching experience in secondary schools. All are graduates, in subjects
related to English, but with no professional training. At the time
the data were gathered, all the teachers were taking a two-year part-time postgraduate certificate
in education (PCEd) course at the University of Hong Kong.
3
The first interview and the first observed lesson took place at the beginning of
their course.
Rose
Rose’s education was spent entirely in Hong Kong, but she is the product of a
secondary school education which was wholly English-medium except for the
subjects of Chinese and Chinese History. She has a well-developed implicit
knowledge of grammar, which is reflected in her fluency and confidence as a
communicator both orally and in writing. She is far less confident about her
explicit knowledge, however — something she attributes to her experience at
school, which, according to her, involved little or no explicit teaching of
grammar:
Our teachers don’t teach us any grammar at all. We just take out our textbook and do the
exercises in reading comprehension or in writing …
instead of teaching us the grammar item …
Actually I am very afraid of grammar. I think it was influenced by the
secondary school. So I am afraid to teach grammar to my students too …
Possibly as a response to her learning experience (which she describes as ‘self
learning’) and her own resulting fear of grammar, Rose makes statements
12. suggesting that she is a firm believer in what she labels a ‘traditional’ approach to
learning grammar:
I think to learn a language we have to know the basic rules. I think we have
to learn grammar in a more traditional way. That means taking notes and
then remembering … and then recite the rules. I think we have to memorise
it instead ofmaking use of the communicativemethod to… learn grammar.
She feels that such an approach makes a valuable contribution to students’
developing ability to speak grammatically correct English:
… I still think that they’re really absent-minded students. Because … we
teach the same grammar item in form 1 to form 7, but they still don’t underTeacher Metalinguistic
Awareness and Imput for Learning 167stand. So if we do not teach the grammar items in our way
they don’t know
what is grammar actually. So we have to teach them grammar, and then by
teaching them this grammar here they can at least have some control over
their … grammar items.
In her implementation of this approach, Rose is heavily reliant on the textbook
and on ‘standardised exercises for the whole form prepared by the teachers …
[where] … you have to explain the sentence first and then ask them to fill in the
blanks’ In exploiting these materials, Rose follows a deductive, form-focused
approach, which she describes as follows in relation to the teaching of reported
speech:
I’ll give them a sheet of paper with tables. The tables tell them the rules of the
changes … from direct speech to indirect speech. The first one will be the
changes of tenses and then the changes of the time and place, in the next one
it will be the modal verbs. And then I’ll write down some of the sentences on
the blackboard and ask them to change it for me into reported speech. And
13. then I will tell them the different types in reported speech … that means
statement questions and then commands, and then we’ll do it together for
the whole class in the blackboard. And then I’ll give them exercises … the
purpose consolidation, to check whether they understand it or not.
Shortly after this interview Rose was observed giving a lesson on reported
speech which followed exactly the sequence described above. One feature of the
input throughout the lesson was that the ‘standardised exercises’ encouraged a
very formulaic application of all the ‘rules’, with the result that students were
being asked to produce extremely unnatural sentences when transforming direct
speech into indirect speech, for example:
The farmer told his wife ‘Go and feed the ducks now’
The farmer told his wife to go and feed the ducks then
The inadequacies of such input could, of course, be seen as a product of the
materials rather than any direct contribution from the teacher. Certainly, there
was little evidence that Rose’s TMA was actively engaged in filtering the content
of the worksheets. Whether this was due to a lack of time, a lack of confidence, or
a lack of metalinguistic awareness is hard to judge. However, Rose appeared not
to perceive any weakness in the exercises, even when prompted to do so in
post-lesson discussion, a fact which could in itself be taken as an indication of the
limitations of her TMA.
These limitations became apparent in the lesson, on the few occasions when
Rose either embellished or departed from the worksheet ‘script’, producing
statements which were potentially sources of great confusion for the students. In
the middle of the lesson, for instance, she attempted to give guidelines for
‘changes in modal verbs’:
OK now we’ll take a look at changes in modal verbs. Sometimes the word
14. must will remain unchanged. However, sometimes we have to change it
into had to. Do you know under what situations we will have to change the
word must into had to in reported speech? When the word must in the direct
168 Language and Educationspeech refers to something that happens in the future. So you have to
change it into had to in the reported speech, OK?’
This statement, which went beyond anything on the worksheet, directly
contradicts the ‘rules’ given in many reference grammars. For example,
according to Swan’s Practical English Usage: Second Edition: ‘The modals would,
should, could, might, ought and must are usually unchanged after past reporting
verbs in indirect speech’ (Swan, 1995: 505). Rose also did nothing to clarify her
prescriptive statement. Instead, appearing to accept the lack of response to her
‘OK?’ as an indication that the students had understood, she moved on to the
next item on the worksheet without further comment.
A second example of the potential confusion caused by the limitations of
Rose’s TMA came in the very lastmoments of the lesson, when the students were
given the following sentence to transform: Did you sleep well last night? he asked
her. The nominated student produced the transformation He asked her if she had
slept well the night before. Rose accepted the answer, rephrased the reported question, replacing
(without explanation) the night before with the previous night, and
then asked the class ‘Past perfect or past tense?’ After an inaudible response to
her question, she said: ‘That means you can either write had slept or slept. Either
one is correct.The past tense can remain unchanged in reported speech or change
it into past perfect, OK?’ Again no explanation, exemplification or clarification
was offered, very possibly because Rose was unable to offer any. For those
students whose attention was engaged, however, the input on this point must
have been highly confusing. On the one hand, Rose’s statement seemed to
15. confirm the impression given by the table in the ‘standardised exercises‘ that tense
selection in this case was totally arbitrary. On the other hand, the statement was
in direct contradiction to both the examples encountered earlier in the lesson
when the past tense in direct speech had been changed without question to past
perfect in reported speech.
When interviewed, Rose was very frank about the limitations of her TMA, and
offered a vivid example of its impact on input for learning as she described the
difficulties she had experienced in a recent lesson teaching passive voice, and her
inability to assist the efforts of one student to relate form to meaning:
It’s easy if you ask them to rewrite the sentences, because they find it easy to
follow. However, when you give them a context in paragraph, they cannot
fill in the correct verb. They just don’t know when are we supposed to use
passive voice and when we are supposed to use active voice. And one of the
students even asked me ‘Miss Wong, why do we have to use passive voice
in our daily life?’ and I find this question difficult to answer, ha, and I ‘Oh
I’ll tell you next time’ … and then I asked my colleagues ‘why do use and
teach passive voice?’ and no one can give me the correct answer. And then I
go home and think about it. But even now I really don’t know how to
answer that student’s questions. I finish the worksheets with them and they
know how to rewrite the sentences. But I don’t know how to explain to
them.
Benjamin
Benjamin is not such a fluent communicator as Rose, despite an experience of
Teacher Metalinguistic Awareness and Imput for Learning 169‘immersion’ in an English-speaking
environment for his tertiary studies, which
has left him with a strong North American accent. In contrast with Rose,
16. Benjamin claims to like grammar. He says that he enjoys teaching grammar,
because, in his words: ‘I’m just a grammar person I think’. However, like Rose,
Benjamin also feels that he did not learn much grammar from his own teachers:
‘When I learn more about grammar, I read books myself, because when I was in
secondary schools I didn’t learn much from the teachers’.
Benjamin’s experience as a teacher has led him to conclude that students lack
interest in grammar because they have so few opportunities to use English: ‘My
past impression is that they’re not quite interested in learning grammar, because
they don’t have chance to use it. Especially they have little chance to speak in
English’. As a result, Benjamin adopts an exam-oriented approach, which he
likens to ‘instant noodles’:
So my approach is realistically … target for tests and examinations I would
say. So it’s just like instant noodles … feed them, and they have to try to
have it, eat it yeh … learn something they need mechanically to fit in the
examinations and tests.
In following this exam-oriented approach to teaching Benjamin uses: ‘… basically the textbook. If I
have more time, I’ll prepare some worksheets for them. It is
better tailored … I think it is tailored, so it is easier for them to digest’.
In both the observed lessons (possibly because the lessons were being
observed) Benjamin attempted to go beyond the textbook to provide something
‘better tailored’ to the needs of his students. An analysis of the first of those
lessons will show the extent to which this made the ‘instant noodles’ easier to
digest, and the impact which Benjamin’s TMA had upon the input made available for learning.
In the interview, which happened to precede the observed lesson, Benjamin
identified his aim as:
I am going to teach future continuous tense today. I will relate it to their …
17. existing knowledge, and this is the present continuous tense.
In the actual lesson, Benjamin did indeed begin with recall of the present
continuous, a strategy which might have been useful if it had helped students
towards an appreciation of the common semantic features of progressive aspect
when used in combination with various verb forms. Benjamin, however, made
no such connections. Instead, having emphasised the link between present
continuous and now, his presentation of the future continuous merely pointed
out that the time referred to was future not present.
First, he introduced his topic: ‘Today I’d like to introduce you to a new one,
future continuous tense. What’s it all about, future continuous tense?’ Having
received no answer to his question, he gave an example:
Tom will be washing his car tomorrow morning. The time here is tomorrow
morning. It is not now. It is tomorrow morning.
He then drew a time-line in an attempt to clarify the time referred to:
I’m talking at this point of time [pointing to TODAY on time-line] … I’m
170 Language and EducationTeacher Metalinguistic Awareness and Imput for Learning 171
saying Tom will be washing his car tomorrow morning. This period OK?
[pointing to tomorrowmorning on time-line] … I’m talking about this time
and it hasn’t existed yet OK? The time still doesn’t happen yet, right?When
we are talking the situation like this, we use future continuous tense’
Having established the link between the future continuous and reference to
future time, Benjamin spent much of the remainder of the lesson focusing on
adverbial markers of future time reference, rather than any distinctive meaning
associated with the future continuous. As a result, when the class were doing a
mechanical practice exercise from the textbook, putting verbs into the future
continuous,
18. e.g. Thomas (complete) ................... his university degree next year
Benjamin made a point of getting the students to underline all the ‘words of
time’ as soon as they had produced the required verb form. This association of
the future continuous with certain time adverbials was a recurrent theme,
possibly because it was seen as being potentially helpful in the examination
context:
You can see the later here, later right? When we are using future continuous
tense, we use these words of time, OK? later, later.
I want to introduce you to some words of time that we always use to tell the
future continuous tense OK? later, in three weeks’ time, tomorrow morning.
Benjamin showed no sign of recognising that a major learning difficulty for
the students might be in understanding the specific meaning/use of the future
continuous in relation to other ways of talking about the future. His
self-produced worksheet containing a multiple-choice task involving time-lines
did not make the meaning/use much clearer, since three of his four example
sentences could be expressed using a variety of other future forms, see Figure 2:
In one of his four examples Benjamin did use future continuous in a distinctive
way, in combination with the adverb still to convey continuity from present to
future time:
Figure 2In the example of number 4 I will still be sitting in the same place when you
return … the future continuous tense is used from now on to later right? I’m
sitting here now, and I will be sitting here when you return. It is now 1.30
pm and then you will be back at 3 pm right? Understand?
This use was not emphasised, however, and no attempt was made to contrast
the future continuous with other ways of talking about future time. Instead,
Benjamin’s paraphrased explanations of sentences in the practice exercises were
19. potential sources of great confusion because of the use of a range of verb forms,
apparently interchangeably, to refer to future time:
They will be eating their dinner much later than usual tonight. Tonight they are
going to have dinner right? But it will be late, it will be later.
He will not be saving the money he’s going to earn in the summer. This summer
he’s going to earn some money. But he’s not going to save it. He will not be
saving the money. He will use up all the money. He don’t save any money
…
Although there were some differences between this lesson and Rose’s, in that
Benjamin had sufficient confidence in his own TMA that he was not wholly reliant
on materials created by others, the examples above suggest that the impact of
Benjamin’s TMA upon the input made available for learning was potentially
equally negative. No clear distinctions were made between the future continuous
and other, previously taught, ways of talking about the future, and students were
given the misleading impression that there was a close, if not unique, association
between certain future time adverbials and the future continuous.
Alex
The final example is a more positive one, in that it demonstrates clearly how
TMA can have a constructive influence in shaping the input made available for
learning.
Alex is a rather more experienced teacher than either Benjamin or Rose: he has
been a teacher for 10 years, all spent in the same school. Alex received the whole
of his education in Hong Kong, but his secondary schooling, like Rose’s, was
English-medium in all subjects except Chinese and Chinese History. He is a very
confident, proficient communicator in English, possessing a relaxed ease with
the language which carries over into his classroom teaching.
20. Alex’s own experience of learning English was very traditional and grammar-focused:
I think the only thing I learned in school … every day when I went to my
English class I sat there and did a lot of grammar exercises, filling in blanks,
answering questions, writing sentences mechanically. Every day was like
that in my days.
He acknowledges that it was a boring way to learn but he believes that it
worked well for him:
I learned English through this old-fashioned boring way and I feel I’m quite
successful. I don’t know if I am or not, but I feel I’m quite successful.
172 Language and EducationAs a teacher, however, he does not employ the same approach, not
because he
no longer believes in its efficacy, but because he thinks that Hong Kong students
have changed:
Students are not patient as we were in the past. If we kept using that old
method, certainly they will be very bored and they won’t bother to do your
work at all. You have to handle the discipline problem a lot if you keep
using that method … I think [grammar] is important but you have to
change the way to do it.
Alex addresses the boredom problem, not by reducing the attention he pays to
grammar, but by attempting to deal with grammar in a more interesting manner:
I think whether it’s boring or not depends on how you deal with it. What I
can do is to make the activities more interesting, make the communication
between me and the class more fun and closer and so on. In that way I make
it less boring.
For Alex, grammar is at the centre of what he does as a teacher:
I still think [grammar] forms the core of everything. Without the correct
21. grammar we can hardly communicate actually, or it’s very difficult to
communicate. So I think it’s a core actually.
As a result, he spends a significant amount of time on grammar, in order to try
and help his students improve their performance in, for example, writing:
I spend quite a lot of time on [grammar] actually. Because if they keep
producing compositions with a lot of mistakes and so on, it’s quite discouraging to them. I try to
provide basic knowledge. Some of them may feel
bored because the things I cover may seem very easy to them but to the
general class maybe it’s appropriate, so I spend a lot of time covering basic
things actually with them.
In both the observed lessons Alex demonstrated a commitment to teaching
grammar in a way which engaged his students’ interest and attention. At the
same time, it was clear that he possessed a level of TMA which contributed very
positively to the quality of the input made available for learning.
Alex’s confidence is shown in the way he regularly makes direct use of learner
output as a major source of input into his grammar teaching. The learner output
is ‘filtered’ through Alex’s TMA, and shaped to fit with his conception of what he
wants to make available as input for learning. As Alex describes it, he frequently
gives his students a context or a theme: ‘… just to give them ideas. I’ll simply pick
up a few which are exactly what I want and some close to what I want. I will start
with those not exactly what I want, and try to see if there would be any relationship between the
two, and then from there go on to what I want to talk about’.
The first observed lesson showed this process in action. Alex wanted to focus
on modals expressing obligation. Having got the students to draft a set of rules
for a swimming pool, he asked them to produce at least four rules relating to the
conduct of the English lesson. The students were then put in pairs and asked to
22. discuss each other’s rules. Each pair had to decide whether their partner’s
proposed rules were reasonable or unreasonable, and to select their two most
Teacher Metalinguistic Awareness and Imput for Learning 173important rules. Alex then elicited
some of the suggested rules, and listed five of
them on the board.
Noting that all five examples were expressed negatively, using the negative
form of the modal can, Alex invited the class to think about how they would
re-express the ideas positively. He then elicited possible ways of expressing rules
positively. In doing so, he gave a clear demonstration of his highly developed
TMA with his skilful deflection of the inappropriate suggestion may, where he
illustrated its meaning and clarified its unsuitability for expressing rules without
using any metalanguage:
… Rewrite them in a positive way. Besides the word can, what can we use?
What other words like the word can? … [Ss ‘Must‘] … For rules we can use
must.What else? … [Ss ‘May‘]… erm may uhuh Is it a good one? For rules? If
I say You may speak in English, if you don’t want to, then you don’t do it,
right? So will it be OK? No. If you use the word may, it means that if you do
it, very good … if you don’t do it, OK, fine. So for rules maybe not a good
one.
The second observed lesson shed light on Alex’s TMA in a rather different
way, this time in the skill with which he ‘filtered’ and dealt with the deficiencies
of the input provided by the textbook (Sampson, 1994). The grammar point in
this particular casewas the use of the present participle to join two sentences with
the same subject. According to the students’ version of the textbook:
We can use the present participle, -ing, to join together two sentences with
the same subject.
23. Example:
Mr Lee heard a noise. He got up and looked outside.
Hearing a noise, Mr Lee got up and looked outside.
Alex began by focusing briefly on the example given in the book. He then
introduced examples of his own to illustrate the process of combining sentences
with the same subject, before asking the students to work sentence by sentence
through the practice exercise in the textbook.
The rubric for the exercise established the context of a policeman going to the
scene of a robbery, and then gave the students the following instructions:
Rewrite the sentences using the correct -ing participle. Follow the example:
(1) Peter received a call on his radio. He went straight to the scene of the
robbery.
Receiving a call on his radio,Peter went straight to the scene of the robbery.
The first three items in the exercise were as follows:
(2) He saw a man lying on the floor. He went over to help him.
(3) He saw that the manwas badly injured, so Peter called an ambulance.
(4) The ambulance arrived a few minutes later. The man was taken to
hospital.
If the learner obeys the instruction to follow the example, and understands the
174 Language and Educationmechanics of the process, there are no major problems with numbers
(2) and (3).
Number (4), however, is a different matter, because the two sentences do not
have the same subject. In fairness to the textbook, one might imagine this to be a
deliberate trap, planted to oblige students to think carefully about the task rather
than just completing it mechanically. However, there is no indication in the
Teacher’s Book that there is any such intention. Given the rubric ‘Follow the
24. example’, it would seem that conforming to the pattern was the desired learner
behaviour rather than anything involving more active thought. Number 4 therefore presents a
challenge to any teacher’s metalinguistic awareness, and a trap
for any teacher whose TMA is not fully engaged.
In the post-lesson discussion, Alex revealed that he had noticed the potential
difficulty himself when looking at the material before the lesson. When the class
reached number 4, he therefore first of all asked his students if there was any
problem in combining the two sentences. Having elicited the fact that the
subjects of the two sentences were different, Alex then asked the students how
they could overcome the difficulty. When someone eventually suggested modifying the two
original sentences so that the subjects were the same, Alex guided
the students to make a change to the second sentence:
The ambulance took the man to hospital
so that they could then join the sentences in accordancewith the desired pattern:
Arriving a few minutes later, the ambulance took the man to hospital.
The whole procedure was accomplished as if number 4 presented an interesting
learning challenge rather than an unintended slip in the textbook.
Conclusion
It was argued in the first part of the paper that TMA plays a crucial role in
structuring input so that it is potentially of maximum usefulness to learners. The
short profiles above, with their snapshots of the TMA of three teachers, appear to
lend support to this argument. At the same time, they illustrate some of the ways
in which TMA can affect the input made available for learning, both negatively
and positively.
It was suggested earlier that there are three main sources of input for classroom FL learners, and
that TMA can interact significantly with all three sources.
This is exemplified in the profiles above. All the profiles, for instance, show the
25. teacher’s metalinguistic awareness interacting with input prepared by others:
either the textbook or, in Rose’s case, the school’s ‘standardised exercises’. In
making such input available to learners, teachers may respond in various ways,
with the nature of their response being at least in part dictated by their TMA. The
three profiles give some indication of the range of possible responses: from the
unaware, uncritical, diffident acceptance of all that the materials say, as revealed
in Rose’s lesson, to the rather more aware and self-confident modification of
perceived textbook inadequacies as shown in the second of Alex’s lessons.
The three profiles also provide examples of each teacher’s own output, in
instances when this output is clearly intended as input for learning. In each case,
TMA and the limitations of an individual teacher’s metalinguistic awareness can
Teacher Metalinguistic Awareness and Imput for Learning 175be seen to have a strong influence
on the potential usefulness of this source as
input for learning.
In the typical teacher-centred Hong Kong classroom, where students’ few
public utterances are often inaudible to anyone but the teacher, learner output is
generally the least commonly available of the three potential sources of input for
learning. It is nevertheless an important potential source of input, and this is seen
in the profiles, which illustrate contrasting teacher responses to learner output,
both constructive (as in Alex’s case) and somewhat less so (for example, Rose). As
with the two other sources, TMA is likely to have a significant effect upon the
nature of the teacher’s interaction with learner output and the extent to which
any teacher is able to exploit such output positively.
It should be clear from the three profiles that in teacher performance TMA
interacts with a whole range of more generic aspects of pedagogical competence,
as well as with characteristics of teacher personality and psychological make-up.
26. Nevertheless, given the closeness of its relationship with a teacher’s implicit and
explicit language knowledge, and its distinct additional dimension of cognitions
and reflection about language, there does seem to be a strong justification for
recognising it as a specifically language-related facet of L2 teacher competence.
There appears to be an equally powerful argument for acknowledging the extent
of the importance of TMA in any approach to L2 education which attempts to
structure input for learning. The precise role of TMA in this process is an area to
which increased research attention could usefully be paid.
Correspondence
Any correspondence should be directed to Dr Stephen Andrews, Department
of Curriculum Studies, University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam Road, Hong Kong
(sandrews@hkucc.hku.hk).
Notes
1. ‘Form-focused’ is used to refer to a ‘focus on forms’ (Long, 1991) or ‘forms-focused’ in
the terminology used by Doughty and Williams (1998: 4).
2. I.e. with a ‘focus on form’ in Long’s (1991) terminology.
3. It is important to note that it is a matter of considerable official concern in Hong Kong
that so many teachers of English lack proper training. In 1995 the Hong Kong Education
Commission expressed the view that one of the main reasons for weaknesses in
language in education was ‘…the fact that a large number of language teachers are not
fully trained’ (ECR6: vii). A 1991 government survey suggested that only 21% of Hong
Kong’s graduate secondary school teachers of English had both subject-training and
professional training.