The document discusses how all the elements were formed in the universe. It explains that shortly after the Big Bang, the first light elements like hydrogen and helium formed. Later, in the cores of stars, nuclear fusion processes fused these light elements into heavier elements up to iron. The most massive stars ended their lives as supernovae, which fused even heavier elements and dispersed them throughout the universe. Some rare light elements like lithium and beryllium were produced through cosmic ray bombardment of interstellar gas. All elements found on Earth and in our bodies were originally produced in earlier generations of stars and supernovae.
Description
This infographic presents the theories that have been formulated about the structure of the atom. Each theory is accompanied with a basic description and a comparison is sought between them.
Objectives
After the completion of this lesson, students will be able to:
- Understand the differences between the pre-quantum and quantum theories.
- Understand the experimental data that led to the progress of the theories.
- Describe the structural components of matter as well as their properties.
Activities
1. Democritus’ theory: Students have to think about how small matter can get, to understand the meaning of the word ‘atomos’ and to understand that this specific theory was impossible to prove.
2. Dalton’s theory: Students have to discuss the reason that Dalton is considered as the father of the atomic theory despite the fact that Democritus had the original idea.
3. Thomson’s theory: The teacher introduces the discovery of electrons and challenges students to consider the structure of plum pudding in order to explain the specific theory.
4. Rutherford’s model: The teacher asks students to enlarge the atom to the size of football court in order to understand that the nucleus will be the size of a ping-pong ball. The students watch the animated video of Rutherford’s model.
5. Bohr’s model: Students have to observe images of the last two models and discuss the similarities and differences. Students have to explore the structure of different atoms through the simulation link.
6. Quantum Mechanical model: The teacher asks students to observe specific images with different meanings in order to introduce the double nature of an electron. Students have to understand that electrons exist as ‘probability clouds.’
Erasmus+ Project: Educational Infographics For STEAM
https://steam-edu.eu
Description
This infographic presents the theories that have been formulated about the structure of the atom. Each theory is accompanied with a basic description and a comparison is sought between them.
Objectives
After the completion of this lesson, students will be able to:
- Understand the differences between the pre-quantum and quantum theories.
- Understand the experimental data that led to the progress of the theories.
- Describe the structural components of matter as well as their properties.
Activities
1. Democritus’ theory: Students have to think about how small matter can get, to understand the meaning of the word ‘atomos’ and to understand that this specific theory was impossible to prove.
2. Dalton’s theory: Students have to discuss the reason that Dalton is considered as the father of the atomic theory despite the fact that Democritus had the original idea.
3. Thomson’s theory: The teacher introduces the discovery of electrons and challenges students to consider the structure of plum pudding in order to explain the specific theory.
4. Rutherford’s model: The teacher asks students to enlarge the atom to the size of football court in order to understand that the nucleus will be the size of a ping-pong ball. The students watch the animated video of Rutherford’s model.
5. Bohr’s model: Students have to observe images of the last two models and discuss the similarities and differences. Students have to explore the structure of different atoms through the simulation link.
6. Quantum Mechanical model: The teacher asks students to observe specific images with different meanings in order to introduce the double nature of an electron. Students have to understand that electrons exist as ‘probability clouds.’
Erasmus+ Project: Educational Infographics For STEAM
https://steam-edu.eu
This PowerPoint is one small part of the Astronomy Topics unit from www.sciencepowerpoint.com. This unit consists of a five part 3000+ slide PowerPoint roadmap, 12 page bundled homework package, modified homework, detailed answer keys, 8 pages of unit notes for students who may require assistance, follow along worksheets, and many review games. The homework and lesson notes chronologically follow the PowerPoint slideshow. The answer keys and unit notes are great for support professionals. The activities and discussion questions in the slideshow and meaningful. The PowerPoint includes built-in instructions, visuals, and follow up questions. Also included are critical class notes (color coded red), project ideas, video links, and review games. This unit also includes four PowerPoint review games (110+ slides each with Answers), 38+ video links, lab handouts, activity sheets, rubrics, materials list, templates, guides, and much more. Also included is a 190 slide first day of school PowerPoint presentation. Teaching Duration = 5+ weeks. Areas of Focus in the Astronomy Topics Unit: The Solar System and the Sun, Order of the Planets, Our Sun, Life Cycle of a Star, Size of Stars, Solar Eclipse, Lunar Eclipse, The Inner Planets, Mercury, Venus, Earth, Moon, Craters, Tides, Phases of the Moon, Mars and Moons, Rocketry, Asteroid Belt, NEOs, The Torino Scale, The Outer Planets and Gas Giants, Jupiter / Moons, Saturn / Moons, Uranus / Moons, Neptune / Moons, Pluto's Demotion, The Kuiper Belt, Oort Cloud, Comets / Other, Beyond the Solar System, Types of Galaxies, Blackholes, Extrasolar Planets, The Big Bang, Dark Matter, Dark Energy, The Special Theory of Relativity, Hubble Space Telescope, Constellations, Spacetime and much more. If you have any questions please feel free to contact me. Thanks again and best wishes. Sincerely, Ryan Murphy M.Ed www.sciencepowerpoint@gmail.com
My collogues often asked me what I was so absorbed in my free time reading books.
I made this PPT to educate them.
I did not include my views in the PPT but only what great minds had to say on the subject.
This PowerPoint is one small part of the Astronomy Topics unit from www.sciencepowerpoint.com. This unit consists of a five part 3000+ slide PowerPoint roadmap, 12 page bundled homework package, modified homework, detailed answer keys, 8 pages of unit notes for students who may require assistance, follow along worksheets, and many review games. The homework and lesson notes chronologically follow the PowerPoint slideshow. The answer keys and unit notes are great for support professionals. The activities and discussion questions in the slideshow and meaningful. The PowerPoint includes built-in instructions, visuals, and follow up questions. Also included are critical class notes (color coded red), project ideas, video links, and review games. This unit also includes four PowerPoint review games (110+ slides each with Answers), 38+ video links, lab handouts, activity sheets, rubrics, materials list, templates, guides, and much more. Also included is a 190 slide first day of school PowerPoint presentation. Teaching Duration = 5+ weeks. Areas of Focus in the Astronomy Topics Unit: The Solar System and the Sun, Order of the Planets, Our Sun, Life Cycle of a Star, Size of Stars, Solar Eclipse, Lunar Eclipse, The Inner Planets, Mercury, Venus, Earth, Moon, Craters, Tides, Phases of the Moon, Mars and Moons, Rocketry, Asteroid Belt, NEOs, The Torino Scale, The Outer Planets and Gas Giants, Jupiter / Moons, Saturn / Moons, Uranus / Moons, Neptune / Moons, Pluto's Demotion, The Kuiper Belt, Oort Cloud, Comets / Other, Beyond the Solar System, Types of Galaxies, Blackholes, Extrasolar Planets, The Big Bang, Dark Matter, Dark Energy, The Special Theory of Relativity, Hubble Space Telescope, Constellations, Spacetime and much more. If you have any questions please feel free to contact me. Thanks again and best wishes. Sincerely, Ryan Murphy M.Ed www.sciencepowerpoint@gmail.com
My collogues often asked me what I was so absorbed in my free time reading books.
I made this PPT to educate them.
I did not include my views in the PPT but only what great minds had to say on the subject.
Astronomy- State of the art is a course covering the hottest topics in astronomy. In this section, the exotic end states of stars are discussed, including pulsars, neutron stars, and black holes.
Essentials of Automations: Optimizing FME Workflows with ParametersSafe Software
Are you looking to streamline your workflows and boost your projects’ efficiency? Do you find yourself searching for ways to add flexibility and control over your FME workflows? If so, you’re in the right place.
Join us for an insightful dive into the world of FME parameters, a critical element in optimizing workflow efficiency. This webinar marks the beginning of our three-part “Essentials of Automation” series. This first webinar is designed to equip you with the knowledge and skills to utilize parameters effectively: enhancing the flexibility, maintainability, and user control of your FME projects.
Here’s what you’ll gain:
- Essentials of FME Parameters: Understand the pivotal role of parameters, including Reader/Writer, Transformer, User, and FME Flow categories. Discover how they are the key to unlocking automation and optimization within your workflows.
- Practical Applications in FME Form: Delve into key user parameter types including choice, connections, and file URLs. Allow users to control how a workflow runs, making your workflows more reusable. Learn to import values and deliver the best user experience for your workflows while enhancing accuracy.
- Optimization Strategies in FME Flow: Explore the creation and strategic deployment of parameters in FME Flow, including the use of deployment and geometry parameters, to maximize workflow efficiency.
- Pro Tips for Success: Gain insights on parameterizing connections and leveraging new features like Conditional Visibility for clarity and simplicity.
We’ll wrap up with a glimpse into future webinars, followed by a Q&A session to address your specific questions surrounding this topic.
Don’t miss this opportunity to elevate your FME expertise and drive your projects to new heights of efficiency.
Encryption in Microsoft 365 - ExpertsLive Netherlands 2024Albert Hoitingh
In this session I delve into the encryption technology used in Microsoft 365 and Microsoft Purview. Including the concepts of Customer Key and Double Key Encryption.
Elevating Tactical DDD Patterns Through Object CalisthenicsDorra BARTAGUIZ
After immersing yourself in the blue book and its red counterpart, attending DDD-focused conferences, and applying tactical patterns, you're left with a crucial question: How do I ensure my design is effective? Tactical patterns within Domain-Driven Design (DDD) serve as guiding principles for creating clear and manageable domain models. However, achieving success with these patterns requires additional guidance. Interestingly, we've observed that a set of constraints initially designed for training purposes remarkably aligns with effective pattern implementation, offering a more ‘mechanical’ approach. Let's explore together how Object Calisthenics can elevate the design of your tactical DDD patterns, offering concrete help for those venturing into DDD for the first time!
Kubernetes & AI - Beauty and the Beast !?! @KCD Istanbul 2024Tobias Schneck
As AI technology is pushing into IT I was wondering myself, as an “infrastructure container kubernetes guy”, how get this fancy AI technology get managed from an infrastructure operational view? Is it possible to apply our lovely cloud native principals as well? What benefit’s both technologies could bring to each other?
Let me take this questions and provide you a short journey through existing deployment models and use cases for AI software. On practical examples, we discuss what cloud/on-premise strategy we may need for applying it to our own infrastructure to get it to work from an enterprise perspective. I want to give an overview about infrastructure requirements and technologies, what could be beneficial or limiting your AI use cases in an enterprise environment. An interactive Demo will give you some insides, what approaches I got already working for real.
Epistemic Interaction - tuning interfaces to provide information for AI supportAlan Dix
Paper presented at SYNERGY workshop at AVI 2024, Genoa, Italy. 3rd June 2024
https://alandix.com/academic/papers/synergy2024-epistemic/
As machine learning integrates deeper into human-computer interactions, the concept of epistemic interaction emerges, aiming to refine these interactions to enhance system adaptability. This approach encourages minor, intentional adjustments in user behaviour to enrich the data available for system learning. This paper introduces epistemic interaction within the context of human-system communication, illustrating how deliberate interaction design can improve system understanding and adaptation. Through concrete examples, we demonstrate the potential of epistemic interaction to significantly advance human-computer interaction by leveraging intuitive human communication strategies to inform system design and functionality, offering a novel pathway for enriching user-system engagements.
LF Energy Webinar: Electrical Grid Modelling and Simulation Through PowSyBl -...DanBrown980551
Do you want to learn how to model and simulate an electrical network from scratch in under an hour?
Then welcome to this PowSyBl workshop, hosted by Rte, the French Transmission System Operator (TSO)!
During the webinar, you will discover the PowSyBl ecosystem as well as handle and study an electrical network through an interactive Python notebook.
PowSyBl is an open source project hosted by LF Energy, which offers a comprehensive set of features for electrical grid modelling and simulation. Among other advanced features, PowSyBl provides:
- A fully editable and extendable library for grid component modelling;
- Visualization tools to display your network;
- Grid simulation tools, such as power flows, security analyses (with or without remedial actions) and sensitivity analyses;
The framework is mostly written in Java, with a Python binding so that Python developers can access PowSyBl functionalities as well.
What you will learn during the webinar:
- For beginners: discover PowSyBl's functionalities through a quick general presentation and the notebook, without needing any expert coding skills;
- For advanced developers: master the skills to efficiently apply PowSyBl functionalities to your real-world scenarios.
Builder.ai Founder Sachin Dev Duggal's Strategic Approach to Create an Innova...Ramesh Iyer
In today's fast-changing business world, Companies that adapt and embrace new ideas often need help to keep up with the competition. However, fostering a culture of innovation takes much work. It takes vision, leadership and willingness to take risks in the right proportion. Sachin Dev Duggal, co-founder of Builder.ai, has perfected the art of this balance, creating a company culture where creativity and growth are nurtured at each stage.
Generating a custom Ruby SDK for your web service or Rails API using Smithyg2nightmarescribd
Have you ever wanted a Ruby client API to communicate with your web service? Smithy is a protocol-agnostic language for defining services and SDKs. Smithy Ruby is an implementation of Smithy that generates a Ruby SDK using a Smithy model. In this talk, we will explore Smithy and Smithy Ruby to learn how to generate custom feature-rich SDKs that can communicate with any web service, such as a Rails JSON API.
DevOps and Testing slides at DASA ConnectKari Kakkonen
My and Rik Marselis slides at 30.5.2024 DASA Connect conference. We discuss about what is testing, then what is agile testing and finally what is Testing in DevOps. Finally we had lovely workshop with the participants trying to find out different ways to think about quality and testing in different parts of the DevOps infinity loop.
UiPath Test Automation using UiPath Test Suite series, part 4DianaGray10
Welcome to UiPath Test Automation using UiPath Test Suite series part 4. In this session, we will cover Test Manager overview along with SAP heatmap.
The UiPath Test Manager overview with SAP heatmap webinar offers a concise yet comprehensive exploration of the role of a Test Manager within SAP environments, coupled with the utilization of heatmaps for effective testing strategies.
Participants will gain insights into the responsibilities, challenges, and best practices associated with test management in SAP projects. Additionally, the webinar delves into the significance of heatmaps as a visual aid for identifying testing priorities, areas of risk, and resource allocation within SAP landscapes. Through this session, attendees can expect to enhance their understanding of test management principles while learning practical approaches to optimize testing processes in SAP environments using heatmap visualization techniques
What will you get from this session?
1. Insights into SAP testing best practices
2. Heatmap utilization for testing
3. Optimization of testing processes
4. Demo
Topics covered:
Execution from the test manager
Orchestrator execution result
Defect reporting
SAP heatmap example with demo
Speaker:
Deepak Rai, Automation Practice Lead, Boundaryless Group and UiPath MVP
Key Trends Shaping the Future of Infrastructure.pdfCheryl Hung
Keynote at DIGIT West Expo, Glasgow on 29 May 2024.
Cheryl Hung, ochery.com
Sr Director, Infrastructure Ecosystem, Arm.
The key trends across hardware, cloud and open-source; exploring how these areas are likely to mature and develop over the short and long-term, and then considering how organisations can position themselves to adapt and thrive.
UiPath Test Automation using UiPath Test Suite series, part 3DianaGray10
Welcome to UiPath Test Automation using UiPath Test Suite series part 3. In this session, we will cover desktop automation along with UI automation.
Topics covered:
UI automation Introduction,
UI automation Sample
Desktop automation flow
Pradeep Chinnala, Senior Consultant Automation Developer @WonderBotz and UiPath MVP
Deepak Rai, Automation Practice Lead, Boundaryless Group and UiPath MVP
6. The Big Bang Cosmology
• The expansion of the universe began at a
finite time in the past, in a state of
enormous density, pressure and
temperature.
• “Big Bang” is a highly successful family of
theories with no obvious competitor.
• Explains what we see, and has made several
successful predictions.
7. Big Bang Nucleosynthesis
Within first three minutes, Hydrogen &
Helium formed.
• At t =1 s, T=10,000,000,000 K: soup of particles:
photons, electrons, positrons, protons, neutrons.
Particles created & destroyed.
• At t =3 min, T=1,000,000,000 K: p+n => D
15. Small Stars: Fusion of light elements
Fusion:(at 15 million degrees !)
4 (1H) => 4He + 2 e+ + 2 neutrinos + energy
16. Small Stars: Fusion of light elements
Fusion:(at 15 million degrees !)
4 (1H) => 4He + 2 e+ + 2 neutrinos + energy
Where does the energy come from ?
17. Small Stars: Fusion of light elements
Fusion:(at 15 million degrees !)
4 (1H) => 4He + 2 e+ + 2 neutrinos + energy
Where does the energy come from ?
Mass of four 1H > Mass of one 4He
18. Small Stars: Fusion of light elements
Fusion:(at 15 million degrees !)
4 (1H) => 4He + 2 e+ + 2 neutrinos + energy
Where does the energy come from ?
Mass of four 1H > Mass of one 4He
19. Small Stars: Fusion of light elements
Fusion:(at 15 million degrees !)
4 (1H) => 4He + 2 e+ + 2 neutrinos + energy
Where does the energy come from ?
Mass of four 1H > Mass of one 4He
E = mc2
20. Small Stars to Red Giants
After Hydrogen is exhausted in core,
Energy released from nuclear fusion no longer counter-acts
inward force of gravity.
• Core collapses,
• Kinetic energy of collapse converted into heat.
• This heat expands the outer layers.
• Meanwhile, as core collapses,
• Increasing Temperature and Pressure ...
21. Beginning of Heavier Elements
At 100 million degrees Celsius, Helium fuses:
3 (4He) => 12C + energy
After Helium exhausted, small star not
large enough to attain temperatures
necessary to fuse Carbon.
26. Heavy Elements from Large Stars
Large stars also fuse Hydrogen into Helium,
and Helium into Carbon.
But their larger masses lead to higher
temperatures, which allow fusion of Carbon
into Magnesium, etc.
46. Supernova
Fusion of Iron takes energy, rather than
releases energy.
So fusion stops at Iron.
Energy released from nuclear fusion no longer counter-acts
inward force of gravity.
But now there is nothing to stop gravity.
Massive star ends its life in supernova
explosion.
47. Supernova
Explosive power of a
supernova:
• Disperses elements
created in large stars.
All X-ray Energies Silicon
• Creates new
elements, especially
those heavier than
Iron.
Calcium Iron
51. Cosmic Rays
Lithium, Beryllium, and Boron are difficult to
produce in stars.
(L, Be, and B are formed in the fusion chains, but they are
unstable at high temperatures, and tend to break up into
residues of He, which are very stable).
So what is the origin of these rare elements?
=> Collisions of Cosmic Rays with Hydrogen
& Helium in interstellar space.
52. Cosmic Rays Collisions with ISM
Cosmic ray Light nucleus
Interstellar matter
(~1 hydrogen atom per cm3)
Light nucleus
Lithium, beryllium, and boron and sub-iron
enhancements attributed to nuclear
fragmentation of carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, and
iron with interstellar matter (primarily hydrogen
and helium).
(CNO or Fe) + (H & He)ISM ⇒ (LiBeB or sub-Fe)
53. Cosmic Elements
White - Big Bang Pink - Cosmic Rays
Yellow - Small Stars Green - Large Stars
Blue - Supernovae
56. Composition of the Universe
Actually, this is just the solar system.
Composition varies from place to place in universe, and
between different objects.
57. “What’s Out There?”
(Developed by Stacie Kreitman, Falls Church, VA)
A classroom activity that demonstrates the
different elemental compositions of
different objects in the universe.
• Demonstrates how we estimate the
abundances.
58. Top 10 Elements in the Human Body
Element by # atoms
10. Magnesium (Mg) 0.03%
9. Chlorine (Cl) 0.04%
8. Sodium (Na) 0.06%
7. Sulfur (S) 0.06%
6. Phosphorous (P) 0.20%
5. Calcium (Ca) 0.24%
4. Nitrogen (N) 1.48%
3. Carbon (C) 9.99%
2. Oxygen (O) 26.33%
60. Spectral Analysis
Each element has a unique spectral
signature:
• Determined by arrangement of electrons.
• Lines of emission or absorption arise from
re-arrangement of electrons into different
energy levels.
Hydrogen
61. Nickel-odeon Classroom Activity
(Developed by Shirley Burris, Nova Scotia)
Spread a rainbow of color across a piano keyboard
62. Nickel-odeon Classroom Activity
(Developed by Shirley Burris, Nova Scotia)
Spread a rainbow of color across a piano keyboard
Then, “play” an element
Hydrogen
70. Getting a Handle on Water
Oxygen
Hydrogen
All together now ... Water
71. Your Cosmic Connection to the Elements?
http://imagine.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/teachers/elements/
72. Cosmic Connections
To make an apple pie from scratch,
you must first invent the universe.
Carl Sagan
Editor's Notes
July 2006 - a revision to update this with the new version of the poster and periodic table. Slide #6 now contains links to relevant portions of the talk. Also, Meredith fixed the inclusion of the sound files for the Nickelodion demo (slides 26-28)
First public version. Notes are from presentation by Sara Mitchell in Aug 2003. The notes provide a script that may be used with the slides.
Tell participants that we will be pondering the question asked on the poster, “What is your cosmic connection to the elements?”
What is this? [Periodic Table]
What does it show? How is it arranged?
Can you tell me some of the elements you encounter every day, in the objects all around you? Tell me an object and the element(s) in it.
[Have audience make the connection between everyday objects and the elements in the periodic table. For example:
Gold in jewelry
Aluminum in soda cans
Titanium in eye glass frames
Hydrogen and oxygen in water
Calcium in milk and bones
Nitrogen in the air]
Make sure they identify some elements heavier than Iron.
End with question: Where do these elements come from? (Some may say, the earth. Let this lead to solar system (and its formation), and ultimately the stars.)
Now let’s start at the beginning, with the Big Bang. The Big Bang created Hydrogen, Helium, and a tiny amount of Lithium. [Click for WMAP.]
The image is from the Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe, which is a long and fancy name that we usually shorten to “WMAP.” This is a baby picture of the universe, from when it was a mere 379,000 years old.
The image shows differences in the temperature of the microwave background. The average background temperature is 2.73 degrees above absolute zero. The red areas are “warmer” than this, and the blue areas are “cooler.”
WMAP is sensitive to measuring differences in temperature as small as millionths of a degree, so when we say “warmer” or “cooler,” we may be referring to fluctuations of thousandths or millionths of degrees.
The WMAP results confirmed several ideas we had about the universe -- the age of the universe is 13.7 billion years, and stars started forming 200 million years after the Big Bang. It did this using the fluctuations measured this image.
The Cosmic Microwave Background was one of the strongest pieces of evidence for the Big Bang theory.
Source WMAP result of Feb 2003.
http://map.gsfc.nasa.gov/
Now let’s start at the beginning, with the Big Bang. The Big Bang created Hydrogen, Helium, and a tiny amount of Lithium. [Click for WMAP.]
The image is from the Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe, which is a long and fancy name that we usually shorten to “WMAP.” This is a baby picture of the universe, from when it was a mere 379,000 years old.
The image shows differences in the temperature of the microwave background. The average background temperature is 2.73 degrees above absolute zero. The red areas are “warmer” than this, and the blue areas are “cooler.”
WMAP is sensitive to measuring differences in temperature as small as millionths of a degree, so when we say “warmer” or “cooler,” we may be referring to fluctuations of thousandths or millionths of degrees.
The WMAP results confirmed several ideas we had about the universe -- the age of the universe is 13.7 billion years, and stars started forming 200 million years after the Big Bang. It did this using the fluctuations measured this image.
The Cosmic Microwave Background was one of the strongest pieces of evidence for the Big Bang theory.
Source WMAP result of Feb 2003.
http://map.gsfc.nasa.gov/
The first important question is:
What is the Big Bang?
Most astronomers theorize that the Universe started with a massive explosion. This happened at a finite time, and everything was very hot, very dense, and under a lot of pressure.
The Big Bang is a very successful family of theories that explains what we see and has made several predictions that have been confirmed. The Big Bang is consistent with observations we’ve made.
[This explanation of what the Big Bang is and why it is used may be helpful to some teachers in areas where formation of the universe is a sensitive topic.]
Right after the explosion, things are very, very hot, over 10^32 degrees! Matter and energy are expanding outward.
At one second after the Big Bang, the temperature is ten billion degrees and we have a “particle soup.” It’s really too hot and energetic for any nuclei heavier than Hydrogen to form, so we mostly have lots of particles being created and destroyed -- protons, electrons, neutrons, positrons, and plenty of other “-ons.”
But things are cooling down pretty quickly. After three minutes have passed, the temperature has dropped to one billion degrees, and we see the first particles coming together. A proton and a neutron join to form Deuteron, the nucleus of Deuterium (or “heavy water”).
From the Deuterium, we can get Helium -- two Deuterons join to form one Helium. Very occasionally, enough Deuterium collide to form Lithium, but this was rare.
As the Universe expands, the temperature falls and soon it is too cool for more nuclei to form. This is what the Big Bang forms in the first few minutes -- 95% Hydrogen and 5% Helium (and a trace amount of Lithium).
Atoms form at T=3,000K when the electrons “recombine” with the nuclei to form atoms. At this “recombination”, the universe becomes transparent. This 3,000K black body radiation has been redshifting ever since, and is now 2.7K.
On this page, certain elements are linked to other sections of the presentation:
“carbon” -> small stars
“calcium -> large stars
“iron” -> supernovae
“lithium” -> cosmic rays
At the end of each of those sections (except cosmic rays), there is a thumbnail poster in the lower right corner. Clicking on it will return you to this page. Hence this page may be used as an anchor and reference throughout the talk.
So where do we get the rest of these elements?
Let’s move along, to small stars. What do we mean by “small”?
Well, only in astronomy can you call something 2 x 10^30 kg “small”! Our Sun is a small star, and so are stars smaller than about five times the mass of our Sun. These stars run on similar processes, and share a similar fate.
[click to show waterfall]
These small stars form Helium, Carbon, Nitrogen, and Oxygen in their cores through FUSION
So where do we get the rest of these elements?
Let’s move along, to small stars. What do we mean by “small”?
Well, only in astronomy can you call something 2 x 10^30 kg “small”! Our Sun is a small star, and so are stars smaller than about five times the mass of our Sun. These stars run on similar processes, and share a similar fate.
[click to show waterfall]
These small stars form Helium, Carbon, Nitrogen, and Oxygen in their cores through FUSION
[Click to reveal “Fusion.”]
Elements in small stars are formed through FUSION. At what temperature does fusion start? Does anyone remember?
[let people “bid” on the temperature until ~15 million degrees]
[Click to reveal answer]
Why does it after to be that hot?
[To overcome the electrostatic repulsion of the positive protons.]
[Click for equation.]
These small stars fuse Hydrogen into Helium in their cores.
The energy comes from the slight excess of mass of the 4 input H as compared to the resulting He. The mass gets converted into energy via E=mc^2
[Click to reveal “Fusion.”]
Elements in small stars are formed through FUSION. At what temperature does fusion start? Does anyone remember?
[let people “bid” on the temperature until ~15 million degrees]
[Click to reveal answer]
Why does it after to be that hot?
[To overcome the electrostatic repulsion of the positive protons.]
[Click for equation.]
These small stars fuse Hydrogen into Helium in their cores.
The energy comes from the slight excess of mass of the 4 input H as compared to the resulting He. The mass gets converted into energy via E=mc^2
[Click to reveal “Fusion.”]
Elements in small stars are formed through FUSION. At what temperature does fusion start? Does anyone remember?
[let people “bid” on the temperature until ~15 million degrees]
[Click to reveal answer]
Why does it after to be that hot?
[To overcome the electrostatic repulsion of the positive protons.]
[Click for equation.]
These small stars fuse Hydrogen into Helium in their cores.
The energy comes from the slight excess of mass of the 4 input H as compared to the resulting He. The mass gets converted into energy via E=mc^2
[Click to reveal “Fusion.”]
Elements in small stars are formed through FUSION. At what temperature does fusion start? Does anyone remember?
[let people “bid” on the temperature until ~15 million degrees]
[Click to reveal answer]
Why does it after to be that hot?
[To overcome the electrostatic repulsion of the positive protons.]
[Click for equation.]
These small stars fuse Hydrogen into Helium in their cores.
The energy comes from the slight excess of mass of the 4 input H as compared to the resulting He. The mass gets converted into energy via E=mc^2
[Click to reveal “Fusion.”]
Elements in small stars are formed through FUSION. At what temperature does fusion start? Does anyone remember?
[let people “bid” on the temperature until ~15 million degrees]
[Click to reveal answer]
Why does it after to be that hot?
[To overcome the electrostatic repulsion of the positive protons.]
[Click for equation.]
These small stars fuse Hydrogen into Helium in their cores.
The energy comes from the slight excess of mass of the 4 input H as compared to the resulting He. The mass gets converted into energy via E=mc^2
[Click to reveal “Fusion.”]
Elements in small stars are formed through FUSION. At what temperature does fusion start? Does anyone remember?
[let people “bid” on the temperature until ~15 million degrees]
[Click to reveal answer]
Why does it after to be that hot?
[To overcome the electrostatic repulsion of the positive protons.]
[Click for equation.]
These small stars fuse Hydrogen into Helium in their cores.
The energy comes from the slight excess of mass of the 4 input H as compared to the resulting He. The mass gets converted into energy via E=mc^2
[Click to reveal “Fusion.”]
Elements in small stars are formed through FUSION. At what temperature does fusion start? Does anyone remember?
[let people “bid” on the temperature until ~15 million degrees]
[Click to reveal answer]
Why does it after to be that hot?
[To overcome the electrostatic repulsion of the positive protons.]
[Click for equation.]
These small stars fuse Hydrogen into Helium in their cores.
The energy comes from the slight excess of mass of the 4 input H as compared to the resulting He. The mass gets converted into energy via E=mc^2
Eventually, the Hydrogen runs out. Remember, there is a balance between the energy created by fusion and the star’s gravity that keeps it from collapsing. Without fusion, the gravity isn’t balanced, and the star’s core collapses. This collapse causes an increase in temperature and pressure, and the star puffs up and becomes a red giant!
The core continues to increase in temperature and pressure, reaching 100 million degrees. At this temperature, it is hot enough to fuse Helium into Carbon. The energy from this fusion keeps the star from collapsing. Nitrogen and Oxygen fuse in a similar way.
But eventually, the core runs out of materials again, and we don’t make any heavier elements. In fact, this cycle ends with another core collapse, expelling the extended atmosphere as a planetary nebula.
So where do we get the heavier elements? At this point, we only have Hydrogen, Helium, Carbon, Nitrogen, and Oxygen.
.
Click on the poster icon in the lower right to return to slide #6.
Large stars continue where small stars leave off.
These are stars larger than 5 times the mass of our Sun.
[Click twice to reveal Calcium and Aluminum examples.]
Large stars create many of the heavier elements beyond what the small stars produce, like the Calcium in milk and the Aluminum in cans.
Large stars continue where small stars leave off.
These are stars larger than 5 times the mass of our Sun.
[Click twice to reveal Calcium and Aluminum examples.]
Large stars create many of the heavier elements beyond what the small stars produce, like the Calcium in milk and the Aluminum in cans.
Large stars continue where small stars leave off.
These are stars larger than 5 times the mass of our Sun.
[Click twice to reveal Calcium and Aluminum examples.]
Large stars create many of the heavier elements beyond what the small stars produce, like the Calcium in milk and the Aluminum in cans.
Just like small stars, large stars fuse Hydrogen into Helium, and Helium into Carbon.
But the larger mass leads to higher temperatures, and a series of core collapses create heavier elements through fusion.
This periodic table demonstrates the fusion reactions in large stars. [click]
Notice that we’re always moving from lighter to heavier, from left to right.
We’ve seen (click #1) 1H -> 4He and (2) 4He -> 12C.
These are further representative reactions that occur in massive stars:
(3) Carbon to Magnesium (12C -> 24Mg)
(4) Helium and Carbon to Oxygen (4He + 12C -> 16O)
(5) Oxygen to Silicon (16O -> 32Si) or Oxygen to Sulfer and He
(6) Helium and Oxygen to Neon (4He + 16O -> 20Ne)
(7) Helium and Silicon to Nickel (which decays to Cobalt and then to Iron via successive positive beta decays) (28Si + 7(4He) -> 56Ni -> 56Co + e+ -> 56Fe + e+
NEARLY ALL ELEMENTS THROUGH IRON ARE CREATED THROUGH FUSION IN LARGE STARS.
Energy is no longer released in the reactions to form elements heavier than Iron. These heavier elements require the INPUT of energy for creation. Again, we lose the balance between internal pressure and the force of gravity, and the star collapses again.
Click on the poster icon in the lower right to return to slide #6.
Periodic table is from http://www.chemicalelements.com/
This periodic table demonstrates the fusion reactions in large stars. [click]
Notice that we’re always moving from lighter to heavier, from left to right.
We’ve seen (click #1) 1H -> 4He and (2) 4He -> 12C.
These are further representative reactions that occur in massive stars:
(3) Carbon to Magnesium (12C -> 24Mg)
(4) Helium and Carbon to Oxygen (4He + 12C -> 16O)
(5) Oxygen to Silicon (16O -> 32Si) or Oxygen to Sulfer and He
(6) Helium and Oxygen to Neon (4He + 16O -> 20Ne)
(7) Helium and Silicon to Nickel (which decays to Cobalt and then to Iron via successive positive beta decays) (28Si + 7(4He) -> 56Ni -> 56Co + e+ -> 56Fe + e+
NEARLY ALL ELEMENTS THROUGH IRON ARE CREATED THROUGH FUSION IN LARGE STARS.
Energy is no longer released in the reactions to form elements heavier than Iron. These heavier elements require the INPUT of energy for creation. Again, we lose the balance between internal pressure and the force of gravity, and the star collapses again.
Click on the poster icon in the lower right to return to slide #6.
Periodic table is from http://www.chemicalelements.com/
This periodic table demonstrates the fusion reactions in large stars. [click]
Notice that we’re always moving from lighter to heavier, from left to right.
We’ve seen (click #1) 1H -> 4He and (2) 4He -> 12C.
These are further representative reactions that occur in massive stars:
(3) Carbon to Magnesium (12C -> 24Mg)
(4) Helium and Carbon to Oxygen (4He + 12C -> 16O)
(5) Oxygen to Silicon (16O -> 32Si) or Oxygen to Sulfer and He
(6) Helium and Oxygen to Neon (4He + 16O -> 20Ne)
(7) Helium and Silicon to Nickel (which decays to Cobalt and then to Iron via successive positive beta decays) (28Si + 7(4He) -> 56Ni -> 56Co + e+ -> 56Fe + e+
NEARLY ALL ELEMENTS THROUGH IRON ARE CREATED THROUGH FUSION IN LARGE STARS.
Energy is no longer released in the reactions to form elements heavier than Iron. These heavier elements require the INPUT of energy for creation. Again, we lose the balance between internal pressure and the force of gravity, and the star collapses again.
Click on the poster icon in the lower right to return to slide #6.
Periodic table is from http://www.chemicalelements.com/
This periodic table demonstrates the fusion reactions in large stars. [click]
Notice that we’re always moving from lighter to heavier, from left to right.
We’ve seen (click #1) 1H -> 4He and (2) 4He -> 12C.
These are further representative reactions that occur in massive stars:
(3) Carbon to Magnesium (12C -> 24Mg)
(4) Helium and Carbon to Oxygen (4He + 12C -> 16O)
(5) Oxygen to Silicon (16O -> 32Si) or Oxygen to Sulfer and He
(6) Helium and Oxygen to Neon (4He + 16O -> 20Ne)
(7) Helium and Silicon to Nickel (which decays to Cobalt and then to Iron via successive positive beta decays) (28Si + 7(4He) -> 56Ni -> 56Co + e+ -> 56Fe + e+
NEARLY ALL ELEMENTS THROUGH IRON ARE CREATED THROUGH FUSION IN LARGE STARS.
Energy is no longer released in the reactions to form elements heavier than Iron. These heavier elements require the INPUT of energy for creation. Again, we lose the balance between internal pressure and the force of gravity, and the star collapses again.
Click on the poster icon in the lower right to return to slide #6.
Periodic table is from http://www.chemicalelements.com/
This periodic table demonstrates the fusion reactions in large stars. [click]
Notice that we’re always moving from lighter to heavier, from left to right.
We’ve seen (click #1) 1H -> 4He and (2) 4He -> 12C.
These are further representative reactions that occur in massive stars:
(3) Carbon to Magnesium (12C -> 24Mg)
(4) Helium and Carbon to Oxygen (4He + 12C -> 16O)
(5) Oxygen to Silicon (16O -> 32Si) or Oxygen to Sulfer and He
(6) Helium and Oxygen to Neon (4He + 16O -> 20Ne)
(7) Helium and Silicon to Nickel (which decays to Cobalt and then to Iron via successive positive beta decays) (28Si + 7(4He) -> 56Ni -> 56Co + e+ -> 56Fe + e+
NEARLY ALL ELEMENTS THROUGH IRON ARE CREATED THROUGH FUSION IN LARGE STARS.
Energy is no longer released in the reactions to form elements heavier than Iron. These heavier elements require the INPUT of energy for creation. Again, we lose the balance between internal pressure and the force of gravity, and the star collapses again.
Click on the poster icon in the lower right to return to slide #6.
Periodic table is from http://www.chemicalelements.com/
This periodic table demonstrates the fusion reactions in large stars. [click]
Notice that we’re always moving from lighter to heavier, from left to right.
We’ve seen (click #1) 1H -> 4He and (2) 4He -> 12C.
These are further representative reactions that occur in massive stars:
(3) Carbon to Magnesium (12C -> 24Mg)
(4) Helium and Carbon to Oxygen (4He + 12C -> 16O)
(5) Oxygen to Silicon (16O -> 32Si) or Oxygen to Sulfer and He
(6) Helium and Oxygen to Neon (4He + 16O -> 20Ne)
(7) Helium and Silicon to Nickel (which decays to Cobalt and then to Iron via successive positive beta decays) (28Si + 7(4He) -> 56Ni -> 56Co + e+ -> 56Fe + e+
NEARLY ALL ELEMENTS THROUGH IRON ARE CREATED THROUGH FUSION IN LARGE STARS.
Energy is no longer released in the reactions to form elements heavier than Iron. These heavier elements require the INPUT of energy for creation. Again, we lose the balance between internal pressure and the force of gravity, and the star collapses again.
Click on the poster icon in the lower right to return to slide #6.
Periodic table is from http://www.chemicalelements.com/
This periodic table demonstrates the fusion reactions in large stars. [click]
Notice that we’re always moving from lighter to heavier, from left to right.
We’ve seen (click #1) 1H -> 4He and (2) 4He -> 12C.
These are further representative reactions that occur in massive stars:
(3) Carbon to Magnesium (12C -> 24Mg)
(4) Helium and Carbon to Oxygen (4He + 12C -> 16O)
(5) Oxygen to Silicon (16O -> 32Si) or Oxygen to Sulfer and He
(6) Helium and Oxygen to Neon (4He + 16O -> 20Ne)
(7) Helium and Silicon to Nickel (which decays to Cobalt and then to Iron via successive positive beta decays) (28Si + 7(4He) -> 56Ni -> 56Co + e+ -> 56Fe + e+
NEARLY ALL ELEMENTS THROUGH IRON ARE CREATED THROUGH FUSION IN LARGE STARS.
Energy is no longer released in the reactions to form elements heavier than Iron. These heavier elements require the INPUT of energy for creation. Again, we lose the balance between internal pressure and the force of gravity, and the star collapses again.
Click on the poster icon in the lower right to return to slide #6.
Periodic table is from http://www.chemicalelements.com/
This periodic table demonstrates the fusion reactions in large stars. [click]
Notice that we’re always moving from lighter to heavier, from left to right.
We’ve seen (click #1) 1H -> 4He and (2) 4He -> 12C.
These are further representative reactions that occur in massive stars:
(3) Carbon to Magnesium (12C -> 24Mg)
(4) Helium and Carbon to Oxygen (4He + 12C -> 16O)
(5) Oxygen to Silicon (16O -> 32Si) or Oxygen to Sulfer and He
(6) Helium and Oxygen to Neon (4He + 16O -> 20Ne)
(7) Helium and Silicon to Nickel (which decays to Cobalt and then to Iron via successive positive beta decays) (28Si + 7(4He) -> 56Ni -> 56Co + e+ -> 56Fe + e+
NEARLY ALL ELEMENTS THROUGH IRON ARE CREATED THROUGH FUSION IN LARGE STARS.
Energy is no longer released in the reactions to form elements heavier than Iron. These heavier elements require the INPUT of energy for creation. Again, we lose the balance between internal pressure and the force of gravity, and the star collapses again.
Click on the poster icon in the lower right to return to slide #6.
Periodic table is from http://www.chemicalelements.com/
This periodic table demonstrates the fusion reactions in large stars. [click]
Notice that we’re always moving from lighter to heavier, from left to right.
We’ve seen (click #1) 1H -> 4He and (2) 4He -> 12C.
These are further representative reactions that occur in massive stars:
(3) Carbon to Magnesium (12C -> 24Mg)
(4) Helium and Carbon to Oxygen (4He + 12C -> 16O)
(5) Oxygen to Silicon (16O -> 32Si) or Oxygen to Sulfer and He
(6) Helium and Oxygen to Neon (4He + 16O -> 20Ne)
(7) Helium and Silicon to Nickel (which decays to Cobalt and then to Iron via successive positive beta decays) (28Si + 7(4He) -> 56Ni -> 56Co + e+ -> 56Fe + e+
NEARLY ALL ELEMENTS THROUGH IRON ARE CREATED THROUGH FUSION IN LARGE STARS.
Energy is no longer released in the reactions to form elements heavier than Iron. These heavier elements require the INPUT of energy for creation. Again, we lose the balance between internal pressure and the force of gravity, and the star collapses again.
Click on the poster icon in the lower right to return to slide #6.
Periodic table is from http://www.chemicalelements.com/
This periodic table demonstrates the fusion reactions in large stars. [click]
Notice that we’re always moving from lighter to heavier, from left to right.
We’ve seen (click #1) 1H -> 4He and (2) 4He -> 12C.
These are further representative reactions that occur in massive stars:
(3) Carbon to Magnesium (12C -> 24Mg)
(4) Helium and Carbon to Oxygen (4He + 12C -> 16O)
(5) Oxygen to Silicon (16O -> 32Si) or Oxygen to Sulfer and He
(6) Helium and Oxygen to Neon (4He + 16O -> 20Ne)
(7) Helium and Silicon to Nickel (which decays to Cobalt and then to Iron via successive positive beta decays) (28Si + 7(4He) -> 56Ni -> 56Co + e+ -> 56Fe + e+
NEARLY ALL ELEMENTS THROUGH IRON ARE CREATED THROUGH FUSION IN LARGE STARS.
Energy is no longer released in the reactions to form elements heavier than Iron. These heavier elements require the INPUT of energy for creation. Again, we lose the balance between internal pressure and the force of gravity, and the star collapses again.
Click on the poster icon in the lower right to return to slide #6.
Periodic table is from http://www.chemicalelements.com/
This periodic table demonstrates the fusion reactions in large stars. [click]
Notice that we’re always moving from lighter to heavier, from left to right.
We’ve seen (click #1) 1H -> 4He and (2) 4He -> 12C.
These are further representative reactions that occur in massive stars:
(3) Carbon to Magnesium (12C -> 24Mg)
(4) Helium and Carbon to Oxygen (4He + 12C -> 16O)
(5) Oxygen to Silicon (16O -> 32Si) or Oxygen to Sulfer and He
(6) Helium and Oxygen to Neon (4He + 16O -> 20Ne)
(7) Helium and Silicon to Nickel (which decays to Cobalt and then to Iron via successive positive beta decays) (28Si + 7(4He) -> 56Ni -> 56Co + e+ -> 56Fe + e+
NEARLY ALL ELEMENTS THROUGH IRON ARE CREATED THROUGH FUSION IN LARGE STARS.
Energy is no longer released in the reactions to form elements heavier than Iron. These heavier elements require the INPUT of energy for creation. Again, we lose the balance between internal pressure and the force of gravity, and the star collapses again.
Click on the poster icon in the lower right to return to slide #6.
Periodic table is from http://www.chemicalelements.com/
This periodic table demonstrates the fusion reactions in large stars. [click]
Notice that we’re always moving from lighter to heavier, from left to right.
We’ve seen (click #1) 1H -> 4He and (2) 4He -> 12C.
These are further representative reactions that occur in massive stars:
(3) Carbon to Magnesium (12C -> 24Mg)
(4) Helium and Carbon to Oxygen (4He + 12C -> 16O)
(5) Oxygen to Silicon (16O -> 32Si) or Oxygen to Sulfer and He
(6) Helium and Oxygen to Neon (4He + 16O -> 20Ne)
(7) Helium and Silicon to Nickel (which decays to Cobalt and then to Iron via successive positive beta decays) (28Si + 7(4He) -> 56Ni -> 56Co + e+ -> 56Fe + e+
NEARLY ALL ELEMENTS THROUGH IRON ARE CREATED THROUGH FUSION IN LARGE STARS.
Energy is no longer released in the reactions to form elements heavier than Iron. These heavier elements require the INPUT of energy for creation. Again, we lose the balance between internal pressure and the force of gravity, and the star collapses again.
Click on the poster icon in the lower right to return to slide #6.
Periodic table is from http://www.chemicalelements.com/
This periodic table demonstrates the fusion reactions in large stars. [click]
Notice that we’re always moving from lighter to heavier, from left to right.
We’ve seen (click #1) 1H -> 4He and (2) 4He -> 12C.
These are further representative reactions that occur in massive stars:
(3) Carbon to Magnesium (12C -> 24Mg)
(4) Helium and Carbon to Oxygen (4He + 12C -> 16O)
(5) Oxygen to Silicon (16O -> 32Si) or Oxygen to Sulfer and He
(6) Helium and Oxygen to Neon (4He + 16O -> 20Ne)
(7) Helium and Silicon to Nickel (which decays to Cobalt and then to Iron via successive positive beta decays) (28Si + 7(4He) -> 56Ni -> 56Co + e+ -> 56Fe + e+
NEARLY ALL ELEMENTS THROUGH IRON ARE CREATED THROUGH FUSION IN LARGE STARS.
Energy is no longer released in the reactions to form elements heavier than Iron. These heavier elements require the INPUT of energy for creation. Again, we lose the balance between internal pressure and the force of gravity, and the star collapses again.
Click on the poster icon in the lower right to return to slide #6.
Periodic table is from http://www.chemicalelements.com/
This periodic table demonstrates the fusion reactions in large stars. [click]
Notice that we’re always moving from lighter to heavier, from left to right.
We’ve seen (click #1) 1H -> 4He and (2) 4He -> 12C.
These are further representative reactions that occur in massive stars:
(3) Carbon to Magnesium (12C -> 24Mg)
(4) Helium and Carbon to Oxygen (4He + 12C -> 16O)
(5) Oxygen to Silicon (16O -> 32Si) or Oxygen to Sulfer and He
(6) Helium and Oxygen to Neon (4He + 16O -> 20Ne)
(7) Helium and Silicon to Nickel (which decays to Cobalt and then to Iron via successive positive beta decays) (28Si + 7(4He) -> 56Ni -> 56Co + e+ -> 56Fe + e+
NEARLY ALL ELEMENTS THROUGH IRON ARE CREATED THROUGH FUSION IN LARGE STARS.
Energy is no longer released in the reactions to form elements heavier than Iron. These heavier elements require the INPUT of energy for creation. Again, we lose the balance between internal pressure and the force of gravity, and the star collapses again.
Click on the poster icon in the lower right to return to slide #6.
Periodic table is from http://www.chemicalelements.com/
The collapse of a large star causes an explosive shock wave, blowing most of the star’s mass into space in a SUPERNOVA.
A supernova is very hot and energetic, and able to create heavier elements than fusion created in the star’s core.
[Click to reveal Gold and Titanium.]
The input of energy needed the create elements beyond Iron is available in the supernova. From this we get the remaining naturally occurring elements, like the Gold in jewelry and Titanium in glasses frames.
The collapse of a large star causes an explosive shock wave, blowing most of the star’s mass into space in a SUPERNOVA.
A supernova is very hot and energetic, and able to create heavier elements than fusion created in the star’s core.
[Click to reveal Gold and Titanium.]
The input of energy needed the create elements beyond Iron is available in the supernova. From this we get the remaining naturally occurring elements, like the Gold in jewelry and Titanium in glasses frames.
The collapse of a large star causes an explosive shock wave, blowing most of the star’s mass into space in a SUPERNOVA.
A supernova is very hot and energetic, and able to create heavier elements than fusion created in the star’s core.
[Click to reveal Gold and Titanium.]
The input of energy needed the create elements beyond Iron is available in the supernova. From this we get the remaining naturally occurring elements, like the Gold in jewelry and Titanium in glasses frames.
Supernovae are able to do two very important things:
(1) Create new, heavier elements.
(2) Disperse the elements that were created in the star that exploded.
These images are from Chandra, showing the Cassiopeia A supernova remnant in different x-ray energies. These images show the distribution of elements ejected in the explosion. They are part of a gas that’s about 50 million degrees.
In these images, yellow regions show the most intense concentration, followed by red, purple, and green.
The upper left image is from all X-ray energies, and the others are centered on the lines of particular elements (Silicon, Calcium, and Iron).
Note the asymmetry, especially in silicon, possibly due to an asymmetry in the explosion. The iron image suggests that the layers of the star were overturned either before or during the explosion.
Click on the poster icon in lower right to return to slide #6
[All images are 8.5 arc minutes on a side (28.2 light years for a distance to Cas A of 11,000 light years).]
See http://chandra.h,arvard.edu/photo/cycle1/cas_a062700/
Did anyone notice that we missed a few elements?
We get H and He from the Big Bang, and C through Iron in stars, and heavier elements from supernovae… what did we miss?
LITHIUM, BERYLLIUM, AND BORON!
[Click to reveal Lithium batteries.]
These elements are mostly formed through cosmic ray interactions.
What are cosmic rays?
Cosmic rays are high-energy particles moving through space at velocities close to the speed of light. They’re little bits of matter, often the nuclei of the elements, most likely sent zinging through space by supernova explosions (or perhaps stellar winds).
Did anyone notice that we missed a few elements?
We get H and He from the Big Bang, and C through Iron in stars, and heavier elements from supernovae… what did we miss?
LITHIUM, BERYLLIUM, AND BORON!
[Click to reveal Lithium batteries.]
These elements are mostly formed through cosmic ray interactions.
What are cosmic rays?
Cosmic rays are high-energy particles moving through space at velocities close to the speed of light. They’re little bits of matter, often the nuclei of the elements, most likely sent zinging through space by supernova explosions (or perhaps stellar winds).
Lithium, Beryllium, and Boron are formed in stars, but they’re very unstable at the high temperatures in the core of stars. Therefore, they break down quickly into Helium.
These elements are predominantly created through the collision of cosmic rays with the atoms of Hydrogen and Helium found in interstellar space. When cosmic rays hit atoms, they produce new elements.
The cosmic rays are travelling so fast through space, it hits the Hydrogen or Helium with a lot of force, and parts of its nucleus can be “chipped off.”
Here’s a diagram of such a collision!
When the cosmic ray hits the Hydrogen or Helium, it fragments into two smaller, lighter nuclei.
In the equation at the bottom of this slide, Carbon, Nitrogen, Oxygen, or Iron nuclei collide with Hydrogen or Helium in the interstellar medium to create lighter elements -- Lithium, Beryllium, Boron, or other elements lighter than Iron.
So these interactions create elements that weren’t stable enough to be created at the high temperatures required for fusion in a star.
This is a summary of the major production mechanisms for each of the elements. Note that it is the background for the poster.
Many elements are generated from more than one process, and where there are two nearly equal contributors (each contributing at least 30% of the abundance), we gave the element two colors.
This table presents a slightly more complicated story than the narrative for the talk. Small stars contribute to some of the heavier elements through the process of neutron capture in Asymptotic Branch Giants, a stage in the life cycle of “small” stars with masses 2-8 times that of the sun. In the core of this Giant, free neutrons may be captured by heavy elements (e.g. Iron) existing in the core. After enough neutron captures, the core becomes unstable, with the neutron decaying into a proton and electron, producing a heavier element (e.g. Fe -> Co). Conditions in these Giants are right to produce elements from niobium to bismuth.
7Li is also made in AB Giants. (6Li is made via Cosmic Ray interactions)
The poster draws together all of the ideas in this presentation.
We’re in the center, surrounded by all sorts of everyday objects (glasses, balloon, plants, etc.).
These objects demonstrate our connection to the elements of which they are composed.
The background is the periodic table, which represents all of the elements.
And the sphere around the center connects the elements (and the objects) to the cosmic processes which created them!
So we are all made of stars (or at least of space)!
Note that the back of the poster has some of the basic information from this presentation for a quick guide to the poster.
This is a graph of elemental composition.
The vertical scale is logarithmic, with H arbitrarily set to 10^12 so that the elements with the lowest abundance still have a value of 10^0, or 1.
So this scale reflects powers of ten -- Hydrogen is at 10^12, Helium is around 10^11, and so on.
This is color-coded in a simple manner, and does not reflect the complexities of the 2005 revision.
You can see the big peaks for Hydrogen and Helium, both produced in the Big Bang. There’s a dip for Lithium, Beryllium, and Boron because they’re not really produced through fusion, but by cosmic ray interactions. From there, there’s a relatively steady decrease in abundance, moving through the elements made in small stars to the ones only made in large stars, then supernovae…
[Lead is striped to show creation by radioactive decay.]
[Click for the text!]
This is really just the solar system! It’s hard to get a picture like this for the whole universe -- composition varies in different areas of the universe. Our solar system makes a nice model.
[Re - the Cosmic Rays have enhanced abundances for Li, Be, B, and Sc, Ti, V, Cr, Mn. Also, the solar system has a deficit of Li, Be, and B beyond the abundance in the universe.]
Allow 10-15 minutes for the activity.
Participants are given bottles which model the elemental composition of the Sun, the interstellar medium, carbonaceous Chondrites (meteorite), the earth’s atmosphere, and the elements formed in a supernova explosion. Participants are also given a key as to what element each substance represents, and the abundances in each substance.
Give 1 bottle to each group of 2-3. After they’ve all had time to determine what they have, have each group say what they have and how they determined that.
The activity includes a “mystery” bottle with a substance not listed on the key. Those groups should first share what they think the composition is. Then the entire audience can attempt to determine what the substance is.
See http://imagine.gsfc.nasa.gov./docs/teachers/elements/ for the activity.
Source: http://www.sciencenet.org.uk/database/Biology/9608/b00600d.html
ElementSymbol%Notes
OxygenO65.0Water; organic compounds
CarbonC18.5Organic compounds
HydrogenH9.5Water; organic compounds
NitrogenN3.2Part of all protein molecules
CalciumCa1.5Bones/teeth; clotting; hormones
PhosphorousP1.0Nucleic acids/ATP; bones/ teeth
SulfurS0.3Component of many proteins
ChlorineCl0.2Water movement between cells
SodiumNa0.2Water balance; extracellular fluid
MagnesiumMg0.1Muscle contraction and nerves
IodineI<0.1Production of thyroid hormone
IronFe<0.1Basic component of hemoglobin
Elements that make up less than 0.1% of the body are &#x201C;trace elements&#x201D;, like:
Some trace elements are:
cobaltcopperfluorine
manganesesiliconzincNickel
Composition is usually determined through spectroscopy. Each element gives off a unique &#x201C;signature&#x201D; of specific wavelengths of light, which we see as bright lines in its spectrum.
By measuring the relative intensities of the lines from different elements, we can determine their abundance in an object being observed.
The optical spectrum of H shows the Balmer lines - transitions to/from the n=2 electron shell. From red to blue, this spectrum shows H-alpha (transition from n=3 to n=2), H-beta (transition from n=4), H-gamma (transition from n=5), and H-delta (faintly).
We&#x2019;re used to seeing these spectra. What if you could hear them ?
Print a colored spectrum, cut it into strips, and lay the strips on the keys of a musical keyboard.
Then put down the emission spectrum of an element, and line up the lines with the keys.
Then play the element.
Play helium. Go back and play H again, and ask them to listen for the difference. The difference arises from the yellow-green line.
After you play carbon, note that you can play the elements either as chords (as we did) or as individual notes up the scale. Also note that you can place the spectrum any where you want, but around middle C is usually best.
The chords won&#x2019;t sound familiar, which is good, because you want participants (and students) to listen for the differences (rather than for something they recognize).
Play helium. Go back and play H again, and ask them to listen for the difference. The difference arises from the yellow-green line.
After you play carbon, note that you can play the elements either as chords (as we did) or as individual notes up the scale. Also note that you can place the spectrum any where you want, but around middle C is usually best.
The chords won&#x2019;t sound familiar, which is good, because you want participants (and students) to listen for the differences (rather than for something they recognize).
You can now combine elements, either to create molecules or to create the substances we analyzed in the bottles.
You can now combine elements, either to create molecules or to create the substances we analyzed in the bottles.
You can now combine elements, either to create molecules or to create the substances we analyzed in the bottles.
You can now combine elements, either to create molecules or to create the substances we analyzed in the bottles.
Check out the website at the bottom of this slide for this presentation and more activities and materials. The web site contains an on-line version of the booklet which accompanies these materials, and a link to an order form for requesting a hard copy of the poster and booklet.
So we have pondered this question, and hopefully we have some better ideas about the answer. And if you need further inspiration &#x2026; (next slide)