The document discusses biopotential electrodes and the electrode-electrolyte interface. It explains that electrodes serve as transducers, changing ionic current in the body into electronic current. The electrode-electrolyte interface involves the transfer of electrons, cations, and anions to allow current to cross. Half-cell potentials arise at equilibrium and depend on factors like material, concentration, and temperature. Polarization occurs when current flows, altering the observed potential through mechanisms like ohmic drop, concentration changes, and activation energy barriers.
Bio potential electrodes are transducers that convert ionic currents in the body into electronic currents that can be measured by electronic equipment. They provide an interface between the body and measuring devices. At the electrode-electrolyte interface, ions carry current in the body while electrons carry current in the electrode. Electrodes change ionic current into electronic current to allow for measurement. Motion artifacts can occur when electrodes are disturbed, but can be reduced by using non-polarizable electrodes like silver-silver chloride electrodes.
Polarizable & non polarizable ElectrodesTalha Liaqat
A polarizable electrode is characterized by charge separation at the electrode-electrolyte boundary and behaves like a capacitor. It does not allow faradic current to pass freely and the electrode reaction is very slow. In contrast, a non-polarizable electrode does not exhibit charge separation and allows faradic current to pass through without polarization. It has an infinitely fast electrode reaction and behaves like a resistor. Examples of polarizable electrodes include platinum while silver/silver chloride is an example of a non-polarizable electrode.
This document discusses biopotentials and methods for measuring them. It begins with an introduction to biopotentials and what they are. It then discusses the mechanisms behind biopotentials, focusing on ion concentrations and how they generate electrical potentials. The rest of the document discusses specific measurement methods like ECG, EEG, EMG, EOG, and considerations for biopotential measurement like electronics, electrodes, and practices.
This document discusses techniques for enhancing the signal-to-noise ratio in analytical measurements. It describes what the signal-to-noise ratio is and explains common sources of noise like thermal noise, shot noise, and flicker noise. It then discusses various hardware and software methods for improving the SNR, such as shielding, grounding, difference amplifiers, filtering (low-pass, high-pass, band-pass), ensemble averaging, and moving averages. Modulation and lock-in amplifiers are also covered as techniques to extract low-level signals from noise.
This document provides an overview of voltammetry and potentiometry techniques. It discusses the history and development of voltammetry, which involves measuring current as a function of applied potential. Common types of voltammetry include linear sweep, cyclic, and stripping voltammetry. The document also describes the basic components of a voltammetry system, including the working, reference, and counter electrodes. Finally, it provides a brief introduction to potentiometry and its applications in titration and measuring concentration, activity, and pH.
This document discusses dielectrics and their properties. It introduces dielectrics as materials that can store electric charge and energy with minimal heat loss. The document discusses how a capacitor's capacitance depends on the dielectric material between its plates, including the dielectric constant which measures a material's ability to concentrate electrostatic lines of flux. It also examines polarization in insulators when an electric field is applied and defines related terms like permittivity, dielectric constant, and loss tangent.
Metals are opaque and highly reflective. They reflect most visible light due to their continuous empty electron states that allow electrons to absorb and re-emit light of the same wavelength. Silver reflects almost all light wavelengths, while gold's color is due to some light photons not being reemitted visibly. Nonmetals may absorb, reflect, refract, or transmit light depending on their electron band structure and properties like index of refraction.
Microelectrodes are small electrodes used to measure electrical potential within cells without damaging them. They have tip diameters ranging from 0.05 to 10μm. There are two main types: metal microelectrodes made from materials like stainless steel, platinum-iridium alloy, or tungsten; and micropipette electrodes fabricated from glass capillaries instead of metal. The electrical properties of microelectrodes can be represented by an equivalent circuit diagram showing the resistance at different points of the electrode.
Bio potential electrodes are transducers that convert ionic currents in the body into electronic currents that can be measured by electronic equipment. They provide an interface between the body and measuring devices. At the electrode-electrolyte interface, ions carry current in the body while electrons carry current in the electrode. Electrodes change ionic current into electronic current to allow for measurement. Motion artifacts can occur when electrodes are disturbed, but can be reduced by using non-polarizable electrodes like silver-silver chloride electrodes.
Polarizable & non polarizable ElectrodesTalha Liaqat
A polarizable electrode is characterized by charge separation at the electrode-electrolyte boundary and behaves like a capacitor. It does not allow faradic current to pass freely and the electrode reaction is very slow. In contrast, a non-polarizable electrode does not exhibit charge separation and allows faradic current to pass through without polarization. It has an infinitely fast electrode reaction and behaves like a resistor. Examples of polarizable electrodes include platinum while silver/silver chloride is an example of a non-polarizable electrode.
This document discusses biopotentials and methods for measuring them. It begins with an introduction to biopotentials and what they are. It then discusses the mechanisms behind biopotentials, focusing on ion concentrations and how they generate electrical potentials. The rest of the document discusses specific measurement methods like ECG, EEG, EMG, EOG, and considerations for biopotential measurement like electronics, electrodes, and practices.
This document discusses techniques for enhancing the signal-to-noise ratio in analytical measurements. It describes what the signal-to-noise ratio is and explains common sources of noise like thermal noise, shot noise, and flicker noise. It then discusses various hardware and software methods for improving the SNR, such as shielding, grounding, difference amplifiers, filtering (low-pass, high-pass, band-pass), ensemble averaging, and moving averages. Modulation and lock-in amplifiers are also covered as techniques to extract low-level signals from noise.
This document provides an overview of voltammetry and potentiometry techniques. It discusses the history and development of voltammetry, which involves measuring current as a function of applied potential. Common types of voltammetry include linear sweep, cyclic, and stripping voltammetry. The document also describes the basic components of a voltammetry system, including the working, reference, and counter electrodes. Finally, it provides a brief introduction to potentiometry and its applications in titration and measuring concentration, activity, and pH.
This document discusses dielectrics and their properties. It introduces dielectrics as materials that can store electric charge and energy with minimal heat loss. The document discusses how a capacitor's capacitance depends on the dielectric material between its plates, including the dielectric constant which measures a material's ability to concentrate electrostatic lines of flux. It also examines polarization in insulators when an electric field is applied and defines related terms like permittivity, dielectric constant, and loss tangent.
Metals are opaque and highly reflective. They reflect most visible light due to their continuous empty electron states that allow electrons to absorb and re-emit light of the same wavelength. Silver reflects almost all light wavelengths, while gold's color is due to some light photons not being reemitted visibly. Nonmetals may absorb, reflect, refract, or transmit light depending on their electron band structure and properties like index of refraction.
Microelectrodes are small electrodes used to measure electrical potential within cells without damaging them. They have tip diameters ranging from 0.05 to 10μm. There are two main types: metal microelectrodes made from materials like stainless steel, platinum-iridium alloy, or tungsten; and micropipette electrodes fabricated from glass capillaries instead of metal. The electrical properties of microelectrodes can be represented by an equivalent circuit diagram showing the resistance at different points of the electrode.
Electrical safety in biophysical measurementsJaya Yadav
This document discusses various methods for protecting patients, visitors, and staff from electrical hazards in healthcare facilities, including macro-shocks and micro-shocks. It outlines the importance of grounding systems, isolation transformers, ground fault circuit interrupters (GFCIs), leakage current reduction, insulation standards for medical equipment classes, isolation amplifiers, and periodic safety testing using electrical safety analyzers. The overall goal is to eliminate electric connections to the heart and minimize hazards through grounding, insulation, and monitoring of leakage currents and voltages.
Nuclear Isomerism
A nuclear isomer is a metastable state of an atomic nucleus caused by the excitation of one or more of its nucleons (protons or neutrons). "
"Metastable" refers to the property of these nuclei whose excited states have half-lives longer than 100 to 1000 times the half-lives of the excited nuclear states that decay with a "prompt" half life (ordinarily on the order of 10−12 seconds). As a result, the term "metastable" is usually restricted to isomers with half-lives of 10−9 seconds or longer.
Augar Effect
The transition of a nucleus from an excited to the ground state may occur by the EJECTION OF ORBITAL ELECTRONS
It is an alternative GAMMA emission
IF the energy TRANSFERRED to the electrons in this process exceeds the electron binding energy EB ,The electron is ejected with a kinetic ENERGY
Ee =E - EBThe transition of a nucleus from an excited to the ground state may occur by the EJECTION OF ORBITAL ELECTRONS
It is an alternative GAMMA emission
IF the energy TRANSFERRED to the electrons in this process exceeds the electron binding energy EB ,The electron is ejected with a kinetic ENERGY
Thankyou....
1) An electrical paper sensor was developed to detect chemicals such as sulphate ions. The sensor measured resistance of solutions containing copper sulphate at various concentrations.
2) As copper sulphate concentration increased from 0.02N to 0.4N, resistance decreased, then slightly increased, indicating the sensor is more sensitive at lower concentrations.
3) Barium chloride was added, precipitating some sulphate ions. Resistance decreased confirming the presence of sulphate ions. The experiment validated the sensor for quantitative analysis of sulphate ions.
This PPT gives introduction
to Dielectrics, Piezoelectrics & Ferroelectrics Materials, Methods and Applications. A quick glance at the dielectric phenomena, symmetry, classification, modelling, figures of merit and applications.
Comprehensive overview of the physics and applications of
ferroelectric
1. The document discusses chemical sensors, providing definitions and explaining their basic working principles. Chemical sensors contain a receptor that interacts with analyte molecules and a transducer that converts this interaction into an electrical signal.
2. Chemical sensors can be classified by their operating principle and type of substance detected. Common types include optical, electrochemical, electrical, mass sensitive, magnetic, and thermometric sensors. Thermometric sensors like the catalytic sensor measure the heat of a chemical reaction.
3. The document provides examples of specific chemical sensors, such as the optical chemical pH sensor, coulometric oxygen sensor, and gas sensors for detecting carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, and hydrogen.
About Piezoelectric material. types of material, piezo-Electric Effect, and advantage and disadvantage of material.also you can find some useful information about the internal working of molecules.Application of material according to field.
Colour centres are point defects or defect clusters in crystal lattices that cause the material to change color. They occur when electrons or holes become trapped at defect sites. Common examples are the F-centre in alkali halides, which forms when an electron is trapped at a halide ion vacancy, and the H-centre and V-centre in alkali halides, which involve trapped holes. Defect clusters can also form through the interaction of multiple point defects, such as pairs or groups of F-centres. The defects cause color changes by absorbing visible light and exciting trapped electrons or holes to higher energy states.
Dielectrics are materials that have permanent electric dipole moments. They contain atoms or molecules with separated positive and negative charges. When an electric field is applied, the dipoles in dielectrics can become polarized through various processes. The main polarization processes are electronic, ionic, orientation and space charge polarization. Together they result in dielectric materials gaining an induced dipole moment and becoming polarized in the direction of an applied electric field. The dielectric constant of a material depends on its ability to polarize and is a measure of the amount of electric flux density it can sustain compared to a vacuum.
This document provides an overview of electronic band structure and Bloch theory in solid state physics. It discusses the differences between the Sommerfeld and Bloch approaches to modeling electron behavior in periodic solids. Key points include:
- Bloch's treatment models electrons using band indices and crystal momentum rather than just momentum.
- Bloch states follow classical dynamics on average, with crystal momentum replacing ordinary momentum.
- The band structure determines allowed electron energies and velocities for a given crystal momentum.
- Bloch's theory accounts for periodic potentials within the crystal lattice, allowing for band gaps and a more accurate description of electron behavior in solids.
This document discusses magnetic materials and their properties. It begins by explaining the origins of magnetism from electron orbits and spins. It then classifies magnetic materials as diamagnetic, paramagnetic, ferromagnetic, antiferromagnetic, ferrimagnetic, and discusses their characteristics. The document also covers Weiss molecular field theory of ferromagnetism, hysteresis curves, hard and soft magnetic materials, ferrites and their applications. Finally, it discusses superconductivity including the BCS theory and applications of superconductors such as SQUIDs.
1) 1H NMR spectroscopy involves absorbing radio waves by hydrogen nuclei in a strong magnetic field. The frequency at which hydrogen nuclei absorb is determined by their chemical environment.
2) A typical NMR instrument consists of a magnet to separate nuclear spin states, radio frequency channels to apply energy, a sample probe, detector to process signals, and recorder to display spectra. Fourier transform NMR converts time domain signals to frequency domain spectra.
3) Chemical shifts indicate how far signals are from the reference standard TMS. Factors like electronegativity, hybridization, and hydrogen bonding affect chemical shifts. Spin-spin splitting results in multiplets, with coupling constants measured in Hz indicating nearby hydrogen interactions.
This document discusses different types of electrodes used to measure electrical activity in the body. It describes various classifications of transducers including passive vs active, absolute vs relative, direct vs complex, analog vs digital, and primary vs secondary. It also explains different electrode principles such as capacitive, inductive, and resistive. The document outlines types of electrodes like surface electrodes, needle electrodes, and microelectrodes and provides examples of each. It discusses factors to consider when selecting a transducer and electrodes used to measure specific physiological variables.
This document discusses terminology and concepts related to measurement and error. It defines true value, accuracy, and precision. There are two types of errors - determinate (systematic) errors which have a known cause, and indeterminate (random) errors which cannot be determined. Accuracy refers to closeness to the true value while precision refers to reproducibility. The standard deviation allows for more variation in a sample compared to the population. When combining uncertainties from multiple measurements, relative uncertainties should be summed for multiplication and division, while absolute uncertainties are summed for addition and subtraction. Significant figures refer to the reliable digits in a measurement and rules govern how many are retained in calculations.
This Presentation "Energy band theory of solids" will help you to Clarify your doubts and Enrich your Knowledge. Kindly use this presentation as a Reference and utilize this presentation
This document discusses biopotential electrodes and their use in recording bioelectric signals. It begins by explaining the origin of various bioelectric signals and how they are propagated. It then describes different types of electrodes - surface electrodes like metal plates and suction cups, as well as microelectrodes. The electrode-electrolyte interface is explained, including the half-cell potential and factors that influence it. Polarization at the interface and its effects on signal recording are also covered. The document emphasizes the importance of electrode material and properties like polarizability in optimizing signal acquisition and minimizing noise.
This document discusses dielectrics and their properties. It defines dielectrics as materials with high electrical resistivity that can efficiently support electrostatic fields and store charge. The key properties discussed are dielectric constant, which measures a material's ability to concentrate electrostatic lines of flux, and dielectric loss, which is the proportion of energy lost as heat. The document also covers topics like capacitance, polarization in insulators, definitions of permittivity and permeability, and applications of dielectrics like energy storage and photonic crystals.
Certain crystalline materials like quartz exhibit piezoelectricity, producing an electric charge when compressed. Quartz crystals are commonly used as they are inexpensive and available naturally. Quartz has a hexagonal structure with three axes and its frequency depends inversely on thickness. Quartz crystals are used in oscillators where an applied voltage causes the crystal to vibrate at its natural frequency, producing a stable reference signal.
Isolation amplifiers provide electrical isolation and safety barriers between input and output stages. They use transformer, optical, or capacitive isolation methods and isolated power supplies to break continuity while amplifying low-level signals. Common applications include medical equipment, industrial processes, and data acquisition where electrical isolation is needed to protect patients or eliminate noise.
This document discusses photoluminescence, which is the emission of light from a material upon exposure to light or other electromagnetic radiation. It begins by classifying luminescence and describing photoluminescence as a specific type involving absorption of photons and emission of photons as electrons return to lower energy states. The key processes of photoluminescence are excitation, relaxation, and emission. It then distinguishes between two types of photoluminescence - fluorescence, which is a rapid emission, and phosphorescence, which involves a spin-forbidden state and longer-lasting emission. The document concludes by outlining applications of photoluminescence spectroscopy for materials characterization and explaining the differences between photoluminescence and
This document discusses biopotential electrodes and their use in measuring electrical signals from the body. It covers:
1. The electrode-electrolyte interface, where chemical reactions allow charge to cross between the electrode and electrolyte through the movement of electrons, cations, and anions.
2. Polarization phenomena like half-cell potential, overpotential, and the three components (ohmic, concentration, activation) that make up polarization potential.
3. The differences between polarizable and non-polarizable electrodes and examples like platinum and silver-silver chloride electrodes.
4. Equivalent circuit models of electrodes and the impedance components associated with the interface.
5.
Bio potential electrodes are transducers that convert ionic currents in the body into electronic currents that can be measured by electronic equipment. They provide an interface between the body and measuring devices. At the electrode-electrolyte interface, ions carry current in the body while electrons carry current in the electrode. Electrodes change ionic current into electronic current to allow for measurement. Motion artifacts can occur when electrodes are disturbed, but can be reduced by using non-polarizable electrodes like silver-silver chloride electrodes.
Electrical safety in biophysical measurementsJaya Yadav
This document discusses various methods for protecting patients, visitors, and staff from electrical hazards in healthcare facilities, including macro-shocks and micro-shocks. It outlines the importance of grounding systems, isolation transformers, ground fault circuit interrupters (GFCIs), leakage current reduction, insulation standards for medical equipment classes, isolation amplifiers, and periodic safety testing using electrical safety analyzers. The overall goal is to eliminate electric connections to the heart and minimize hazards through grounding, insulation, and monitoring of leakage currents and voltages.
Nuclear Isomerism
A nuclear isomer is a metastable state of an atomic nucleus caused by the excitation of one or more of its nucleons (protons or neutrons). "
"Metastable" refers to the property of these nuclei whose excited states have half-lives longer than 100 to 1000 times the half-lives of the excited nuclear states that decay with a "prompt" half life (ordinarily on the order of 10−12 seconds). As a result, the term "metastable" is usually restricted to isomers with half-lives of 10−9 seconds or longer.
Augar Effect
The transition of a nucleus from an excited to the ground state may occur by the EJECTION OF ORBITAL ELECTRONS
It is an alternative GAMMA emission
IF the energy TRANSFERRED to the electrons in this process exceeds the electron binding energy EB ,The electron is ejected with a kinetic ENERGY
Ee =E - EBThe transition of a nucleus from an excited to the ground state may occur by the EJECTION OF ORBITAL ELECTRONS
It is an alternative GAMMA emission
IF the energy TRANSFERRED to the electrons in this process exceeds the electron binding energy EB ,The electron is ejected with a kinetic ENERGY
Thankyou....
1) An electrical paper sensor was developed to detect chemicals such as sulphate ions. The sensor measured resistance of solutions containing copper sulphate at various concentrations.
2) As copper sulphate concentration increased from 0.02N to 0.4N, resistance decreased, then slightly increased, indicating the sensor is more sensitive at lower concentrations.
3) Barium chloride was added, precipitating some sulphate ions. Resistance decreased confirming the presence of sulphate ions. The experiment validated the sensor for quantitative analysis of sulphate ions.
This PPT gives introduction
to Dielectrics, Piezoelectrics & Ferroelectrics Materials, Methods and Applications. A quick glance at the dielectric phenomena, symmetry, classification, modelling, figures of merit and applications.
Comprehensive overview of the physics and applications of
ferroelectric
1. The document discusses chemical sensors, providing definitions and explaining their basic working principles. Chemical sensors contain a receptor that interacts with analyte molecules and a transducer that converts this interaction into an electrical signal.
2. Chemical sensors can be classified by their operating principle and type of substance detected. Common types include optical, electrochemical, electrical, mass sensitive, magnetic, and thermometric sensors. Thermometric sensors like the catalytic sensor measure the heat of a chemical reaction.
3. The document provides examples of specific chemical sensors, such as the optical chemical pH sensor, coulometric oxygen sensor, and gas sensors for detecting carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, and hydrogen.
About Piezoelectric material. types of material, piezo-Electric Effect, and advantage and disadvantage of material.also you can find some useful information about the internal working of molecules.Application of material according to field.
Colour centres are point defects or defect clusters in crystal lattices that cause the material to change color. They occur when electrons or holes become trapped at defect sites. Common examples are the F-centre in alkali halides, which forms when an electron is trapped at a halide ion vacancy, and the H-centre and V-centre in alkali halides, which involve trapped holes. Defect clusters can also form through the interaction of multiple point defects, such as pairs or groups of F-centres. The defects cause color changes by absorbing visible light and exciting trapped electrons or holes to higher energy states.
Dielectrics are materials that have permanent electric dipole moments. They contain atoms or molecules with separated positive and negative charges. When an electric field is applied, the dipoles in dielectrics can become polarized through various processes. The main polarization processes are electronic, ionic, orientation and space charge polarization. Together they result in dielectric materials gaining an induced dipole moment and becoming polarized in the direction of an applied electric field. The dielectric constant of a material depends on its ability to polarize and is a measure of the amount of electric flux density it can sustain compared to a vacuum.
This document provides an overview of electronic band structure and Bloch theory in solid state physics. It discusses the differences between the Sommerfeld and Bloch approaches to modeling electron behavior in periodic solids. Key points include:
- Bloch's treatment models electrons using band indices and crystal momentum rather than just momentum.
- Bloch states follow classical dynamics on average, with crystal momentum replacing ordinary momentum.
- The band structure determines allowed electron energies and velocities for a given crystal momentum.
- Bloch's theory accounts for periodic potentials within the crystal lattice, allowing for band gaps and a more accurate description of electron behavior in solids.
This document discusses magnetic materials and their properties. It begins by explaining the origins of magnetism from electron orbits and spins. It then classifies magnetic materials as diamagnetic, paramagnetic, ferromagnetic, antiferromagnetic, ferrimagnetic, and discusses their characteristics. The document also covers Weiss molecular field theory of ferromagnetism, hysteresis curves, hard and soft magnetic materials, ferrites and their applications. Finally, it discusses superconductivity including the BCS theory and applications of superconductors such as SQUIDs.
1) 1H NMR spectroscopy involves absorbing radio waves by hydrogen nuclei in a strong magnetic field. The frequency at which hydrogen nuclei absorb is determined by their chemical environment.
2) A typical NMR instrument consists of a magnet to separate nuclear spin states, radio frequency channels to apply energy, a sample probe, detector to process signals, and recorder to display spectra. Fourier transform NMR converts time domain signals to frequency domain spectra.
3) Chemical shifts indicate how far signals are from the reference standard TMS. Factors like electronegativity, hybridization, and hydrogen bonding affect chemical shifts. Spin-spin splitting results in multiplets, with coupling constants measured in Hz indicating nearby hydrogen interactions.
This document discusses different types of electrodes used to measure electrical activity in the body. It describes various classifications of transducers including passive vs active, absolute vs relative, direct vs complex, analog vs digital, and primary vs secondary. It also explains different electrode principles such as capacitive, inductive, and resistive. The document outlines types of electrodes like surface electrodes, needle electrodes, and microelectrodes and provides examples of each. It discusses factors to consider when selecting a transducer and electrodes used to measure specific physiological variables.
This document discusses terminology and concepts related to measurement and error. It defines true value, accuracy, and precision. There are two types of errors - determinate (systematic) errors which have a known cause, and indeterminate (random) errors which cannot be determined. Accuracy refers to closeness to the true value while precision refers to reproducibility. The standard deviation allows for more variation in a sample compared to the population. When combining uncertainties from multiple measurements, relative uncertainties should be summed for multiplication and division, while absolute uncertainties are summed for addition and subtraction. Significant figures refer to the reliable digits in a measurement and rules govern how many are retained in calculations.
This Presentation "Energy band theory of solids" will help you to Clarify your doubts and Enrich your Knowledge. Kindly use this presentation as a Reference and utilize this presentation
This document discusses biopotential electrodes and their use in recording bioelectric signals. It begins by explaining the origin of various bioelectric signals and how they are propagated. It then describes different types of electrodes - surface electrodes like metal plates and suction cups, as well as microelectrodes. The electrode-electrolyte interface is explained, including the half-cell potential and factors that influence it. Polarization at the interface and its effects on signal recording are also covered. The document emphasizes the importance of electrode material and properties like polarizability in optimizing signal acquisition and minimizing noise.
This document discusses dielectrics and their properties. It defines dielectrics as materials with high electrical resistivity that can efficiently support electrostatic fields and store charge. The key properties discussed are dielectric constant, which measures a material's ability to concentrate electrostatic lines of flux, and dielectric loss, which is the proportion of energy lost as heat. The document also covers topics like capacitance, polarization in insulators, definitions of permittivity and permeability, and applications of dielectrics like energy storage and photonic crystals.
Certain crystalline materials like quartz exhibit piezoelectricity, producing an electric charge when compressed. Quartz crystals are commonly used as they are inexpensive and available naturally. Quartz has a hexagonal structure with three axes and its frequency depends inversely on thickness. Quartz crystals are used in oscillators where an applied voltage causes the crystal to vibrate at its natural frequency, producing a stable reference signal.
Isolation amplifiers provide electrical isolation and safety barriers between input and output stages. They use transformer, optical, or capacitive isolation methods and isolated power supplies to break continuity while amplifying low-level signals. Common applications include medical equipment, industrial processes, and data acquisition where electrical isolation is needed to protect patients or eliminate noise.
This document discusses photoluminescence, which is the emission of light from a material upon exposure to light or other electromagnetic radiation. It begins by classifying luminescence and describing photoluminescence as a specific type involving absorption of photons and emission of photons as electrons return to lower energy states. The key processes of photoluminescence are excitation, relaxation, and emission. It then distinguishes between two types of photoluminescence - fluorescence, which is a rapid emission, and phosphorescence, which involves a spin-forbidden state and longer-lasting emission. The document concludes by outlining applications of photoluminescence spectroscopy for materials characterization and explaining the differences between photoluminescence and
This document discusses biopotential electrodes and their use in measuring electrical signals from the body. It covers:
1. The electrode-electrolyte interface, where chemical reactions allow charge to cross between the electrode and electrolyte through the movement of electrons, cations, and anions.
2. Polarization phenomena like half-cell potential, overpotential, and the three components (ohmic, concentration, activation) that make up polarization potential.
3. The differences between polarizable and non-polarizable electrodes and examples like platinum and silver-silver chloride electrodes.
4. Equivalent circuit models of electrodes and the impedance components associated with the interface.
5.
Bio potential electrodes are transducers that convert ionic currents in the body into electronic currents that can be measured by electronic equipment. They provide an interface between the body and measuring devices. At the electrode-electrolyte interface, ions carry current in the body while electrons carry current in the electrode. Electrodes change ionic current into electronic current to allow for measurement. Motion artifacts can occur when electrodes are disturbed, but can be reduced by using non-polarizable electrodes like silver-silver chloride electrodes.
Potentiometry is an electroanalytical technique that uses potentiometers to measure electrochemical potential. It involves using reference and indicator electrodes immersed in analyte solutions. The potential difference between the electrodes depends on ion activity/concentration based on the Nernst equation, allowing for quantitative analysis. A salt bridge containing a neutral salt maintains electrical neutrality between electrode half-cells. Common reference electrodes include silver/silver chloride and saturated calomel electrodes. Potentiometry is used for pH measurements and potentiometric titrations.
This document discusses potentiometry, which uses the potential between two electrodes to determine the concentration of a solute. It describes the theory behind potentiometric measurements involving charge separation at interfaces. There are two main types of indicator electrodes: metallic direct indicator electrodes whose response involves redox reactions, and membrane electrodes or ion-selective electrodes. The document outlines the construction, working principles, and applications of potentiometry including characteristics, potentiometric cells, and reference electrodes.
Electrochemistry is the study of chemical reactions caused by the passage of an electric current and the production of electrical energy from chemical reactions. It encompasses phenomena like corrosion and devices like batteries and fuel cells. Electrochemical cells are either electrolytic cells, where an external power source drives non-spontaneous reactions, or galvanic/voltaic cells, where spontaneous reactions produce electricity. The kinetics and rates of electrochemical reactions, as well as mass transfer of reactants, influence current production in fuel cells and other devices.
Potentiometry: Electrical potential, electrochemical cell, reference electrodes, indicator
electrodes, measurement of potential and Ph, construction and working of electrodes,
Potentiometric titrations, methods of detecting end point, Karl Fischer titration.
Electrochemistry deals with chemical reactions caused by electric currents or electric currents produced by chemical reactions. Galvanic cells convert chemical energy to electrical energy through redox reactions. Reversible cells like Daniel cells can undergo reactions in both directions while irreversible cells like zinc-silver cells cannot. Protective metal coatings through electroplating or electroless plating prevent corrosion by depositing a noble metal layer on a substrate.
Electric current flows when charges move through a conducting material in a closed circuit. The document discusses key concepts related to electricity including:
- Electricity is a type of energy that can build up in one place or flow from one place to another as static or current electricity.
- An electric circuit allows current to flow when it provides a complete loop or path for charges to move through components like wires, batteries, and light bulbs.
- Key factors that control current in a circuit include resistance of the materials and voltage of the power source according to Ohm's law.
This document discusses various devices used in electrochemical analysis and auxiliary laboratory devices. It describes devices for electrochemical analysis including galvanic cells, electrodes, potentiometry, conductometry, and voltammetry. It also describes auxiliary devices such as centrifuges, shakers, homogenizers, vacuum pumps, thermostats, and air conditioning used to support electrochemical analysis and biomedical research.
This document discusses devices used in electrochemical analysis and auxiliary laboratory devices. It describes galvanic cells, electrodes, and potentiometric devices used to determine ionic composition. It also discusses auxiliary devices like centrifuges and thermostats. Conductometers and coulometers are described which measure conductivity by applying a low voltage alternating current between electrodes to avoid electrolysis. pH meters and glass electrodes are summarized which can directly measure pH by relating the electrode voltage to hydrogen ion concentration.
Ppt djy 2011 topic 5.2 electric current slDavid Young
Electric current is the flow of electric charge through a conductor. It is measured in amperes (A) which is equal to one coulomb of charge passing through an area in one second. For current to flow, there must be a complete circuit from the source of high potential to low potential. Resistance is a measure of how an object opposes the flow of current and is proportional to the material and dimensions of the conductor. Ohm's law states that the current through a conductor is directly proportional to the voltage applied. Power is the rate at which electrical energy is transferred by a circuit and is calculated by multiplying current and voltage.
Potentiometry involves measuring the potential of electrochemical cells under conditions of no current flow. There are two types - direct potentiometry measures the potential of indicator electrodes related to analyte concentration, while indirect potentiometry involves measuring potential changes during titrations. A potentiometric cell consists of a reference electrode that maintains a constant potential, an indicator electrode whose potential varies with analyte concentration, and a salt bridge. The Nernst equation describes the relationship between electrode potential and analyte concentration or activity.
Electronic Devices and Circuits by Dr. R.Prakash Raorachurivlsi
This document provides an overview of electronic devices and circuits in 5 units:
1. PN junction diodes, tunnel diodes, varactor diodes, and photo diodes.
2. Rectifiers, filters, and voltage regulation using zener diodes.
3. Bipolar junction transistors, characteristics, configurations, and transistor amplifiers.
4. Transistor biasing and stabilization techniques.
5. Field effect transistors including JFETs, MOSFETs, and FET amplifiers.
Basics of Electrochemistry and Electrochemical MeasurementsHalavath Ramesh
A potentiostat is an electronic instrument that controls the voltage difference between a working electrode and a reference electrode by injecting current through an auxiliary electrode. It is used to apply a potential to an electrochemical cell and measure the resulting current. A potentiostat requires a three-electrode cell with a working electrode, reference electrode, and counter electrode. The working electrode is where the potential is controlled and current is measured. Common reference electrodes include the saturated calomel electrode and silver/silver chloride electrode, which maintain a constant potential. The counter electrode completes the circuit by allowing current to flow out of the cell. Potentiostats are used to study electrochemical reactions and processes.
This document provides an overview of key concepts in electrochemistry:
1) It defines oxidation, reduction, and redox reactions, and describes direct and indirect redox reactions.
2) It explains the components and functioning of an electrochemical cell, including the anode, cathode, salt bridge, and representation of half-cells.
3) It introduces standard electrode potential and the electrochemical series, and describes how potential is affected by concentration and temperature.
Electrochemistry class 12 ( a continuation of redox reaction of grade 11)ritik
Electrochemistry involves the study of chemical reactions that produce electricity and chemical reactions produced by electricity. A galvanic (voltaic) cell converts the chemical energy of a spontaneous redox reaction into electrical energy. Daniell's cell uses the redox reaction of zinc oxidizing copper ions to produce a cell potential of 1.1 V. An electrolytic cell uses an applied voltage to drive a nonspontaneous redox reaction in the opposite direction of the natural reaction in a galvanic cell. Standard reduction potentials allow prediction of the tendency of half-reactions to occur and their oxidizing or reducing power.
This document provides an overview of electrochemistry and discusses several key concepts:
- Electrochemistry involves using chemical reactions to produce electricity or using electricity to drive non-spontaneous reactions.
- Oxidation and reduction reactions occur at electrodes in electrochemical cells. The standard electrode potential table allows determination of reaction spontaneity.
- Daniell cells convert the chemical energy of a redox reaction into electrical energy. The cell potential is equal to the difference between the standard potentials of the cathode and anode half-reactions.
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2. Biopotential Electrodes
• Interface between the body and the electronic measuring
apparatus to measure and record potentials.
• Biopotential electrodes conduct current across the interface
between the body and the electronic measuring circuit, as other
potential measurement devidces do.
• Electrode carries out a transducing function, because current is
carried in the body by ions, whereas it is carried in the electrode
and its lead wire by electrons.
• Electrode serve as a transducer to change an ionic current into an
electronic current.
• Electrodes have electrical characteristics and can be modelled
with equvialent circuits based on this characteristics.
3. Electrode-Electrolyte interface
• To understand the passage of electric current from the body to an
electrode, electrode-electrolyte interface is examined.
• A net current, I, that crosses the
interface, passing from the
electrode to the electrolyte,
consists of
• (1) electrons moving in a direction
opposite to that of the current in
the electrode,
• (2) cations (denoted by C+)
moving in the same direction as
the current, and
• (3) anions (denoted by A-) moving
in a direction opposite to that of
the current in the electrolyte.
The faradaic current is the current
generated by the reduction or
oxidation of some chemical
substance at an electrode.
4. • For charge to cross the interface—there are no free electrons
in the electrolyte and no free cations or anions in the
electrode—
where n is the valence of C.
Assumption:
• The electrode is made up of some atoms of the same material as
the cations and that this material in the electrode at the interface
can become oxidized to form a cation and one or more free
electrons
• The cation is discharged into the electrolyte; the electron remains
as a charge carrier in the electrode.
and m is the valence of A
• an anion coming to the electrode–electrolyte interface can be
oxidized to a neutral atom, giving off one or more free electrons to the
electrode.
6. Electrode-electrolyte Interface problem
metal electrolyte
M+
A-
e-
I
To sense a signal
a current I must flow !
But no electron e- is
passing the interface!
?
www.vyssotski.ch/BasicsOfInstrumentation/Electrodes.ppt
7. metal cation
No current
leaving into the electrolyte
What’s going on?
www.vyssotski.ch/BasicsOfInstrumentation/Electrodes.ppt
8. metal cation
No current
One atom M out of the metal
is oxidized to form
one cation M+ and giving off
one free electron e-
to the metal.
leaving into the electrolyte
www.vyssotski.ch/BasicsOfInstrumentation/Electrodes.ppt
9. metal cation
What’s going on?
No current
joining the metal
www.vyssotski.ch/BasicsOfInstrumentation/Electrodes.ppt
10. metal cation
One cation M+
out of the electrolyte
becomes one neutral atom M
taking off one free electron
from the metal.
No current
joining the metal
www.vyssotski.ch/BasicsOfInstrumentation/Electrodes.ppt
11. Half-cell voltage
• As reactions reach equilibrium, no current flows between the
electrode and the electrolyte. so the rates of oxidation and
reduction at the interface are equal.
• Under these conditions, a characteristic potential difference called
equilibrium half-cell potential is established by the electrode and
its surrounding electrolyte which depends on the metal,
concentration of ions in solution and temperature (and some
second order factors) .
12. Half-cell voltage
• Equilibrium half-cell potential results from the distribution of ionic
concentration in the vicinity of the electrode–electrolyte interface.
• Oxidation or reduction reactions at the electrode-electrolyte
interface lead to a double-charge layer, similar to that which exists
along electrically active biological cell membranes.
• The electrolyte surronding the metal is at a different electric
potential from the rest of the solution.
14. • Half-cell potential cannot be measured without a second electrode. It is physically
impossible to measure the potential of a single electrode: only the difference between
the potentials of two electrodes can be measured.
• The half-cell potential of the standard hydrogen electrode has been arbitrarily set to
zero. Other half cell potentials are expressed as a potential difference with this
electrode.
Half-cell voltage
No current, 1M salt concentration, T = 25ºC
metal: Li Al Fe Pb H Ag/AgCl Cu Ag Pt Au
Vh / Volt -3,0 negativ 0 0,223 positiv 1,68
www.vyssotski.ch/BasicsOfInstrumentation/Electrodes.ppt
15. Measuring Half Cell Potential
Note: Electrode material is metal + salt or polymer selective membrane
16. Half Cell potential
http://chemwiki.ucdavis.edu/Analytical_Chemistry/Electrochemistry/Standard_Potentials
• The standard hydrogen
electrode (SHE) is universally
used for reference and is
assigned a standard potential of
0V.
• The [H+] in solution is in
equilibrium with H2 gas at a
pressure of 1 atm at the Pt-
solution interface.
• One especially attractive feature
of the SHE is that the Pt metal
electrode is not consumed
during the reaction.
17. Half Cell potential
http://chemwiki.ucdavis.edu/Analytical_Chemistry/Electrochemistry/Standard_Potentials
• Cathode
• Anode
• Overall
In figure there is SHE in one beaker and a Zn strip in another beaker containing a
solution of Zn2+ ions. When the circuit is closed, the voltmeter indicates a potential of
0.76 V. The zinc electrode begins to dissolve to form Zn2+ , and H+ ions are reduced
to H2 in the other compartment. Thus the hydrogen electrode is the cathode, and the
zinc electrode is the anode.
19. Some half cell potentials
Standard Hydrogen
electrode
Note: Ag-AgCl has low junction
potential & it is also very stable
-> hence used in ECG
electrodes!
20. Polarization
If there is a current between the electrode and electrolyte, the observed half cell
potential is often altered due to polarization. The difference is due to polarization
of the electrode.
Overpotential
Difference between observed and zero-current half cell potentials
Resistance
Current changes resistance
of electrolyte and thus,
a voltage drop results.
Concentration
Changes in distribution
of ions at the electrode-
electrolyte interface
Activation
The activation energy
barrier depends on the
direction of current and
determines kinetics
0
E
V
V
V
V A
C
R
p
Note: Polarization and impedance of the electrode are two
of the most important electrode properties to consider.
21. Ohmic Overpotential
• Direct result of the resistance of the electrolyte.
• When a current passes between
two electrodes immersed in an
electrolyte, there is a voltage
drop along the path of the
current in the electrolyte as a
result of its resistance.
• This drop in voltage is proportional to the current and the resistivity
of the electrolyte.
22. Concentration Overpotential
• Results from changes in the distribution of ions in the electrolyte in
the vicinity of the electrode–electrolyte interface.
• When a current is established,
the rates of oxidation and
reduction at the interface are no
longer equal.
• Thus it is reasonable to expect
the concentration of ions to
change.
• This change results in a different half-cell potential at the electrode.
The difference between this and the equilibrium half-cell potential is
the concentration overpotential.
23. Nernst Equation
• When two aqueous ionic solutions of different concentration are
separated by an ion-selective semipermeable membrane, an
electric potential exists across this membrane.
• Nernst equation
where a1 and a2 are the activities of the ions on each side of the membrane.
24. • When the electrode–electrolyte system no longer maintains this
standard condition, half-cell potentials different from the standard
half-cell potential are observed.
• The differences in potential are determined primarily by temperature
and ionic activity in the electrolyte
Half Cell potential
.
E = half-cell potential
E0 = standard half-cell potential
n = valence of electrode material
ac
n+ = activity of cation Cn+
(generally same as concentration)
25. • The more general form of this equation can be written for a general
oxidation–reduction reaction as
General Nernst Equation
where n electrons are transferred.
where the a’s represent the activities of the various constituents of the
reaction.
The general Nernst equation for this situation is
26. Activation Overpotential
• The charge-transfer processes involved in the oxidation–reduction
reaction are not entirely reversible.
• In order for metal atoms to be oxidized to metal ions that are
capable of going into solution, the atoms must overcome an energy
barrier which governs the kinetics of the reaction.
• The reverse reaction—in which a cation is reduced, thereby plating
out an atom of the metal on the electrode—also involves an
activation energy, but it does not necessarily have to be the same
as that required for the oxidation reaction.
• When there is a current between the electrode and the electrolyte,
either oxidation or reduction predominates, and hence the height of
the energy barrier depends on the direction of the current.
• This difference in energy appears as a difference in voltage
between the electrode and the electrolyte, which is known as the
activation overpotential.
27. • Note: for a metal electrode, 2 processes
can occur at the electrolyte interfaces:
– A capacitive process resulting from the
redistribution of charged and polar particles
with nocharge-transfer between the solution
and the electrode
– A component resulting from the electron
exchange between the electrode and a
redox species in the solution termed
faradaic process.
28. Perfectly Polarizable Electrodes
These are electrodes in which no crosses the electrode-electrolyte
interface when a current is applied. The current across the interface is
a displacement current and the electrode behaves like a capacitor.
Example: Platinum Electrode (Noble metal)
Perfectly Non-Polarizable Electrode
These are electrodes where current passes freely across the
electrode-electrolyte interface, requiring no energy to make the
transition. These electrodes see no overpotentials.
Example : Ag/AgCl electrode
Polarizable and Non-Polarizable
Electrodes
Example: Ag-AgCl is used in recording while Pt is use in stimulation
Use for
recording
Use for
stimulation
29. No electrode is perfectly polarizable or non-polarizable.
Platinum electrodes are a reasonable approximation of
perfectly polarizable electrodes.
• They exhibit Vp that primarily results from Vc and Va.
• Used for stimulation and for higher frequency biopotential
measurements.
Ag/AgCl electrodes behave reasonably closely to perfectly
non-polarizable electrodes.
• They exhibit Vp that primarily results from Vr only.
• Used for biopotential recordings that range from high
frequency to very low frequency.
Polarizable and Non-Polarizable
Electrodes
30. Motion artifact
• If a pair of electrodes is in an electrolyte and one
moves with respect to the other, a potential
difference appears across the electrodes known as
the motion artifact. This is a source of noise and
interference in bio-potential measurements.
• When the electrode moves with respect to the
electrolyte, the distribution of the double layer of
charge on polarizable electrode interface changes.
This changes the half-cell potential temporarily.
• Note: Motion artifact is minimal for non-polarizable
electrodes (Measurement electrodes – AgCl).
31. silver/silver chloride electrodes
• Ag/AgCl is a practical
electrode that
approaches the
characteristics of a
perfectly nonpolarizable
electrode
• Can be easily fabricated
in the laboratory.
• Consists of a metal coated with a layer of a slightly soluble ionic
compound of that metal with a suitable anion.
• Whole structure is immersed in an electrolyte containing the anion in
relatively high concentrations.
32. Electrolytic process - Ag/AgCl electrode fabrication
e
Ag
Ag
AgCl
Cl
Ag
faculty.ksu.edu.sa/ElBrawany/Courses/Med201Files/W7.ppt
• An electrochemical cell with the
Ag electrode on which the AgCl
layer is to be deposited serves
as anode and another piece of
Ag—having a surface area
much greater than that of the
anode—serves as cathode.
• The reactions begin to occur as soon as the battery is connected,
and the current jumps to its maximal value.
• As the thickness of the deposited AgCl layer increases, the rate of
reaction decreases and the current drops.
• This situation continues, and the current approaches zero
asymptotically.
33. Electrode behavior and circuit model
• Current–voltage characteristics of the electrode–electrolyte
interface are found to be nonlinear,
• Nonlinear elements are required for modeling electrode behavior.
• Characteristics of an electrode are sensitive to the current passing
through the electrode,
• Electrode characteristics at relatively high current densities can be
considerably different from those at low current densities.
• Characteristics of electrodes are also waveform-dependent.
• When sinusoidal currents are used to measure the electrode’s
circuit behavior, the characteristics are also frequency-dependent.
34. 37
equivalent circuit
Rel=Rs is the series resistance associated with interface effects and due to resistance in
the electrolyte.
Electrode behavior and circuit model
36. Electrode impedance is frequency-dependent
• At high frequencies, where 1/wC << Rd, the impedance is constant
at Rs.
• At low frequencies, where 1/wC >> Rd, the impedance is again
constant but its value is larger, being Rs + Rd.
• At frequencies between these extremes, the electrode impedance is
frequency-dependent. Frequency Response
Corner frequency
Rd+Rs
Rs
• For 1 cm2 at 10 Hz, a nickel- and carbon-loaded silicone rubber
electrode has an impedance of approximately 30 kΩ,
• Whereas Ag/AgCl has an impedance of less than 10Ω.
37. • A metallic silver electrode having a surface area of 0.25 cm2 had
the impedance characteristic shown by curve A.
• Numbers attached to curves indicate number mA.s for each
deposit.
• At a frequency of 10 Hz, the magnitude of its impedance was
almost three times the value at 300 Hz.
• This indicates a strong capacitive component to the equivalent
38. (From L. A. Geddes, L. E. Baker, and A. G. Moore, “Optimum Electrolytic Chloriding of Silver Electrodes,” Medical and Biological Engineering,
1969, 7, pp. 49–56.)
• Electrolytically depositing 2.5 mAs of AgCl greatly reduced the
low-frequency impedance, as reflected in curve B.
• Depositing thicker AgCl layers had minimal effects until the charge
deposited exceeded approximately 100 mAs.
• The curves were then seen to shift to higher impedances in a
parallel fashion as the amount of AgCl deposited increased.
39. Electrode-skin interface
• Interface between the electrode–electrolyte and the skin needs to
be considered to understand the behavior of the electrodes.
• In coupling an electrode to the skin, we generally use transparent
electrolyte gel containing Cl- as the principal anion to maintain
good contact.
• The interface between this gel and the electrode is an electrode–
electrolyte interface.
• However, the interface between the electrolyte and the skin is
different.
40. Electrode Skin Interface
Sweat glands
and ducts
Electrode
Epidermis
Dermis and
subcutaneous layer
Ru
Ehe
Rs
Rd
Cd
Gel
Re
Ese EP
RP
CP
Ce
Stratum Corneum
Skin impedance for 1cm2 patch:
200kΩ @1Hz
200 Ω @ 1MHz
100
m
100
m
Nerve
endings Capillary
41. Body-surface electrode is placed against skin,
showing the total electrical equivalent circuit
The series resistance
Rs is now the effective
resistance associated
with interface effects of
the gel between the
electrode and the skin.
42. • Considering stratum
corneum, as a membrane
that is semipermeable to
ions,
• so if there is a difference
in ionic concentration
across this membrane,
• there is a potential
difference Ese, which is
given by the Nernst
equation.
• Epidermal layer has an electric impedance that behaves as a
parallel RC circuit.
• For 1 cm2, skin impedance reduces from approximately 200 kΩ at 1
Hz to 200 Ω at 1 MHz.
• The dermis and the subcutaneous layer under it behave in general
as pure resistances. They generate negligible dc potentials.
43. Reducing the effect of stratum corneum
• Minimize the effect of the stratum corneum by removing it, or at
least a part of it, from under the electrode.
• Various ways:
– vigorous rubbing with a pad soaked in acetone
– abrading the stratum corneum with sandpaper to puncture it.
• This process tends to short out Ese, Ce, and Re
• Improve stability of the signal,
– but the stratum corneum can regenerate in as short a time as
24 h.
44. Psychogenic electrodermal responses or
galvanic skin reflex (GSR)
• Contribution of the sweat glands and sweat ducts.
• The fluid secreted by sweat glands contains Na+, K+, and Cl-
ions, the concentrations of which differ from those in the
extracellular fluid.
• There is a potential difference between the lumen of the
sweat duct and the dermis and subcutaneous layers.
45. • There also is a parallel
RpCp combination in
series with this potential
that represents the wall of
the sweat gland and duct,
as shown by the broken
lines.
• These components are considered when the electrodes are used to
measure the electrodermal response or GSR
• These components are often neglected when we consider
biopotential electrodes
46. What happens when the gel
dries?
• Electrolyte gel is used for good contact between electrode and
skin during ECG (biopotential) measurements.
• What is the equivalent circuit when the gel is fresh?
• For prolong ambulatory recording, the gel can dry. How would
be equivalent circuit change?
• How would be equivalent circuit change if the gel completely
dries?
• And how would this affect the ECG recording?
47. Motion Artifact
• In addition to the half-cell potential Ehc, the electrolyte gel–skin
potential Ese can also cause motion artifact if it varies with
movement of the electrode.
• Variations of this potential indeed do represent a major source of
motion artifact in Ag/AgCl skin electrodes
• This artifact can be significantly reduced when the stratum
corneum is removed by mechanical abrasion with a fine abrasive
paper.
• This method also helps to reduce the epidermal component of
the skin impedance.
• However, that removal of the body’s outer protective barrier
makes that region of skin more susceptible to irritation from the
electrolyte gel.
• Stretching the skin changes this skin potential by 5 to 10 mV, and
this change appears as motion artifact
48. Body Surface Electrodes
• The earliest bioelectric potential measurements relied on immersion electrodes that were simply
buckets of saline solution into which the patient placed a hand and a foot, as shown in Figure.
• Plate electrodes, first introduced in 1917, were a great improvement on immersion electrodes.
They were originally separated from the skin by cotton pads soaked in saline to emulate the
immersion electrode mechanism.
• Later, an electrolytic paste was used in place of the pad with the metal in contact with the skin.
• Electrodes that can be placed on the body surface for recording bioelectric signals.
• The integrity of the skin is not compromised.
• Can be used for short or long duration applications 1. Metal Plate Electrodes
2. Suction Electrodes
3. Floating Electrodes
4. Flexible Electrodes
49. Metal-plate electrode used for application to
limbs, traditionally made from German-silver
(nickel-silver alloy)
Metal-disk electrode applied with surgical tape.
• Lead wire soldered or welded on the back surface.
• For ECG application made form disk of Ag with electrolytic
deposition of AgCl
• For surface EMG applications made of stainless steel, platinum or
gold plated disks to minimize electrolyte chemical reaction.
• Acts as polarizable electrode, and prone to motion artifacts
50. Disposable foam-pad electrodes, often used with ECG
monitoring apparatus
• Relatively large disk of plastic foam with silver-plated disk serving as
electrode, coated with AgCl
• Layer of electrolyte gel covers the disk
• Electrode side of foam covered with adhesive material
• They are preffered in hospitals due to being easy to apply and
disposable.
51. Metallic suction electrode
• A metallic suction electrode
is often used as a
precordial (chest) electrode
on clinical
electrocardiographs.
• It requires no straps or
adhesives for holding it in
place.
• Electrolyte gel is placed on
the contacting surface of
electrode.
• This electrode can be used
only for short periods of
time.
52. Floating Electrodes
• Mechanical
technique to reduce
noise. Isolates the
electrode-electrolyte
interface from
motion artifacts.
• Metal disk (actual
electrode) is
recessed.
• Floating in the
electrolyte gel.
• Not directly contact
with the skin.
• Reduces motion
artifacts.
53. Flexible body-surface electrodes (a) Carbon-
filled silicone rubber electrode
• Solid electrodes cannot conform to body-
surface topology resulting additional motion
artifacts.
• Carbon particles filled in the silicone rubber
compound (conductive) in the form of a thin
strip or disk is used as the active element of
an electrode.
• A pin connector is pushed into the lead
connector hole and electrode is usd like a
metal plate electrode.
• Applications – monitoring premature infants
(2500gr) who are not suitable for using
standard electrodes.
54. Flexible thin-film neonatal electrode (after Neuman, 1973).
(c) Cross-sectional view of the thin-film electrode in (b)
• The basic electrode consists of 13 μm-thick Mylar
film with Ag/AgCl film deposition.
• Lead wire is sticked to this film with an adhesive.
• Have the advantage of being flexible and
conforming to the shape of newborn’s chest.
• No need to be removed as they are X-ray
transparent
• Monitoring new-born infants
• Drawback – High electric impedance
55. Internal Electrodes – detect biopotential within body
• Percutaneous electrodes - electrode itself or the lead wire crosses
the skin,
• Entirely internal electrodes - connection is to an implanted
electronic circuit such as a radiotelemetry transmitter.
• No limitation due to electrolyte-skin interface
• Electrode behaves in the way dictated entirely by the electrode–
electrolyte interface.
• No electrolyte gel is required to maintain this interface, because
extracellular fluid is present.
56. (a) Insulated needle electrode, (b) Coaxial needle electrode
(c) Multiple electrodes in a single needle - Bipolar coaxial electrode,
Chronic recordings using
percutaneous wire electrodes -
(d) Fine-wire electrode
connected to hypodermic
needle, before being inserted,
(e) Cross-sectional view of skin
and muscle, showing fine-wire
electrode in place, (f) Cross-
sectional view of skin and
muscle, showing coiled fine-
wire electrode in place.
57. Electrodes for detecting fetal electrocardiogram during labor, by
means of intracutaneous needles (a) Suction electrode, (b) Cross-
sectional view of suction electrode in place, showing penetration of
probe through epidermis,
(c) Helical electrode, that is attached to fetal skin
by corkscrew-type action.
58. Insulated multistranded stainless steel or
platinum wire wire-loop electrode for implantable
wireless transmission electrodes for detecting
biopotentials
(b) platinum-sphere cortical-
surface potential electrode
(c) Multielement depth electrode
for deep cortical potential
measurement from multiple points.
59. Electrode Arrays
• Implantable electrode arrays can be fabricated one at a time
using clusters of fine insulated wires, this technique is both time-
consuming and expensive.
• When such clusters are made individually, each one will be
somewhat different from the other.
• To minimize these problems is to utilize microfabrication
technology to fabricate identical 2- and 3-D electrode arrays.
60. Examples of microfabricated electrode
arrays,
(a) One-dimensional plunge electrode array
(after Mastrototaro et al., 1992), --
measuring transmural potential distributions
in beating myocardium
(b) Two-dimensional array – extracellular
recording of neural signals in animal
studies
(c) Three-dimensional array (after Campbell
et al., 1991). – cardiac ECG mapping
61. Microelectrodes
Why
Measure potential difference across cell membrane
Requirements
– Small enough to be placed into cell
– Strong enough to penetrate cell membrane
– Typical tip diameter: 0.05 – 10 microns
Types
– Solid metal -> Tungsten microelectrodes
– Supported metal (metal contained within/outside glass needle)
– Glass micropipette -> with Ag-AgCl electrode metal
Intracellular
Extracellular
62. Metal Microelectrodes
Extracellular recording – typically in brain where you are interested
in recording the firing of neurons (spikes).
Use metal electrode+insulation -> goes to high impedance
amplifier…negative capacitance amplifier!
Microns!
R
C
64. Glass Micropipette
A glass micropipet electrode
filled with an electrolytic solution
(a) Section of fine-bore glass
capillary.
(b) Capillary narrowed through
heating and stretching.
(c) Final structure of glass-pipet
microelectrode.
Intracellular recording – typically for recording from cells, such as cardiac myocyte
Need high impedance amplifier…negative capacitance amplifier!
heat
pull
Fill with
intracellular fluid
or 3M KCl
Ag-AgCl
wire+3M KCl has
very low junction
potential and
hence very
accurate for dc
measurements
(e.g. action
potential)
65. Electrical Properties of
Microelectrodes
Metal microelectrode with tip
placed within cell
Equivalent circuits
Metal Microelectrode
Use metal electrode+insulation -> goes to high
impedance amplifier…negative capacitance amplifier!
67. Stimulating Electrodes
– Cannot be modeled as a series resistance and capacitance
(there is no single useful model)
– The body/electrode has a highly nonlinear response to
stimulation
– Large currents can cause
– Cavitation
– Cell damage
– Heating
Types of stimulating electrodes
1. Pacing
2. Ablation
3. Defibrillation
Features
Platinum electrodes:
Applications: neural stimulation
Modern day Pt-Ir and other exotic
metal combinations to reduce
polarization, improve
conductance and long
life/biocompatibility
Steel electrodes for pacemakers and
defibrillators
68. Microelectronic technology
for Microelectrodes Bonding pads
Si substrate
Exposed tips
Lead via
Channels
Electrode
Silicon probe
Silicon chip
Miniature
insulating
chamber
Contact
metal film
Hole
SiO2 insulated
Au probes
Silicon probe
Exposed
electrodes
Insulated
lead vias
(b)
(d)
(a)
(c)
Different types of microelectrodes fabricated using microfabrication/MEMS
technology
Beam-lead multiple electrode. Multielectrode silicon probe
Multiple-chamber electrode Peripheral-nerve electrode
71. In vivo neural microsystems: 3 examples
University of Michigan
Smart comb-shape microelectrode arrays for
brain stimulation and recording
University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
High-density comb-shape metal microelectrode
arrays for recording
Fraunhofer Institute of Biomedical (FIBE)
Engineering
Retina implant