Electri City BEYOND THE CURVE OF DEREGULATION 2005

ElectriCity®
BEYOND THE CURVE OF DEREGULATION
Neighborhood Energy Watch Groups and the Ethos of Commerce
written by Eileen M. Smith, M.Arch.
Founder & CEO Since 1992 SOLAR DEVELOPMENT COOPERATIVE
Lighting the Way With Creation’s Original Remedy
ETHOS OF COMMERCE PUBLISHERS, LTD.
Committed to Transforming Commerce
Through Information
Corona del Mar, California

Copyright 2004, 2005 Eileen M. Smith, M.Arch.
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced,
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While every effort has been made to ensure the reliability of the
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Publishers, Ltd. neither guarantees the accuracy of the data
contained herein nor assumes any responsibility for errors and
omissions or discrepancies. Errors brought to the attention of the
publisher and verified to the satisfaction of the publisher will be
corrected in future editions.
Library of Congress-in-Publication Data
ElectriCity BEYOND THE CURVE OF DEREGULATION :
featuring Neighborhood Energy Watch Solution Groups and
the Ethos of Commerce, Volume I
written and compiled by Eileen M. Smith, M.Arch.
Includes footnotes, bibliography, a list of figures, a glossary and an index.
ISBN 0-9741412-9-1
Library of Congress Control Number: 2004098882
Call Numbers
Dewey Decimal : 690 Smith 2004
Library Call Number : NA 2542 .S92 2004
Author : Eileen M. Smith, M.Arch.
Publisher: Ethos of Commerce Publishers, Ltd. Midwest Division
3535 East Coast Highway #216 Post Office Box 2
Corona del Mar, CA 92625 Lawrence, KS 66044
URL: www.geoticities.com/EthosOfCommerce
E-mail: ethosofcommerce@yahoo.com
This book was printed in the United States of America
CD Earth Day 2005 Release April 23, 2005
CD Insert and Photographs printed by Lawrence Printing and Design
CD Imprint by Brad Roszell, Brendon Glad and Chris Ordal homeTowncollaboraTions.com

ElectriCity®
Dedicated
. . . to you
. . . to sand candles
. . . to the 300 million American
electricity consumers and
. . . to the global electricity market!
Special thanks to my Mother whose
tolerance, persistence and friendship
made this book possible . . .
| ix

ElectriCity®
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The author wishes to thank and recognize all the people who supported her business
the last twelve years and allowed the information complied in this book to evolve and
blossom before me at various energy conferences and energy agency proceedings
around the world. It was your assistance, sharing of knowledge, generosity,
enthusiasm and tolerance that allowed this book and related information for electricity
consumers to emerge. Although, I cannot begin to individually thank everyone for the
assistance I have been provided, I want to express special thanks to my family from
youngsters to elders who have been extremely tolerant and supportive even when they
didn’t quite understand what I was doing. I want to thank Larry Snyder, Doug Overby,
Sally Turner’s family, Ed from Laguna Beach, Don and Sue Lambert, Denise at Flex,
Chris and Mitch Dickerson, Dennis Dahlin, AIA at WPM, Inc., Greg Sharp, AIA at
Southern California Edison, Bob Danielson at Active Solar, The Irvine Company, Patricia
J. Bradley, Bill Yerkes, Les Nichols and Raylene at Monkey Business. Al the taxi driver.
Thank you to Maria in the Writing Center, Fullerton College and Morningside
Presbyterian Church, Saddleback Community College, my friends at Golden West
College and the University of California at Irvine. Special thanks to my alma mater the
University of Kansas and especially Anchutz Science Library and Budig Computing
Center, Ecumenical Christian Ministries, Reverend Thad Holcombe, “T”, Natalie
Lowther, Doug Underwood, Father Joseph, Rick Clock, the KU Swing Club, Rick
Winfrey, and the KU Osher Institute. Thank you to Downtown Lawrence Merchants
with special thanks to Liberty Hall. Thank you to Jean and Dave at the Social Services
Thrift Store, to James and Nancy Dunn. Special thanks to Sam Fields, Sunshine, Bubba
and Taz for keeping me from the elements after everyone else had given up. A special
thanks to Vic Prodbielski Director of facilities maintenance at Georgetown University
and his staff. Thank you to Lt. Col. Richard T. Headrick. Thank you to Kevin Ridlin,
Susan and the Victoria Clark family for their special kindness, the tent and sleeping bag.
Thank to Rob, Craig and Dave at Bear’s Den and to the Appalachian Trails Conference
Center and especially John Fletcher. Thank you to the Stonebergers with special
thanks to their daughters for putting up with me. Special thanks to the Merry Mount
Riding Academy. Thank you to Gettysberg Hospital with special thanks to Sherry.
Thank you to the many people around the world who helped me including the
International Guest House, Mr. Porter at the American Power Conference, the Egyptian
Solar Energy Society and their associates, Hermann Scheer the German Parliamentarian
and many others. I extend my heartfelt appreciation to Channel 6 News in Lawrence,
Kansas for putting Pretty Polly the solar array at Georgetown University in the news
December 2003. Thanks to CNN for interviewing me in Egypt 1996. Thanks to Josh at
Design|Build Business Magazine for publishing my article Residential Photovoltaics
December 2003 and to Charlotte Nichols, the Hoya News Writer who bravely wrote on
March 20, 2000 article to clarify the 30,000 SF solar BI-PV Intercultural Center roof at
Georgetown University actually does work. Thank you to Yolanda at Leesburg, Today!
and to the Equiery for announcing the Journey by Horseback for Peace and
Photovoltaics. Thank you the people in the energy industry and in architecture for
evolving this new window of opportunity that is the basis of the ElectriCity® vision.
Special thanks to the many people who provided rides, food, accommodation and
assistance. My special thanks to Yahoo and Geocities who allowed my business to
persist along giants. Thank you to those who helped me through the many challenges
I faced. I deeply appreciate all the assistance provided to me. Eileen M. Smith, M.Arch.
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ElectriCity®
VOLUME I
Epigraph Solar Energy Soliloquy –Amid iii
Dedication . . . to you . . . to sand candles vii
Table of Contents ix
Forward The Ethos Of Commerce xi
INTRODUCTION What is Building-Integrated Photovoltaics? 1
SECTION I THE HISTORY OF PHOTOVOLTAIC ELECTRICITY 11
Chapter 1 œ to 1970 Magnetism, Electricity & The Photovoltaic Effect 13
Chapter 2 1971 to 1984 The Solarex Corporation Terrestrial PV 37
Chapter 3 1984 to 1991 Why Don’t We Use More Solar Electricity? 49
SECTION II THE SOLAR DEVELOPMENT COOPERATIVE 75
Chapter 4 1992 ECO TECHÉ for Kansas City Union Station 77
Chapter 5 1993 Advent of the Headrick Solar-Voltaic Dome™ 89
Chapter 6 1994 Georgetown University Intercultural Center 101
Chapter 7 1995 Dedicated to Dr. Joseph Lindmayer 127
Chapter 8 1996 100 Headrick Solar-Voltaic Dome™ by 2000 145
Chapter 9 Three-World-Powers PV Competition US+EC+Japan 171
Chapter 10 1997 American Power Conference~Sherman Antitrust Act 191
Orange County Solar Winter Gala ~ Jimmy Stewart
SECTION III CONSUMER EDUCATION~COMMERCE~REGULATION 213
Chapter 11 1998 Prelude to a Rulemaking on the Role of UDC in DG 215
BI-PV PEP USA ~ American Power Conference 2
Chapter 12 Millennium Dome™ BI-PV Manufacturing Museum 275
Chapter 13 1999 CPUC~CEC~CEOB Rulemaking R.98-12-015 289
Chapter 14 2000 Quasi-Legislative Rulemaking R.99-10-025 Least cost? 385
Chapter 15 § Intervener Hardship Compensation $100 to $350 Hour 491
Chapter 16 9|11 Green Team Proposal for Energy Crisis 2000 Silicon 579
Chapter 17 California State PV Consultant Report 1978 1996 577
Chapter 18 Protest Rule 21 Decision No Long-Term Contracts 595
Chapter 19 01~04OCTA THRASHER IRS SLAPP 9|11|01 BEATON Gas 647
SECTION IV BEYOND THE CURVE OF DEREGULATION 751
Chapter 20 Neighborhood Energy Watch Solution Groups [N.E.W.S.] 753
Chapter 21 Journey by Horseback for Peace & Photovoltaics [BI-PV] 787
EPILOGUE THE S.T.O.M.P. ACT 2004 for 829
Footnotes
1
2 to 20
21 to 96
97 to117
118 to 133
134 to 135
136
137 to 138
139 to 143
144 to 155
156 to 159
160 to 161
162 to 169
170 to 171
172 to 174
175 to 190
191 to 208
209 to 210
211 to 212
213 to 226
227 to 238
239 to 267
Solar Technologies of Mass Protection
List of Original Documents and Figures 849
Index and Bibliography
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ElectriCity®
FORWARD
The Ethos Of Commerce
For those seeking the culprit to blame for the condition of the
energy industry and the alleged failure of Assembly Bill 1890 with
Senate Bill 90 bills popularly referred to as deregulation of the
California energy industry, read no further. Simply, put this book
down, proceed to the nearest mirror and smile. Fragmented
consumers have historically made targets for entertainment to those
legislated and employed to manage the electricity industry in consort
with utility monopolies, oil cartel partners and their investors. The goal
herein is to share with you events and documents to prepare you as
consumers to become officially involved as a consequential influence
in the transformation of electricity commerce. This book is about
administrative law and how United States consumers can now
constructively reclaim and remold democracy in electricity commerce
via energy agency proceedings, the Internet and e-mail.
Although structured around alleged public hearings, until
recently, the decision-making process evolving energy commerce has
been prohibitively costly demanding an average of $1,000 expenditure
to file and serve one official documents in energy agency proceedings.
Today, it costs less than $50 to file an original and copies with a
Public Utilities Commission docket office in a proceeding. Historically,
proceedings have been unconstitutionally expensive and inaccessible
to consumers. This oppressive condition was clearly demonstrated in
the Erin Brockovich Story ca 1960 to 1980 released as a motion
picture in 2000. Semiconductor communications and electricity
technology will play a vital role in life of the 21st
Century. Today,
groups of consumers may monitor energy agency proceedings on the
Internet and officially serve comments and testimony via e-mail.
Consumers working together in Neighborhood Energy Watch Solution
Groups or N.E.W.S. Groups can achieve official consumer consensus
in energy agency decisions and thereby achieve legal standing.
Consumer-led majority opinions allow important community issues
previously suppressed to democratically influence energy industry
transformation. This book reveals important matters to clarify for
consumers the importance of their awareness and participation in
energy agency decisions. For the best results, read portions of this
book on a regular basis and discuss it with friends and neighbors.
|xiii

ElectriCity®
In the Introduction you will learn about the three kinds of solar
electricity with a summary description of how photovoltaic [PV] arrays
generate electricity from the light of the sun. The intro explains the four
ways to install solar systems with the most practical being building-
integrated photovoltaics [BI-PV]. The vision of ElectriCity is the city of
the near future featuring buildings that generate the electricity they use.
Section I reviews the history of magnetism, electricity and BI-PV.
In Section II join me in 1992 as I found the Solar Development
Cooperative to assure timely mainstream deployment of quality
building-integrated photovoltaics [BI-PV] supported by a reliable
service industry in the United States and global marketplace. At that
time, I had a limited understanding of the electricity industry. I was
driven by the belief that there is a need to perpetuate aesthetic quality
solar electric building materials in the mainstream market. This book
reveals the strong interest in solar energy I found at conferences
around the world and the sadly dysfunctional and increasingly brutal
essence of the persona of traditional energy commerce suppressing
mainstream BI-PV deployment from the mainstream market for twenty
years. Via over 300 original documents, photographs and narrative
you will travel with me to energy conferences from San Antonio,
Texas to Nice, France, Cairo, Egypt, Miyazaki, Japan and back to
Chicago, Illinois for the American Power Conference. You will find out
how a World War II pilot made history for the second time with his
design and patent of the most efficient solar array in existence, today,
the Headrick Solar-Voltaic Dome™ Power Station.
In Chapter 6 I share my shock and amazement as we discover
the 30,000 SF taxpayer-funded building-integrated photovoltaic [BI-PV]
solar demonstration installed on the Intercultural Center roof at
Georgetown University in 1984. This solar array generates $57,000 of
pollution ree fuel-free renewable BI-PV electricity a year from the light
of the sun. Wonder with me how most of the people in this building
who are global policy experts do not know this large blue roof
generates electricity. Why is it called Pretty Polly? The GTU ICC
houses the oldest Foreign Service training center in the United States.
GTU is President Clinton’s alma mater. Read Charlotte Nichol’s news
report as the brave student who wrote the March 20, 2000 article for
the Hoya News at Georgetown U revealing that the solar roof has
-f
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ElectriCity®
generated substantial electricity since it was installed in 1984 refuting
fraudulent claims in campus tours that it did not work.
In Section III of ElectriCity you will find hard-earned first person
excerpts from the heart of the heated California energy agency
rulemaking into the role of the utility distribution company [UDC] in
distributed or self-generation technology [DG] from 1998 to 2004. The
documents reveal how mass consumer intervention in energy agency
proceedings could bring a new balance to the vacuum of energy
commerce that has increasingly eroded American democracy in every
sector over the past century. The dysfunction and increasing tyranny
of fossil fuel and utility domination have become an issue of grave
concern around the world which is now more challenging than the
many environmental challenges it has evolved. Original documents
show why it is virtually impossible to transform energy agency
decisions from within the administrative process without mass
consumer intervention to redirect the tremendous vacuum of energy
commerce. Consumers may begin to understand first-hand why and
how they can intervene in energy agency proceedings to re-build
democratic freedoms that have been lost. The inadaptable condition of
energy commerce has dramatically delayed the timely evolution of
renewable demand-si e product-driven fuel-free renewable BI-PV
electricity into the mainstream market. Chapter 16 reveals SDC’s
9|11|00 Green Team Proposal that sought to reduce the impact of
peak shortages due to air conditioning demand during energy crisis
2000. Our plan sought to infuse failing Silicon Valley manufacturers
with the task of mass production of silicon photovoltaic
semiconductors to free California from future energy crisis in a year.
t
f
Explore with me in Section IV how our nation and the global
energy market will evolve beyond the curve of deregulation which
caused Energy Crisis 2000 in California and numerous related
problems. In Chapter 20 we explore the need for Neighborhood
Energy Watch Solution Groups or N.E.W.S. Groups. In addition to
general guidelines for industry transformation a format for developing
your own local N.E.W.S. Group is provided. It provides a prelude to
ElectriCity Volume II A Workbook or Consumer Empowerment in
Energy Agency Proceedings. Volume II of ElectriCity will provide a
comprehensive summary of the United States energy agencies and
related procedural information for consumers.
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ElectriCity®
Chapter 21 restates the case of solar electricity via BI-PV as
America’s choice for the 21st
Century. Compare our information with
that provided in the Handbook of Photovoltaic Science and
Engineering in which we found the Six Myths of Photovoltaics sells for
$296. [amazon.com] Obviously his market is not the mainstream
consumer at that price. We explore the reasons America’s choice
today for electricity in the 21
t
st
Century is demand-site solar energy
using Building-Integrated Photovoltaics [BI-PV]. Join us on the Journey
by Horseback [and foot] for Peace and Photovoltaics as we celebrate
the 30th
Anniversary of the founding of the terrestrial photovoltaic
industry in 1974 by Dr. Joseph Lindmayer and Dr. Peter Varadi. We
also celebrate the 20th
Anniversary of the 30,000 SF BI-PV Array on the
Georgetown University Intercultural Center in Washington, DC. The
historic Journey began on Easter Sunday 4|11|04 at the taxpayer
funded solar array at Georgetown University to a groundbreaking
ceremony at Ground Zero on the 4th
of July five hundred miles later
with an evening firework celebration on the New York Harbor hosted
by the Statue of Liberty. We congratulate California Governor Arnold
Schwarzenegger on the introduction of his Solar Roofs Initia ive [SRI]
Fall 2004 to install One Million Solar Roofs in California by 2017.
The Epilogue discusses Energy Bill 2004 passed June 16th
after
removing the Renewable Portfolio Standard [RPS] which mandated
only 10% renewable electricity by 2010. Now there is no renewable
electricity mandate, but $200 million a year to 2012 has been
legislated for alleged clean coal. May 3, 2004 I wrote THE S.T.O.M.P.
ACT for Solar Technologies of Mass Protection to have the RPS
reinstated per administrative hearings. www.geocities.com/VOTESOLAR2004
An imbalance creating unchecked privilege, denial and deceit
brought the collapse of Enron as the reverberations of genocide and
inhumane brutality in global energy commerce were used to justify the
destruction of the New York World Trade Center and brutal wars in
Afghanistan and Iraq. The massive vacuum of energy commerce has
no loyalties. It will be as faithful to renewable demand-site non-
polluting product-driven solar BI-PV as it now is to remote-site fossil
fuels. Become a citizen of 21st
Century democracy. Evolve consumer
authority in energy agency decisions to make a real and immediate
difference. Lead the way, today to demand-site product-driven fuel-
free pollution-free BI-PV commerce!
Eileen M. Smith, M.Arch.
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ElectriCity®
2000-04 Eileen M. Smith, M.Arch. ISBN 0-9741412-9-1 VOLUME I ~ INTRODUCTION |1
INTRODUCTION
What Is Building-Integrated Photovoltaics [BI-PV]?
30,000 SF Building-Integrated Photovoltaic (BI-PV) Roof Intercultural Center
‘Pretty Polly’ Georgetown University in Washington, DC installed 1984 Photo Jan. 2002
My goal in writing this book for you, the consumer, is to share my
enthusiasm for the potential of solar electricity as a viable renewable energy
source. In sharing my experience and knowledge, I hope to assist you in
understanding the capability of empowered consumers and their unique
potential influence monitoring and constructively intervening in energy
agency proceedings from the comforts of home using the Internet.
To clarify the differences, I refer to the three types of solar energy as
My Three Suns. Passive solar or daylighting brings the light and heat of the
sun into structures via windows, skylights, openings and collectors. Solar
thermal heats water for pools, hot water heaters and steam generators. The
third type is active solar or photovoltaic arrays. Photo means light in Latin
combined with the name of the Italian physicist Alessandro Volta, who
invented the first battery (hence the word voltage). They are silicon
semiconductor Personal Generators [PG] similar to the one that produced the
electronics board in your computer. They are made from silica or sand.

ElectriCity®
2 |What Is Building-Integrated Phovoltaics [BI-PV]? ISBN 0-9741412-9-1 2000-2004 Eileen M. Smith, M.Arch.
HOW SOLAR CELLS WORK
Current Flow
Electricity
Front Contact Load or
Demand
Antireflection
Coating
n-type
Semiconductor
p-type
Semiconductor Back Contact
”Solar cells are made using semiconductors such as silicon. Semiconductors have
interesting electrical properties, making them useful for electronic devices such as the
microprocessors used in computers. One of their properties is that they can be treated in
different ways to become either ‘positive’ (p-type) or ‘negative’ (n-type).”2
The three types of photovoltaic [PV] generating material commercially
produced at this time are crystalline, thin film and dendritic web. There is a
vast potential for a variety of products and technological uses for the
photovoltaic effect. Presently the supply is uncharacteristically limited.
1. Crystalline PV ~ Mono-crystalline and Poly-crystalline
Semiconductor device fabrication is a multiple-step sequence to create chips used
in everyday electrical and electronic devices. Silicon is the most common
semiconductor used today, although also gallium arsenide, germanium and some
other materials are used in special applications. . . . To create the standard silicon-
based chips that are used in most computers, raw silicon dioxide, which is the
most common part of sand or glass, is heated in the presence of hydrogen to
produce pure silicon and water which is extracted. The silicon is then melted and
formed into ingots, that are sliced into wafers.3
2 How Do Solar Cells Work?, Key Centre for Photovoltaic Engineering, University of New South Wales, 2003
http://www.pv.unsw.edu.au/info/solarcel.html
3 Semiconductor, Fact Index, 2004 http://www.fact-index.com/s/se/semiconductor_device_fabrication.html
SUNLIGHT

ElectriCity®
Crystalline photovoltaic systems are constructed in four steps:
1. Photovoltaic wafer or Solar Cell ~ approximately 4” in width
4”
Crystalline solar cells are square or round the size
4” of a CD. AstroPower, Inc. makes solar cells from
surplus computer silicon. Solar cells are thin and
brittle at this stage. The solar cells are assembled
Poly-Crystalline Mono- into modules. First, they are laid on to a base
‘Pretty Polly’ Crystalline by hand or by machine. Then the cells are doped
Blue Gray coated or infused with phosphorus or boron.
Mono-crystalline silicon is generally gray while poly-
crystalline is a deep blue and called Pretty Polly4
in the energy industry.
PV-grade silicon is refined a million-to-one purification. Computer-grade
silicon costs 900% more to produce because it must be refined a billion-to-
one purification. PV-grade silicon is not being produced at this time.
2. Solar Module or Shingle
Conductor 12” ¼” Layers This construction detail of a side
view shows the different layers of
a solar module. The actual module
is about ¼” thick. The module
may be installed with or without
a metal or titanium frame. Two
strips of silver, copper or gold per
cell width are added to conduct
Front View Side Base Solar Glass electricity. Tempered glass or thin
View Cells Cover clear plastic completes the module.
3. Solar Array [See Installation of Photovoltaic Arrays pgs 8-10]
Numerous Modules Assembled into an Array
Building-Integrated Photovoltaic [BI-PV] Roof
4. Balance of System Components [BOS]
Dual Utility Distribution Company [UDC] The Grid
Meter Inverter converts Direct Current [DC] Edison
to Alternating Current [AC] Nikola Tesla.
Battery back-up systems need enclosure
and a switching device to disconnect your
solar generator from the grid in a blackout
to avoid Islanding that may put current on
grid when being repaired.
4
Charging Ahead, The Business of Renewable Energy and What It Means for America John J. Berger, PhD
September 1998, http://www.geocities.com/johnjberger/chargingahead.html
Underground wiring is used in
many neighborhoods, today.

ElectriCity®
Interconnection rules for your utility are on their website. Rule 215
is
Southern California Edison’s interconnection tariff. Net Metering [NM]
incentives provide retail credit for electricity generated by a renewable
technology from your home or business as metered in reverse on to a grid.
Credits per kWh are provided at the retail rate being paid to the utility. In
California, I facilitated an increase in the NM cap from 10 kWp to 1 MWp.
[5 SunHrs 300 Days 30 Yrs] 1MWp X5 SH=5,000 kWhx$.12kWh=$600x300=$180,000 yr x30=$5.4 M
There are four electrons in the natural atomic structure of silicon.
Silicon wafers are coated, doped or infused with phosphorous or boron.
Boron has an atomic structure of three electrons. Silicon infused with boron
loses one electron creating a negative state or an n-type semiconductor.
Phosphorus has five electrons. Silicon infused with phosphorus increases
the electrons by one creating a positive charge or a p-type semiconductor.6
The four electrons
Surrounding the atom are
linked as shown in the
diagram to the right.
Boron-coated silicon has three electrons.
This condition generates electricity in sunlight.
Extra
Phosphorus-coated silicon Electron
gains an electron creating
an imbalance that generates
electricity when exposed to light.
5Rule 21 Generating Facility Interconnection, Cal. PUC Sheet No. 31574-E, September 8, 2004
http://www.sce.com/NR/sc3/tm2/pdf/Rule21.pdf
6 Power to the People, Martin Green, Ph.D., University of New South Wales 2000,
http://www.eng.unsw.edu.au/alumni/unsweng/issue8/scientia.htm

ElectriCity®
Crystalline photovoltaic systems function optimally where the air cools
off at night. Systems lose efficiency when they are not well ventilated.
Crystalline technology presently has a 25 to 30 year warranty with a 30 to
50-year life-cycle. Some proponents claim well-maintained crystalline
roofing materials could last up to 200 years. I have consistently urged
construction and electrical industry organizations like the National
Association of Home Builders, the American Institute of Architects [AIA] and
the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc. [IEEE] to establish
installation and design standards with fifty-year limited warranties for
crystalline building-integrated photovoltaics [BI-PV]. Then BI-PV would be
highly competitive with the highest quality roofing materials of a comparable
price while meeting long-term reliability peak shaving infrastructure needs.
2. Thin Film PV: Amorphous Silicon [a-Si]
Amorphous silicon (a-Si) is the non-crystalline form of silicon. Silicon is
normally tetrahedrally bonded to four neighboring silicon atoms. This is also
the case in amorphous silicon, however, it does not form a continuous
crystalline lattice as in crystalline silicon. Some atoms may actually have
dangling bonds, which occur when it does not bond to four neighboring
atoms. Since not all the atoms are four-fold coordinated, amorphous silicon is
said to be under-coordinated. These dangling bonds are defects in the
continuous random network, which can be passivated by introducing
hydrogen into the silicon. It then becomes hydrogenated amorphous silicon.7
Amorphous silicon is used as the active layer in thin-film transistors
(TFTs) which are most widely used in large-area electronic applications,
mainly for liquid-crystal displays (LCDs) and solar calculators. Thin film
incorporates the use of plastic laminates with a thin film of treated silicon to
create the photovoltaic effect. Rolls of PV materials are manufactured with
an automated process in one machine. While the manufacturing equipment
is more expensive, the potential of mass production is far greater than with
wafer-style crystalline photovoltaics. Advanced Photovoltaic Systems [APS]
developed the first fully automated thin film manufacturing facility. In 1994,
APS opened their first factory located in Fairfield, California with a Federal
PV-MAT grant. Within the year, Enron-Amoco dba Solarex sued APS for
alleged patent infringement putting them out of business by 1997. British
Petroleum dba BP Solar took over the litigation-battered company for $20
million and shut down their fully automated thin film manufacturing line the
same year. The next year, in 1998, BP merged with Amoco Oil. 8
7
Amorphous Silicon Fact Index, 2004 http://www.fact-index.com/a/am/amorphous_silicon.html
8 PV MaT Fact Sheet, Advanced Photovoltaic Systems, Amorphous Photovoltaic Manufacturing Technology, NREL SP21587,
DOE/GO 10096 298, DE96013080, 1994

ElectriCity®
3. Dendritic Web PV or Nano-crystalline [nc-Si]
“Compare the performance characteristics of the three most common solar
technologies. In every case, the clear-cut leader is the EBARA dendritic web cell.”9
That brings us to the third primary grouping of photovoltaic [PV]
technology dendritic web. Dendritic web combines the best of both
crystalline wafer PV technology and thin film or amorphous silicon
photovoltaic technology. Dendritic web combines the high output of
crystalline technology providing a stable, reliable and durable product with
the benefits of thin film known for its lightweight portable characteristics with
more flexibility and simplicity than crystalline technology. Dendritic web
comes in bifaciality units, which can generate power from the front and/or
back of the roll when exposed to light.
Nanocrystalline silicon (nc-Si) is similar to amorphous silicon (a-Si), in that it has an
amorphous phase. Where they differ, however, is that nc-Si has small grains of crystalline
silicon within the amorphous phase. This is in contrast to polycrystalline silicon (poly-Si)
which consists solely of crystalline silicon grains, separated by grain boundaries. nc-Si is
sometimes also known as microcrystalline silicon (uc-Si). The difference comes solely
from the grain size of the cystalline grains. Most materials with grains in the micron
range are actually fine-grained polysilicon, so nanocrystalline silicon is a better term.10
Large circuits made with thin-film transistors and other devices can be easily
patterned onto these large substrates, which can be up to a few metres wide and
50 km long. For most semiconductors, however, the devices must be patterned
using photolithography techniques.11
Spring of 1998, the President of Ebara Solar, Inc. answered my inquiry
indicating their product would gain final approval for the market in six
months. Ebara’s dendritic web technology had still not been approved for
manufacturing in 2000. Parent company Ebara Corporation threatened to
cut funding to the Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania subsidiary Ebara Solar in 2002.12
The challenge of bringing cutting-edge technology like dendritic web to
consumers creates ongoing negotiation efforts that are generally
dramatically suppressed due to remote-site fossil, nuclear and large hydro
domination of the tremendous vacuum of electricity commerce in energy
agency proceedings. We recently became aware that Ebara Solar had their
assets auctioned off in bulk on September 29, 2003. This was only a little
over two weeks after the August 14, 2003 blackout on the East Coast
9 Dendritic Web, brochure, EBARA Solar, Inc. brochure 1994
10 Nanocrystalline, Fact Index 2004 http://www.fact-index.com/n/na/nanocrystalline_silicon.html
11 Photolithography, Fact Index 2004 http://www.fact-index.com/p/ph/photolithography.html
12 Ebara Solar mulls splitting from parent company that cut its funding, by Christopher Davis, Pittsburgh
Business Times, Nov 7, 2002 http://pittsburgh.bizjournals.com/pittsburgh/stories/2002/11/04/daily50.html

ElectriCity®
rendering 10 million people without electricity. This provided a strong alert
and reminder that we have become dangerously dependent on remote-site
electricity generation. With the attack destroying New York City’s World
Trade Center 9|11|01 and the subsequent threats to attack remote site
energy supplies, it is amazing that Energy Bill 2004 was passed after they
removed the Renewable Portfolio Standards [RPS] mandating only 10%
renewables by 2010. See THE S.T.O.M.P. ACT for Solar Technologies of
Mass Protection in the Epilogue of Section IV.
The Solar Development Cooperative would like to manufacture all
three types of Photovoltaics [PV] in our proposed Millennium Dome™
Building-Integrated Photovoltaic [BI-PV] Manufacturing Museums.13
Energy
agency proceedings play a vital role in regulating antitrust abuses presently
suppressing PV from the market. Without consumer monitoring and mass
intervention, government salaried staff are often coerced into facilitating
antitrust crimes with fossil fuel partners. Consumers united in energy agency
proceedings will assure demand site economic solar electricity is allowed.
One of the foremost world leaders in dendritic web reasearch is Dr.
Ajeet Rohatgi at Georgia Tech. In 1985, Dr. Rohatgi produced a cell with
record efficiency on thin silicon ribbon. Eleven years later, he achieved
record efficiency with cast multicrystalline silicon. Today multicrystalline
silicon accounts for 48 percent of all newly manufactured PV cells. Recently,
he produced record high-efficiency cells of 18.2 percent on silicon ribbon
using photolithography, as well as 16% using screen-printed contacts.14
Dr. Martin Green began formal research in PV technology in 1974 at
the University of New South Wales in Sydney, Australia. August 1998, I took
their premier on-line Advanced PV Short Course. March 2000, while I was
exploring the development of a degree program at the University of
California at Irvine, UNSW made the first PV degree offering in the world.15
The Buried Contact Solar Cell (BCSC), invented by the Photovoltaics Special Research
Centre at the University of New South Wales, is one of the most successful new solar cell
technologies to be developed in the last 15 years. The Centre is a world leader in the area of solar
cell research and commercialisation, and the BCSC is one of its most outstanding successes.16
13 Smith, Eileen, ElectriCity® BEYOND THE CURVE OF DEREGULATION, Volume I, Chapter 12, 2004
14 NREL Recognizes Solar Energy Researcher With National Honor, Georgia Tech’s Rohatgi Wins Second Annual
Rappaport Award, Megan McRainey, Institute Communications & Public Affairs, Georgia Tech
2004 http://www.gatech.edu/news-room/release.php?id=224,
15 Key Center for Photovoltaic Engineering, Courses Offered University of New South Wales, 2004
http://www.pv.unsw.edu.au/
16 Green, Dr. Martin, Buried Contact Solar Cell (BCSC), University of New South Wales 2004

ElectriCity®
INSTALLATION OF PHOTOVOLTAIC
GENERATORS
SOLAR ELECTRIC
Thin Film Shingle
Building-Integrated Photovoltaic [BI-PV]
Personal Generator [PG]
From 1996 to 2001, most PV manufacturers and related research
efforts focused on advancing thin film performance in lieu of crystalline.
“A record in solar energy use has been set up by Sanyo with its HIP-J54BE2 hybrid
module: 17.3% efficiency is achieved by the individual cells, and 15.2% by the modules. HIT,
which stands for hetero junction with intrinsic thin layer, refers to a core of mono-crystalline n-
silicon covered with amorphous silicon on both sides. The surface layer; which is approximately 0.01
m thin and p-doped, enhances utilization of the day-light spectrum. In addition to a two year
product warranty, the manufacturer grants a 20-year guarantee on 80% minimum output.”17
A photovoltaic system is made up of several components. The most
important is the photovoltaic generator carrying a 20 to 30 year warranty.
The delivery system includes wires, conduit, an inverter, meters, monitors
and the utility grid. Where one chooses to have the option of generating
your own electricity in a power outage or where your solar system is not
located near the Utility grid, a battery back-up system along with other grid-
independent technology must also be installed. With the volatility of the
energy industry, today, I recommend at least a 12-hour battery back-up
system on every solar system installation. The primary goal of any type of
installation should be safety, aesthetics and proper orientation of the array
to assure the maximum exposure of the photovoltaic surface to the sun.
The following are five basic types of solar array installation. I generally
recommend only the last two.
Non-Architectural Mounting or Installation18
Field Array and Rack Mount
Arco Solar installed the first Megawatt peak [MWp] PV field array in
Hesperia, California in 1988. While in the White House President Bill Clinton
and Senator Hillary Clinton used a field array on the lawn to light their
http://www.pv.unsw.edu.au/Research/bcg_DSBC_cell.asp
17 Special Modules new on the market, Sun & Wind Energy, Special International Issue 2003, page 88
18 The Solar Electric House, by Stephen J. Strong, AIA, 1994 http://www.solardesign.com/book.html

ElectriCity®
Christmas tree. A related news story aired around the world, but there
was no mention of the 30,000 SF BI-PV array installed on the Intercultural
Center at Georgetown University. People were led to believe they could
not integrate solar architecturally into a roof.
To install a rack mount one generally bolts pipes or poles to the roof
and mounts an open array. Rack mount is usually not architecturally
aesthetic and leaves the array and wiring open to the elements, rodents and
thieves while creating neighborhood blight as bad as a field array. In 1998,
BP Solar’s installation training class included a workbook. On the cover
page was a Xeroxed photo of the home of the President of the Company.
I was shocked to see a rack mount system installed on his roof. BP Solar
owned 70% of the PV manufacturing worldwide by 1999 as well as an illegal
majority of the Alaskan oil resources.19
Price could not have been the
reason. Our goal is to lead the market away from the add-on engineering
afterthought appearance of rack mount that has dominated the solar array
industry since Amoco Oil took over the Solarex Corporation in 1984 just
before the BI-PV roof featured on the cover of this book was completed.
I would not recommend field array or rack mount for homes or
commercial structures unless they are integrated nearly flat with a slight
slope below a peripice, enclosed like a skylight or installed as part of a
sculpture being aesthetically integrated into the structure. Incomplete
mountings look bad and result in faster degradation of the components.
Building-Integrated Photovoltaics [BI-PV]20
Direct Mount, Stand-Off Mount and Integral Mount
Design and installation standards Direct Mount BI-PV Solar Shingle
must respond to a growing PV market. PV
demand is growing at 30 percent per year.
From 0.1% of the market this increases PV
to only 0.13%. With $200 million a year
legislated for clean coal to 2012, if it
results in 30% growth from coal’s 55%
market share, coal would dominate over
70% of the market and fossil fuels would boost their market share to 95%.
Price hike anyone? Uninformed fragmented consumers would likely have
minimal impact on such rigid mainstream energy commerce by that point.
19 FTC [Federal Trade Commission] Attempts to Block BP Amoco Merger with Arco Corporation,
San Francisco Observer, December 1, 1999
20 Residential Photovoltaics; Building awareness and momentum for an alternative energy source
by Eileen M. Smith, M.Arch., Design/Build Business Magazine, Feature, December 2003
http://www.designbuildbusiness.com/FEATURES/2003-12/residential-photovoltaics.htm

ElectriCity®
Direct Mount is only recommended where it is adhered to a primary
roofing material in manufacturing like the shingle shown on pages 8 and 9.
Photovoltaics directly adhered to a roofing surface at the site creates
numerous installation considerations most installers and roofers don’t have
the time or expertise to address. GM and Arco Solar developed prototypes
of Direct Mount technology in the 1980s, but they are not widely used.
There is the potential for applying the photovoltaic effect directly to ceramic
tile, but it will likely be accomplished in the manufacturing process.
Stand-Off Mount is where the solar array roof is laid on framing
supports a few inches above the weatherized roofing material. It provides
numerous benefits including increased weatherization, natural venting,
access for easier removal and repair of photovoltaic modules and wiring.
-
P
V
Integral Mount is where the
roof is designed with proper
orientation on rafters as the original
roofing material. Crystalline
photovoltaics are generally used
for this type of integration. The
Georgetown University Intercultural
Center BI-PV roof featured on the
cover of this book and in the photo
here is an example of a BI-PV
installation combining stand-off
and integral mounting techniques.
The structure is built to naturally
exploit the 300 kWp solar array.
The installation is laid on a frame a
few inches above the weatherized
sealed roofing surface. Access
should be designed into the
system for troubleshooting, repair
and cleaning. Sprinklers could be
installed to clean a BI-PV system.
Volume II of the ElectriCity series
includes more detailed descriptions
and drawings of photovoltaic array
installation techniques.
30,000 SF BI-PV Solar Array
Intercultural Center
Georgetown University
Washington, DC
$57,000 Solar Electricity A Year In DC

ElectriCity®
© 2000-2004 Eileen M. Smith, M.Arch. SECTION I THE HISTORY OF THE PHOTOLTAIC EFFECT | 11
SECTION I
The History of the Photovoltaic Effect
Of course there is the immediate question of what
Aristarchus invented, and Vitruvius explains that
he invented a sundial in the shape of a
hemispherical bowl with a pointer to cast shadows
placed in the middle of the bowl.21
Stonehenge War Memorial
Maryhill, Washington22
“Why in the Sam Hill did he build this?”
The sun cast its rays of import upon the
earth long before the first utterings of
human civilization. Daily, I am ever amazed
by the simplicity of the sun’s dominion over
every aspect of life on Earth from the
gravitational pull that holds the earth in orbit
to the sunlight that brings us the day.
Photo taken by David Backman, July 25, 1999
The use of amber begins with the dawn of civilization. The discovery of beads in the royal
tombs at Mycenae and various places throughout Sardinia and the territory of ancient
Etruria, proves that trade in it existed in prehistoric times; while the identity in chemical
construction of the amber ornaments of Mycenae and the Baltic amber from the Tertiary
formation of the Prussian Samland, the coasts of southern Sweden and northern Russian
provinces, indicates the far distant source from which the resin was anciently derived.23
The first known observation of electricity was the magnetism found in
amber. It was around 600 BC when the Greeks found that by rubbing an
'electron' or hard fossilized resin today known as amber against a fur cloth, it
would attract particles of straw. Stones and metals that when burnished,
have a golden glow were called children of the sun “Elector” –reflecting that
radiance. The magnetism of amber is used on spindles of spinning wheels.
21 Aristarchus of Samos [Born 310 BC died 230 BC], JJ O’Connor and E F Robertson, JOC/EFR April 1999
School of Mathematics and Statistics, University of St. Andrews, Scotland
URL: http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/history/Mathematicians/Aristarchus.html
22 Stonehenge War Memorial near the Sam Hill Museum, West through NorthWest, with Wes, A Run to the Pacific Through Oregon and
Washington, July 1999 http://www.notduck.com/westrek/oregon99.html
23 History of Electricity, The Intellectual Rise in Electricity, from Antiquity to the Days of Benjamin Franklin, by William Benjamin Park,
John Wiley and Sons, 1898 pages 15 and 16

ElectriCity®
12 |CHAPTER 1 Antiquity to 1970 Magnetism, Electricity and the Photovoltaic Effect ISBN 0-9741412 -9-1
Love’s Complaint
Who would of his course be sure,
When the clouds the sky obscure,
He an iron needle must
In the corkwood firmly thrust.
Lest the iron virtue lack
Rub it with the lodestone black,
In a cup with flowing brim,
Let the cork on water swim.
When at length the tremor ends,
Note the way the needle tends;
Though its place no eye can see—
There the polar star will be.24 William the Norman Clerk, 1329
This Medieval poem is apparently the first attempt to account for the north
and south pointing of the compass needle. The poem claims the needle
points to the Pole star because it was rubbed by the lodestone, and
therefore received virtue from the stone. It explains the virtue of the stone
comes from the Pole star itself for why else would the needle point to that
star in preference to any other object in the universe. The poem represents
an important scientific stride forward, however it is most important because
it demonstrates significant progress in deductive reasoning. It seeks to
explain a natural phenomenon by natural causes not by supernatural forces
or an appeal to faith, or by the exercise of dialectic ingenuity but with
“ . . . straight rectilinear thought” at a time when minds ran in small circles.
STEAM CAR DEVISED BY SIR ISAAC NEWTON 1680
We will get to be able to construct machines with which we will be able to impel great boats with
higher speeds than all a trimming of rowers, and with which only a pilot who governs the boat
will be needed; we will impel vehicles with incredible speeds, without the aid of any animal and
we will construct machines that, by means of wings, will allow us to fly in the air, like birds.25
24 Ibid 23 Love’s Complaint, William the Clerk, History of Electricity, Chapter Six, page 151
25 XIII century. Roger Bacon, an English Franciscan monk, History of the automobile, the first steam machines
that replaced the horse vehicles, The Old Times, 2003 http://www.austral.addr.com/old_cars/

ElectriCity®
From the beginning of time, humanity has depended upon the sun and its
by-products for heat and light. For over 12,000 years, we have relied upon
many indirect sources translating the sun’s energy via the mysteries of the
flame. Generally those sources include candle tallow from vegetable and
animal fat, animal and human waste, biomass oil from plants, and most
significantly fossil fuels including coal, oil and gas. Other sources include
uranium. We have also used the wind and water in the form of steam or
hydro to generate electricity. An important consideration I would like
consumers to embrace is the lack of a natural evolution in electricity
generation technologies the past century despite the vast evolution of a
variety of electronic conveniences. The evolution of electronics emerged
from a solid foundation of observation of phenomena, experimentation and
the discovery and use of nature’s mysteries over the last two millenniums.
In 1900, only 3% of Americans had electricity in their homes. 99% of it was
generated by coal. Electricity has transformed civilization in many ways
over the last century. The tremendous vacuum of energy commerce
created in the 20th
Century is unlike any phenomena heretofore faced in the
history of human civilization. It is destined to expand worldwide in the 21st
Century. The more we use what we learn, the wider our vista of potential
seems to widen. Only in the last half century, have the mysteries of solid-
state electronics and semiconductors been readied for commercial use
allowing us to rely upon the direct light of the sun to generate electricity.
The ElectriCity series shares with you, the consumer, an overview of the
history of scientific discovery related to electricity and magnetism with an
introduction into the arena of public hearings within energy agency
proceedings. The reason that I include my experience in policy
management is that my profession is that of a design consultant in
architecture with special training in restoration of buildings and solar
architecture or building-integrated photovoltaics [BI-PV]. My participation in
energy agency proceedings was initiated by and grounded in the need for
consumer education and protection. Consensus rules the rulemaking.
I seek to reveal to consumers the significance of the new accessibility in
energy agency proceedings that for most of the last century were costly,
inaccessible and dominated by energy cartels, utilities and government.
Today, consumers have an unprecedented opportunity to observe and
officially intervene in administrative proceedings via the Internet from the
comforts of home. In modern society, with increasing dependency on
electricity for security, health and communications every person has an
interest in, a right and really a responsibility to know how their electricity is
generated and delivered to their homes and offices. As consumers we need
to know how to officially intervene in the administrative process, regularly.

ElectriCity®
This book does not seek to convince you of anything, but to inform you.
One is never sure how the sharing of their experiences and knowledge may
influence the world. However, the potential of what may occur in my not
sharing compelled me to inform consumers of what I know on the subject.
In his discourse on perception Aristotle discuses the need to take account of
the difference between the Potential and the Actual. While Aristotle did not
directly discuss electricity, he discussed forces upon things and upon the
psyche. The forces of commerce and intellect that he pondered are far more
influential in the energy industry, today, than the technical science of
electronic phenomena. Humanity has not yet digested the actual or the
potential of what we have technologically discovered in the last century.
This book begins with a mini history to provide you with a summary of the
origins of scientific discovery and thought regarding electricity. When I read
through the following summaries of the evolution of scientific thought, one
thing I found most interesting is that the elements of electricity were named
after the scientists whose names dominate electronic science. Most of the
truths they shared have existed since the beginning of time, as we know it.
The scientists were honored because they explained their discoveries in a
practical manner, which evolved our understanding of nature and ourselves.
The massive vacuum of energy commerce is like a huge vessel almost as
large as the earth itself. In the 21st
century it will most certainly become
larger than the earth in scope. The computer industry and the Internet have
proven the matter in which the vacuum of modern commerce can transform
human existence, overnight for better or worse. Understanding the forces
dominating the energy industry can only assist humanity and consumers in
making wiser choices with less violence, crime, war and natural disaster
throughout this century and beyond. So, relax and enjoy this book and let
me know what I have overlooked.
7 Another question respecting sense-
perception is as follows: assuming as is natural,
that of two (simultaneous) sensory stimuli the
stronger always tends to extrude the weaker (from
consciousness), is it conceivable or not that one
should be able to discern two objects
constantaneously in the same individual time?
. . . [15] The above assumption explains why
persons do not perceive what is brought before
their eyes, if they are at the time deep in thought,
or in a fright or listening to some loud noise.26
26 Ibid 21 Aristotle [b. 384 B.C.], 367 B.C. student of Plato, 335 founded Lyceum School in Athens, pg 684
http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/history/Mathematicians/Aristotle.html
The
Solar
System
Mercury
Venus
Earth
Mars

ElectriCity®
CHAPTER 1
Antiquity to 1970
Magnetism, Electricity and The Photovoltaic Effect
Electricity is electricity no matter how it is generated.
Pythagoras of Samos27
[569 BC to 475 BC] 'Semicircle' School; Pythagorean
Society ~ identified the brain as the locus of the soul
“. . . at its deepest level, reality is mathematical in nature”
(i) The sum of angles of a triangle is equal to two right angles. …polygon with n sides has sum
of interior angles 2n - 4 right angles and sum of exterior angles equal to four right angles.
(ii) The theorem of Pythagoras - for a right-angled triangle the square on the hypotenuse is equal
to the sum of the squares on the other two sides.
(iii) Constructing figures of a given area and geometrical algebra. For example they solved
equations such as a (a - x) = x2 by geometrical means.
(iv) The discovery of irrationals . . . given his belief all things are numbers it would be a natural
task to prove the hypotenuse of an isosceles right-angled triangle had a numeric length.
(v) The five regular solids. It is thought that Pythagoras himself knew how to construct the first
three but it is unlikely that he would have known how to construct the other two.
(vi) In astronomy Pythagoras taught that the Earth was a sphere at the centre of the Universe.
He recognized the orbit of the Moon was inclined to the equator of the Earth and he was first
to realize Venus as an evening star was Venus as a morning star.
Plato28
[427 BC to 327 BC] Phaedo, Republic
. . . that the reality which scientific thought is seeking must be expressible in
mathematical terms, mathematics being the most precise and definite kind of
thinking of which we are capable. The significance of this idea for the development
of science from the first beginnings to the present day has been immense.
Aristotle29
[384 BC to 322 BC] Physica, Analytica posteriora
In 367 BC Aristotle, at the age of seventeen, became a student at Plato’s
Academy. Aristotle, more than any other thinker, determined the orientation and
the content of Western intellectual history. He was the author of a philosophical
and scientific system that through the centuries became the support and vehicle
for both medieval Christian and Islamic scholastic thought: until the end of the
17th century, Western culture was Aristotelian.
27 Ibid 21, Pythagoras of Samos, http://www-gap.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Mathematicians/Pythagoras.html
28 Ibid 21, Plato, http://www-gap.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Mathematicians/Plato.html
29 Ibid 21, Aristotle, http://www-gap.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Mathematicians/Aristotle.html

ElectriCity®
Euclid of Alexandria30
[325 BC to 265 BC] Elements
Thirteen books demonstrate numerous geometrical theories. Non-Euclidian
geometries refuted his famous fifth, or parallel, postulate, which states that
one and only one line can be drawn through a point parallel to a given line.
Aristarchus of Samos31
[310 BC to 230 BC] proposed sun-centered universe
His hypotheses are that the fixed stars and the sun remain unmoved, that the
earth revolves about the sun on the circumference of a circle, the sun lying in the middle
of the orbit, and that the sphere of fixed stars, situated about the same centre as the sun, is
so great that the circle in which he supposes the earth to revolve bears such a proportion
to the distance of the fixed stars as the centre of the sphere bears to its surface.
Archimedes of Syracuse32
Sicily [287 BC to 212 BC] Sandreckoner. His father
Phidias was an astronomer. He estimated distances to heavenly bodies.
Michelagnolo Lodovico di Lionardo Buonarroti Simoni33
[1475 to 1564] A
Master of the portrayal of passive light in painting, sculpture and architecture.
Nicolaus Copernicus34
[1473 to 1543] Little Commentary, De revolutionibus
orbium coelestium. His writings established sun as center of solar system.
1. There is no one centre in the universe.
2. The Earth's centre is not the centre of the universe.
3. The centre of the universe is near the sun.
4. The distance from the Earth to the sun is imperceptible compared with distance to stars.
5. The rotation of the Earth accounts for the apparent daily rotation of the stars.
6. Apparent annual cycle of movements of the sun caused by Earth revolving round it.
7. Apparent retrograde motion of planets caused by motion of Earth from which one
observes.
Galileo Galilei35
[1564 to 1642] Starry Messenger May 1610, Dialogue 1632
The astronomical discoveries he made with his telescopes from 1609 were
described in his book Starry Messenger published in Venice May 1610. This
work caused a sensation. Galileo claimed to have seen mountains on the
Moon, to have proven the Milky Way was made up of tiny stars, and to have
seen four small bodies orbiting Jupiter, which he named 'the Medicean stars'.
30 Ibid 21, Euclid of Alexandria, http://www-gap.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Mathematicians/Euclid.html
31 Ibid 21, Aristarchus of Samos, http://www-gap.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Mathematicians/Aristarchus.html
32 Ibid 21, Archimedes of Syracuse, http://www-gap.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Mathematicians/Archimedes.html
33 Michelangelo: A dominant force in Florence and Rome, by Nicolas Pioch, March 2003, Web Museum, Paris
http://www.ibiblio.org/wm/paint/auth/michelangelo/
34 Ibid 21, Nicolous Copernicus, www-gap.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Mathematicians/Copernicus.html
35 Ibid 21, Galileo Galilei, http://www-gap.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Mathematicians/Galileo.html

ElectriCity®
1600 Dr. William Gilbert36
[1544 to 1603] The Galileo of Magnetism,
~gilbert, Gi, GB a unit of magnetomotive force equal to 0.7958 ampere-turns
‘De Magneta, Magneticisque Corporibus, et de Magno magnete tellure;
Physiologia nova, plurimis et argumentis et experimentis demonstrata’
The strange effects of amber remained a mystery for over 2000 years,
Gilbert called the natural magnetism of amber its ‘verticity’. He is attributed
with having first recorded the word 'Electric' in his report written for Queen
Elizabeth on the theory of magnetism.37
Gilbert's experiments led to the
development of electric technology the next 350 years. He was the first in
history to have an element of electricity named after them. He reiterated the
plea of Roger Bacon for more intensive research.38
In book VI, Gilbert marshaled evidence that magnetism was the motive force of the Earth’s
Copernicus motions. He may have been inspired by the thirteenth century writer Petrus Perigrinus,
who claimed that a spherical magnet suspended from its pole rotated every twenty-four hours.
René Descartes39
[1596 to 1650] Rules for the Direction of the Mind 1619,
Discourse on the Method 1637, Meditations on First Philosophy; In Which
the Existence of God and the Distinction Between Mind and Body are
Demonstrated 1640. He inspired new levels of human self-awareness.
Otto von Guericke40
[1602 to 1686] he built the first electric generator 1663
Sir Isaac Newton41
[1643 to 1727] Principia, Opticks, spectrum of light 1670
Every scientist since Aristotle had believed white light was a basic single
entity, but the chromatic aberration in a telescope lens convinced Newton
otherwise. When he passed a thin beam of sunlight through a glass prism he
found that white light is really a mixture or spectrum of many different hues.
He revealed the foundations of quantum mechanics with his theory that light
rays consist of the motion of small particles rather than waves. Variations of
color in light particles were later found to represent different frequency and
intensity of light rays. This well-established fact today provides a basis for
calculating the output of photovoltaic generators at different times of the day.
36 Cambridge Scientific Minds, edited by Peter Harmon and Simon Mitton, Cambridge University Press, 2002,
quote on page 13 http://assets.cambridge.org/0521781000/sample/0521781000WS.pdf
37 De Magnete, Magneticisque Corporibus, et de Magno MagneteTellure; Physiologia Nova, Pluribus et
Argumentes et Experimentis Demonstrata, Dr. William Gilbert, 1600
38 Bibliographical History of Electricity and Magnetism, by Paul Fleury Mottelay, Phd. 1922, Charles Griffin
& Company Ltd., pages 82 to 97
39 René Descartes, by Douglas Burnham and James Fieser, The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 2004
http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/d/descarte.htm#Religion,%20Science%20and%20Scepticism
40Otto Von Guericke, Corrosion Doctors, 2004, http://www.corrosion-doctors.org/Biographies/GuerickeBio.htm
41 Ibid 21, Sir Isaac Newton, http://www-gap.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Mathematicians/Newton.html

ElectriCity®
Benjamin Franklin42
[1705 to 1790] Father of Electricity, Kite Experiment 1752
Make a small Cross of two light strips of Cedar, the Arms so long as to reach to the four Corners of a large
thin Silk Handkerchief when extended; tie the Corners of the Handkerchief to the Extremities of the Cross,
so you have the Body of a Kite; which being properly accommodated with a Tail, Loop and String, will rise
in the Air, like those made of Paper; but this being of Silk is fitter to bear the Wet and Wind of a Thunder
Gust without tearing. To the Top of the upright Stick of the Cross is to be fixed a very sharp pointed Wire,
rising a Foot or more above the Wood. To the End of the Twine, next to the Hand, is to be tied a silk
Ribbon, and where the Twine and the silk join, a Key may be fastened. This Kite is to be raised when a
Thunder Gust appears to be coming on, and the Person who holds the String must stand within a Door, or
Window, or under some Cover, so that the Silk Ribbon may not be wet; and Care must be taken that the
Silk Ribbon may not touch the Frame of the Door or Window. As soon as any of the Thunder Clouds come
over the Kite, the pointed Wire will draw the Electric Fire from them, and the Kite, with all the Twine will
be electrified, and the loose Filaments of the Twine will stand out every Way, and be attracted by an
approaching Finger. And when the Rain has wet the Kite and Twine, so that it can conduct the Electric
Fire freely, you will find it stream out plentifully from the Key on the Approach of your Knuckle. At this
Key the Phial may be charged; and from Electric Fire thus obtained, Spirits may be kindled, and all the
other Electric Experiments be performed, which are usually done by the Help of a rubbed Glass Globe or
Tube; and thereby the Sameness of the Electric Matter with that of Lightning completely demonstrated.
!!!Note from Stephen Tubbs: Don't try to repeat this kite experiment!
It is very dangerous and it was a miracle that Franklin survived!!! 1752
James Watt43
[1736 to 1819] ~ watt = electric unit of power
During the five years from 1761-66 Watt had worked out all the
principles and invented all that was essential in the details for
realizing the most perfect steam engines of the present day.
When Edison's generator was coupled with Watt's steam engine
and Nicola Tesla’s perfection of alternating current, large-scale
electricity generation became a practical proposition.
Horace de Saussure-Benedict44
[1740 to 1799] flat plate solar collector 1767
John Playfair45
[1748 to 1819] ‘On the Arithmetic of Impossible Quantities’,
Philosophical Transactions, 1779
“... a greater taste for purely analytical investigation than shown
by any of the British mathematicians of that age.”
42 The Kite Experiment, by Benjamin Franklin, The Pennsylvania Gazette, October 19, 1752
43 James Watt by Andrew Carnegie, New York, Doubleday Page & Company May 1905, reprinted by Siddarth Sharma
and Rahul Singh Baswan, The Steam Engine Library, 1996 http://www.history.rochester.edu/steam/carnegie/
James Watt by Andrew Carnegie, 1905, The Great Idea Finder, http://www.ideafinder.com/history/inventors/watt.htm
44 History of Solar Cells Timeline, Charles E. Brown Middle School, Newton, Maine, 2004
http://www.newton.mec.edu/brown/te/HOT/STUDENTS/SALL/timeline.html
Celebrities in Switzerland: Horace-Bénédict de Saussure, 2004
http://switzerland.isyours.com/e/celebrities/bios/233.html
45 Ibid 21, John Playfair, http://www-gap.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Mathematicians/Playfair.html

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Charles Augustus de Coulomb46
[1736 to 1806]~coulomb, symbol C is the
SI unit of electric charge carried by a current of one ampere flowing for 1
second. A coulomb is about 6.24x10-18
times the charge of an electron.
One of the most important measuring devices of the century was invented
about 1784 when Coulomb discovered that like charges repel and opposite
charges attract. Coulomb is credited with having established the science of
friction. In 1779, he published an important investigation on the laws of
friction Théorie des machines simples, en ayant égard au frottement de
leurs parties et à la roideur des cordages’. The electric force between
charges may be calculated using Coulomb's Law. The charge of an electron
is the constant 6.24x10-19
C. Two point charges q1 and q2 are a distance r
apart. The force between them acts on a line joining the two charges and is
equal to: Fe = K q1 and rq2 /r2
. K is the constant that depends on the units
used. Coulomb’s Law is an example of Newton’s 3rd
Law of force where
the force falls off quad-radically much like gravity. The primary difference in
the formula is that r is squared in Coulomb’s Law.
Luigi Galvani47
[1737 to 1798]~galvanize = to administer an electric shock
In 1786, Luigi Galvani, was an Italian professor of anatomy and medicine at
the University of Bologna. During the year of 1780, while dissecting a dead
frog on a table near an electrical machine that was being used for electrical
experiments, he noted a spark. While at the same time, a scalpel was held
with its point at a nerve center, the legs of the frog contracted. Galvani
thought that the muscles of the frog must contain electricity.
Johann Wilhelm Ritter48
[1776 to 1810] discovered ultraviolet rays
Ritter perfected process of electrolysis discovered by Nicholson and Carlisle.
He then developed the idea of a series of metals from which the relative
electrical pressures produced by various pairs when immersed in a salt or
acid solution could be determined. Volta conceived the same idea at a later
date, and the series came to be known as Volta’s electromotive series.
46 Ibid 21, Charles Augustin de Coulomb, http://www-gap.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Mathematicians/Coulomb.html
http://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com/Charles%20Augustin%20de%20Coulomb
47 Luigi Galvani, IEEE Virtual Museum 2004, http://www.ieee-virtual-museum.org/collection/people.php?id=1234675&lid=1
48Adventures in Cybersound by Dr. Russell Naughton, 2000, http://www.acmi.net.au/AIC/RITTER_BIO.html
http://www.geocities.com/bioelectrochemistry/ritter.htm

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Count Alessandro Giuseppe Antonia Anastasio Volta49
[1745 to 1827]
volt = the unit of electrical potential Watts = Amps x Volts
By 1792 another Italian scientist, Alessandro Volta, disagreed with Galvani.
He realized that the main factors in Galvani's discovery were the two
different metals - the steel knife and the tin plate - upon which the frog was
laying. Volta showed that when moisture comes between two different
metals, electricity is created. This led him to invent the first electric battery,
the voltaic pile, which he made from thin sheets of copper and zinc
separated by moist pasteboard. In this way, electricity flowed steadily like a
current of water instead of discharging itself in a single spark or shock. Volta
showed that electricity could be made to travel from one place to another by
wire, thereby making an important contribution to the science of electricity.
André Marie Ampére50
[1775 to 1836] ~ amp = unit of electric current
‘Recueil d’Observations . . .’ Paris 1822, ‘Précis de la Théorie . . .’ and
‘Théorie des Phénomènes Electro Dynamiques’
Ampére was a French mathematician who devoted himself to the study of
electricity and magnetism. He was the first to explain the electro-dynamic
theory. His greatest achievement was his discovery and explanation of the
forces between two wires carrying electric currents. A permanent memorial
to Ampére is the use of his name for the unit of electric current. In 1820, he
delivered lectures at the French Academy describing the relationship
between the direction of current flow and the deflection of a magnetic
needle. He showed that parallel conductors carrying currents in the same
direction attracted each other, and conductors carrying currents in the
opposite direction were mutually repelled. He developed the astatic needle,
which neutralizes the effects of the earth’s magnetism.
Hans Christian Øersted51
[1777 to 1851]‘Experimenta circa effectun
conflictus electrici in acum magneticam’
In 1819, he discovered that electric current in a voltaic battery would affect
the needle of a compass, and that a large magnet would alter the course of
electric current. On July 21, 1820 he published his great discovery.
49 Alessandro Volta, Fascinating Facts About the Man that Invented the Battery, The Great Idea Finder, 2004
http://www.ideafinder.com/history/inventors/volta.htm
50 Ibid 21, André Marie Ampére, http://www-gap.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Mathematicians/Ampere.html
51 Selected scientific works by Hans Christian Ørsted, Translated and edited by Karen Jelved, Andrew D. Jackson,
and Ole Knudsen, and with an introduction by Andrew D. Wilson. Princeton University Press, 1998
http://chem.ch.huji.ac.il/~eugeniik/history/oersted.htm

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Sir Humphrey Davy [1778 to 1829]52
‘An Account of Some Galvanic
Combinations Formed by the Arrangement of Single Metallic Plates and
Fluids, Analogous to the New Galvanic Apparatus of Volta’
He was one of the most brilliant scientists of his age. In his first lecture
before the Royal Institution on April 25, 1801 he discussed the history of
galvanism. Batteries at that time were subject to a defect called polarization.
Davy had proven the chemical nature of the voltaic cell and other
experimenters had succeeded in decomposing water. Therein, he
developed a great interest in the chemical action of voltaic current. Berzelius
of Gotland, Sweden published a number of related papers on
electrochemical research from 1802 to 1806. On November 20, 1806, Davy
delivered his first Bakerian Chemical lecture before the Royal Society
entitled, “On Agencies of Electricity,” and thereby provided the basis for
ionization theory. In 1810, Davy for the first time exhibited the carbon
electric arc using a battery as the source of electricity.
I believe that I can do something for you", were the modest
words whereupon Sir Humphrey Davy finished the
interview, and seven weeks later, he announced that his
experiments and tests had been still more lucky than hoped.
The result was the discovery of the coal miner's Davy safety
lamp.
The Locomotion, built by Stephenson in 1825,
Here it is going over the first railroad bridge53
. . . The work of the miner has been and will always be a hard fight against the danger.
The death is constantly on his side. He can be poisoned by carbon monoxide , carbonic acid , or
carbonaceous hydrogen called marsh gas , or by the products that infest a mine after the explosion;
he can be squashed by the collapses of the ceilings and walls of the mines, because always the
weight of the undermined Earth tends to sink whatever is on the head of the miner, and to
obstruct the underground galleries by pressures in all directions.
William Thomson54
[1824 to 1907] knighted 1866, raised to peerage in 1892
[Baron Kelvin of Largs] in recognition of his work in engineering and physics.
Kelvin symbol K is absolute zero temperature where no further energy may
be extracted. K = Absolute Zero; K = 459.67 °F and K = 237 °C
He was foremost among the small group of British scientists who helped to
lay the foundations of modern physics. His contributions to science include
52 Ibid 38, Davy Humphrey, Bibliographical History of Electricity and Magnetism, pgs 339 to 350
53 History of Transportation/Coal, The Olden Times, 2003 http://www.austral.addr.com/old_trains/english.htm
54 Ibid 21, William Thomson [Lord Kelvin], http://www-gap.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Mathematicians/Thomson.html
What is Absolute Zero? Lansing State Journal, January 29, 1992, http://www.pa.msu.edu/~sciencet/ask_st/012992.html

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a major role in the development of the second law of thermodynamics, the
absolute temperature scale [measured in kelvins], the dynamical theory of
heat; the mathematical analysis of electricity and magnetism, including basic
ideas of electromagnetic theory of light. He brought precision and order into
electrical science, and linked its principles to chemistry and physics.
Jean-Charles de Borda55
[1733 to 1799]
Borda made good use of the differential calculus and of experimental methods to unify areas of physics.
He also developed a series of trigonometric tables in conjunction with his surveying techniques. He
[also] calculated the coefficient of fluid contraction from an orifice. Borda's use of the principle of
conservation of [energy] was important as a precursor of Lazare Carnot's work in mechanics.
J[öns] J[akob] Berzelius56
[1779 to 1848] electrochemical properties of
selenium; Secretary of Royal Academy of Sciences in Stockholm [1818–48]
Electrochemistry has many applications beyond the university laboratory and provided the
start of many corporations. These twelve achievers all investigated the connection between
chemistry and electricity. The field began as a theoretical exploration of fundamental forces at
work in the universe; it is now a cornerstone of industry, technology, and medicine.
His interest in compounds led to his discovery of a number of new
elements, including cerium, selenium, and thorium. Using his experimental
results, he determined the atomic weights of known elements.
When selenium is rapidly cooled from a fused condition it is a non-conductor. In this, its "vitreous "
form, it is of a dark brown color, almost black by reflected light, having an exceedingly brilliant
surface. In thin films it is transparent, and appears of a beautiful ruby red by transmitted light. The
chemical properties of this new element were found to resemble those of tellurium in such a remarkable
degree that Berzelius gave to the substance the name of "selenium" from the Greek word selhum, the
moon, ("tellurium," as is we'll known, being derived from tellus, the earth). Although tellurium and
selenium are alike in many respects, they differ in their electrical properties ; tellurium being a good
conductor of electricity, and selenium, as Berzelius showed, a non-conductor.
George Simon Ohm57
[1787 to 1854] ~ohm=current flowing via conductors
In 1827, Ohm published the results of his study "The Galvanic Circuit
Investigated Mathematically" which first presented the law that now bears
his name. In present day international symbols, this law reads I = V/R,
where I is the current V is the electromotive force or voltage and R is the
resistance. He was awarded the Copley Medal in 1841. His name Ohm has
been given to the unit of electrical resistance.
55 Ibid 21, Jean-Charles de Borda, http://www-gap.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Mathematicians/Borda.html
56Jon Jakob Berzelius, Chemical Achievers, The Chemical Heritage Foundation
http://www.chemheritage.org/EducationalServices/chemach/eei/eei.html2000
http://nautilus.fis.uc.pt/st2.5/scenes-e/biog/b0008.html
57 Ibid 21, George Simon Ohm, http://www-gap.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Mathematicians/Ohm.html

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Karl Friedrich Gauss58
[1777 to 1855] ~ gaussian =units in magnetic formula
This was one of the principal authors of electric and magnetic units. Gauss
developed a system of magnetic units in 1832, using the millimeter,
milligram, and second as the units of length, mass, and time. Gaussian
refers to the changes in units to make the magnetic formula more uniform.
Lorentz named it after Gauss. The primary element left out was 4 .
Samuel F.B. Morse59
[1791 to 1872] invented and sent first telegraph1844
Michael Faraday60 [1791 to 1867] ~ evolved the practical use of electricity
In 1821, through experiments in magnetism and electricity he discovered
that a conductor carrying a current would rotate about a magnetic pole and
that a magnetized needle would rotate about a wire carrying an electric
current. If electricity could produce magnetism, why couldn't magnetism
produce electricity? In 1831, Faraday found the solution. He demonstrated
that electricity could be produced through magnetism by motion thus
inventing the world’s first electrical generator. He discovered that when a
magnet was moved inside a coil of copper wire, a tiny electric current flows
through the wire. Faraday was the first to speak of a molecule of electricity.
Faraday discovered the two laws of electrochemistry: The amount of chemical
change or decomposition is exactly proportional to the quantity of electricity that
passes in solution; and the amounts of different substances deposited or dissolved
by the same quantity of electricity are proportional to their chemical equivalent
weights. In 1833 he and William Whewell worked out a new nomenclature for
electrochemical phenomena based on Greek words which is more or less still in use
today—"ion," "electrode," and so on.
George Johnstone Stoney61
[1826 to 1911] atom of electricity an ‘electron’
Stoney was one of a group of Irish scientists who made significant
contributions to the study of spectra, that is the light of various colours
emitted or absorbed by different substances. Stoney's most important
scientific work was the conception and calculation of the magnitude of the
atom or particle of electricity, for which he coined the term "electron".
58 Ibid 21, Karl Fredrich Gauss, http://www-gap.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Mathematicians/Gauss.html
59 Samuel F.B. Morris, by Tyler Anbinder, A Reader’s Companion to American History, Houghton Mifflin, 2001
http://college.hmco.com/history/readerscomp/rcah/html/ah_061700_morsesamuelf.htm
60 Michael Faraday, The Human Face of Chemical Science, by Mary Ellen Bowden and Mark Michalovic,
Chemical Achievers, The Chemical Heritage Foundation 2000,
http://www.chemheritage.org/EducationalServices/chemach/eei/mf.html
61 George Johnstone Stoney, Aug 2004, http://www.universityscience.ie/pages/scientists/sci_georgestoney.htm

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THE PHOTOVOLTAIC EFFECT
Alexandre-Edmund Becquerel62
[1820 to 1891] discovered and noted the
Photovoltaic Effect in 1839 as was recorded in his paper, 'On electron effects
under the influence of solar radiation.' Comptes Rendues 9, 56’.
By the light of whale oil and candles this French physicist immersed two
electrodes of the same material in an electrolyte bath. He found that when
he laid one of them in the sunlight there was a difference of potential
between them of about 0.1 volt. This recorded observation represents the
discovery of the Photovoltaic Effect.
His son Antoine Henri Becquerel [1852 to 1908] father of radioactivity and
received the Nobel Prize. His father was Antoine César Bequerel [1788
to1878] Fellow of the Royal Society and inventor of an electrolytic method.
James Clerk Maxwell63
[1831 to 1879] Electricity and Magnetism 1873; On A
Dynamical Theory of Electromagnetic Field 1865
Maxwell is generally regarded as one of the world's greatest physicists. His
research combined the fields of electricity and magnetism and introduced
the concept of the electro-magnetic field. He rejected the idea that electricity
exerted a “pull” across empty space. His experiments led the way for
wireless telegraphy and telephony. Maxwell showed that electric
phenomena display mathematical relations corresponding to the
phenomena of light. His belief that light, heat and electric waves are similar
in nature led to the discovery of radiation and the development of the
photovoltaic effect. His theories are set out in four partial differential
equations known as Maxwell’s equations.
Heinrich Rudolf Hertz64
[1857 to 1894] ~ hertz = electromagnetic wave
Hertz became interested in Clerk Maxwell’s theories, and succeeded in
producing electromagnetic waves, later called Hertzian or radio waves.
Willoughby Smith65
[1828 to 1891] Effect of Light on Selenium during the
passage of an Electric Current, Nature, 20 February 1873; Selenium: its
electrical qualities, and the effect of light thereon. Being a paper, etc.
Hayman Bros. & Lilly, s.l., S.d., [London, 1877 or 1878 ?] , 21 p.
62 E.Becquerel, Comptes Renduces 6 (1839) 561 The History of PV, PV Power Resource Site, Photovoltaics: Sustainable
Power for the World, by Mark Fitzgerald, 2003, www.pvpower.com, site@pvpower.com
63 Ibid 21, James Clerk Maxwell, http://www-gap.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Mathematicians/Maxwell.html
64Heinrich Rudolph Hertz, http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761568022/Hertz_Heinrich_Rudolf.html,
Microsoft® Encarta® Online Encyclopedia 2004 Microsoft Encarta, 2004
65 Willoughby Smith, History of Television, January 2003, http://histv2.free.fr/selenium/smith.htm

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Smith found that small rods of selenium became better conductors of
electricity when exposed to light. He first discussed the photoconductivity of
selenium, which was used to build the first photovoltaic cells.
Thomas Alva Edison66
[1847 to 1931] patented 1,093 inventions, earning
him a title of "The Wizard of Menlo Park." In 1869 he received his first patent
for the Stock Ticker. In 1877, Thomas Edison began work on the
incandescent lamp in his laboratory in
Menlo Park, New Jersey. Edison
experimented with carbon then with
platinum, with metallic alloys, and then
returned to carbon. Several patents
were granted to him on the metal
filament lamps. 1878 he worked on
the phonograph and in summer, he
went on an expedition to Wyoming to
view an eclipse of the sun. October
21, 1879, he made a lamp with a
carbonized thread filament that burned
for forty-five hours before it failed. He
applied for a patent on November 4,
1879, that was granted Jan. 27, 1880.
Edison was not only a great inventor,
but also an excellent businessman and
an organizer. On October 17, 1878,
The Edison Electric Light Company
was organized with a capital of
$300,000 backed by stockholders and
directors from New York financiers.
Sunday, December 21, 1879, the New
York Herald printed a full-page
describing the plant. Gas company
stocks fell rapidly. Edison Electric
Light Company shares were traded up
to $5,000. Edison lauded the benefits
of Direct Current [DC]. Upon
partnership with Joseph Swan, Edison used his DC generator to provide
electricity to light his laboratory and later from the Pearl Street station he
illuminated the first New York Street lit by electric lamps, in September 1882.
In 1929, Edison and Swan produced the first practical filament lamp.
66 The Wizard of Menlo Park Thomas Alva Edison, Franklin Institute and Museum, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
2004, http://sln.fi.edu/franklin/inventor/edison.html

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Joseph Wilson Swan67
[1828 to 1914] invented the first electric light 1860
In 1860, this British scientist invented the carbon filament incandescent lamp
nearly twenty years before Thomas Edison made a similar discovery in
America. In 1878 he produced an all-glass hermetically sealed bulb.
Alexander Graham Bell [1847 to 1922] patented his telephone invention 1876
W(illiam) G(rylls) Adams68
[1836 to 1915] and student R.E. Day 'The action of
light on selenium,' in Proceedings of the Royal Society, A25, 113, 1878.
In 1876, with his student R. E. Day, Adams discovered that illuminating a junction
between selenium and platinum also has a photovoltaic effect, though in this case, an EMF is
actually produced, not altered. This effect is the basis for the modern solar cell.
Charles Fritts69
an American inventor from New York City devised the first
functional intentionally made PV device in 1883. He created the first large
selenium solar wafers from Se film by coating the semiconductor selenium
with an ultra thin, nearly transparent layer of gold. He believed this
photoelectric plate would compete with Edison’s coal fired electricity plants.
Nikola Tesla70 [1856 to 1943] ~unit of measurement for magnetic fields; AC
“Nature and Nature’s laws lay hid in night: God said “Let Tesla be”, and all was light.”
ELF EMF, 60-Hz Wavelength, DC & AC Fields
Electric power generated in North America is 60-Hz alternating current (AC). This means both
the voltage and current are sinusoidally varying (change polarity twice in each cycle or 120
times every second). The 60-Hz AC line frequency has a monstrous wavelength of 3,100 miles
(5,000 km) calculated between cycles using:
C speed-of-light = ( wavelength)(frequency).
Alternating current (AC) electric and magnetic fields fluctuate in space as the sinusoidally varying
voltage and current change polarity, whereas DC fields (like the earth's geomagnetic field) remain
statically polarized based upon the direction of the current flow (remember the Right Hand Rule).
67 Joseph Wilson Swan; Electric light and actinic light . . . a pioneer, Tim Pickford-Jones and Timmonet,
June 11, 2004, http://www.timmonet.co.uk/html/body_joseph_swan.htm
68 William Grylls Adams, professor of natural philosophy, King’s College London, by Navigational Aids for the History of
Science, Technology and the Environment, [NAHSTE], University of Edinburgh, 2004
http://www.nahste.ac.uk/isaar/GB_0237_NAHSTE_P0910.html
69
Solar Energy Timeline, Charles E. Brown Middle School, Newton, Massachusetts, December 2004
http://www.newton.mec.edu/Brown/TE/HOT/TIMELINES/SOLAR/solar_timeline.html
70 B.A. Behrend, AIEE annual meeting, New York City, May 18, 1917, Pr itchard School of Digital Electronics, 2004
http://pritchardschool.com/novustesla.html

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Nicola Tesla worked for a brief time with Mr. Edison, but then went his own
way. They were rivals regarding Direct Current or DC and Alternating
Current or AC. AC/DC71
is a modern electric band formed a century later.
Nikola Tesla’s AC electricity won over at the Chicago World’s Fair in 1893.
Alternating Current [AC] Power Plant at World's Fair, Chicago in 1893.72
Quite apart from the lighting plant, the Westinghouse Company showed at the World's Fair a
complete polyphase system. A large two-phase induction motor, driven by current from the main
generators, acted as the prime mover in driving the exhibit. The exhibit, then, contained a polyphase
generator with transformers for raising the voltage for transmission; a short transmission line;
transformers for lowering the voltage; the operation of induction motors; a synchronous motor; and a
rotary converter, which supplied direct current, which in turn operated a railway motor. In connection
with the exhibit were meters and other auxiliary devices of various kinds. The apparatus was in units
of fair commercial size and gave to the public a view of a universal power system in which, by
polyphase current, power could be transmitted great distances, and then be utilized for various
purposes, including the supply of direct current. It showed on a working scale a system upon which
Westinghouse and his company had been concentrating their efforts; namely, the alternating-current
[AC] and polyphase system. It has been maintained with some plausibility that the most important
outcome of the Centennial Exposition of 1876 was that the people of the United States there discovered
bread. So it may be maintained with even more plausibility, that the best result of the Columbian
Exposition of 1893 was that it removed the last serious doubt of the usefulness to mankind of the
polyphase alternating current.
George Westinghouse73
[1846 to 1914] perfected first automatic, electric
block train signal and supported Nicola Tesla’s research
Westinghouse was a famous American inventor and industrialist who
purchased and developed Nikola Tesla's patented motor for generating
alternating current. Coal was the fuel first used for commercial electricity
generation. In 1900 only 3% of Americans had access to electricity for their
homes and 90% was generated by coal. In 2004 coal 55%, fossil fuels 70%.
J(oseph) J(ohn) Thomson74
[1856 to 1940] discovered the electron in 1897
As Professor of experimental physics at Cambridge he measured the mass
and determined the electric charge of particles in cathode rays. He identified
them with the ultimate particles of electricity now known as electrons.
Electrons are the basis of photoelectric cells or photovoltaic electricity.
71
AC/DC Bio, Electric Shock, AC/DC.net, 2004, http://www.ac-dc.net/
72 Nikola Tesla : The Chicago World’s Fair, Adopted from "A Life of George Westinghouse," by
Henry G. Prout, 1921., http://www.neuronet.pitt.edu/~bogdan/tesla/chicago.htm
73 George Westinghouse, by Grey Gobel, Wikipedia The Free Encyclopedia, 2004
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Westinghouse,
74 The Atomic Model and Quantum Mechanics, Matter and Molecules Timeline of Achievement, Chemical Heritage
Foundation, 2004, http://www.chemheritage.org/explore/matter-time7.html

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Photo: Jeffrey Manufacturing Co. Train of coal delivery trucks leaving a mine in the direction of breakers. 75
The enormous coal production towards the 1900's in all active centers of commerce in the world
was a completely new thing destined to evolve machinery for Humanity putting speed in the
movement of the trains and ships,
which accelerated the interchange
of the products of all races and
climates. The old world did not
know anything about soft coal, and
it did not, therefore, make practical
use of it. About two thousand
years ago the British got to know
the use of mineral coal, and the
Romans learned it from them.
Max Karl Ernest Ludwig Planck [1858 to 1918]
1900 ~ Planck’s Constant (h)=quantum of action 6.625 X 10-27
erg second
In his study of blackbody radiation he derived a theoretical formula that fit
the distribution of radiated energy over all wavelengths for different
temperatures. In the derivation of this equation he found it necessary to
assume that radiant energy was emitted in very small discrete bundles
called quanta and that the magnitude of a quantum of energy was hv, in
which v was the frequency of the radiation and h was a new universal
constant that he called the quantum of action.
Guglielmo Marconi76
[1874 to 1937] wireless medium; radio 1900
Albert Einstein77
[1879 to 1955] ~ mutual convertibility of matter and energy
(photoelectrons) 1923 received Nobel Prize for theories explaining PV effect
In 1905 he presented his treatise explaining the photovoltaic effect. A new
interest in this simple, pollution-free electricity generation grew slowly over
the next half century however the simplicity and beauty of the photovoltaic
effect were not pursued commercially until fifty years later. Einstein’s
theory on the mutual convertibility of matter and energy made an important
contribution to the theory of photoelectrons. It is expressed by the equation
E= hv =W + ½ mv2
. E equals the product of Planck’s constant h and the
frequency of the photon v (the Greek letter nu), which equals the sum of W;
the work required to free the electron from metal, and its kinetic energy ½
mv2
. Here m is the mass of the electron and v is its speed after being freed
75 Old Trains, The Olden Times, 2003, http://www.austral.addr.com/old_trains/english.htm
76 Guglielmo Marconi, Nobelprize.org, http://nobelprize.org/physics/laureates/1909/marconi-bio.html,
from Nobel Lectures, Physics 1901-1921 Elsevier Publishing Company, Amsterdam 1967
77 Ibid 21, Max Karl Ernest Ludwig Planck, http://www-gap.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Mathematicians/Planck.html

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by the photon. The value v is determined by one or more methods
explained in the source. The W is the variable depending on the kind of
metal used. The velocity of the photoelectron increases with the energy of
the photon. High-frequency photons have greater energies than low-
frequency photons, and in order to free electrons from heavier metals
ultraviolet light is required. Adding to the intensity of the light does not
change the velocity of the photoelectrons, but increases their number.
DIFFUSION OF CARRIER78
ENERGY OF A PHOTON
Junction
p-type space charge n-type
Free electron
Free hole Fixed donor impurity ion
Fixed acceptor impurity ion
Henry Ford79
[1863 to 1947] built his first automobile in 1896. In 1908 he
built prototype for Model T. On May 26, 1927 he watched the fifty millionth
Model T roll off the assembly line of his factory in Highland Park, Michigan.
Later that year, Ford attended a national meeting of Edison employees. Thomas A. Edison had
been Ford's idol for years. But at the meeting, it was Edison who asked to meet the young
inventor, after word got around that the obscure engineer from Detroit had actually built an
automobile. “Young man, you have the right idea," Edison said. "Keep right at it". Ironically, he
was adamant that Ford not waste his time trying to make a car run viably on electricity.80
The advent of mass production is one of the most important events of the
20th
century. Demand-site fuel-free electricity generation will be a major
transformation of the 21st
century. We are not waiting we are trying to figure
out how to accomplish this. The consequent massive vacuum of commerce
evolves technologies as dramatically as it suppresses them. Learning to
manage this vacuum of commerce democratically for the good of humanity
is one of the most precarious frontiers of the 21st
Century. One of my goals
is to develop a mathematical formula for this transformation of commerce.
78 Diffusion of Carrier, PVCDROM, University of New South Wales, Centre for Photovoltaic Engineering, 1998
http://www.pv.unsw.edu.au
The Photovoltaic Junction or Electric Diode,1997, http://www.geocities.com/CapeCanaveral/5161/photo.html
79 The Life of Henry Ford, http://www.hfmgv.org/exhibits/hf/chrono.asp The Henry Ford Museum, 1995-2004
http://www.thehenryford.org/ 2004
80 Forbes Greatest Business Stories of All Times, by Daniel Gross 1996
http://www.wiley.com/legacy/products/subject/business/forbes/ford.html
A photon is characterised by either a wavelength,
denoted by or alternately the energy of the
particular photon, denoted by E. There is an inverse
relationship between the energy of a photon (E) and
the wavelength of the light ( ) given by the equation:
where h is Planck's constant and c is the speed of light.
hcE =
Electric
field
+
+
+
+
+ +
+
+
-
-
-
-
-
--
-
neg
pos

ElectriCity®
Electric light, a hundred times more brilliant took over the twentieth
century. It extended the hours of sensation and recreation. It made plays
and movies visible after sunset. It opened libraries, restaurants, bowling
alleys, baseball parks and clubs in the hours of darkness.81
Jan Czochralski82
[1885 to 1953] Czochralski process of crystalline growth
“ . . . a chemist who discovered the Czochralski process, which is used to grow
single crystals and is used in the production of semiconductor wafers.”
Wilbur [1867 to 1912] and Orville Wright83
[1871 to 1948] flew the first plane
in 1908. Airlines secured fossil fuel domination of the electricity industry.
Henry Ford [1863 to 1947] In 1913 introduced first moving automobile
assembly line at Highland Park. By 1921, Ford dominated 55% of the
market. 1926 Henry Ford dedicated his Edison Institute of Technology and
Greenfield Village with a celebration of 50 years of the electric light. Gas
turbine engines power most airplanes and they are one of the largest
sources of electricity, today. After crude oil was introduced to combustion
engines, steam trains turned to coal-fired fuels just as Ford introduced mass
production in manufacturing.
Energy Crisis ca. 192084
Need for oil pioneers ... The pioneering spirit should now lead American capital and American
engineering to seek new sources of petroleum supplies in foreign fields for the benefit of the
America of tomorrow. Nor can this be done without popular support inspired by general
appreciation of oil as our servant, a servant that works 24 hours a day and 7 days a week.85
Over the last century civilization has actually become a slave to oil and the
fossil fuel market power has become a phenomena with no loyalties. Upon
closer scrutiny the political control everyone talks about is revealed to have
evolved to a mindless momentum or vacuum of energy commerce
81 Pursuing Happiness: American consumers in the Twentieth Century, Stanley Lebergott, Princeton University Press 1996
82 Jan Czochralski,Wikipedia, free content encyclopedia, http://www.fact-index.com/j/ja/jan_czochralski.html 2004
83 The Wright Brothers Aëroplane, by Orville and Wilbur Wright, Century Magazine 1908; website by Steve Wright,
11/24/01, http://www.wam.umd.edu/~stwright/WrBr/Century.html
The Right Brothers A pair of self-taught engineers working in a bicycle shop, they made the world a forever smaller
place, by Bill Gates, March 29, 1999 http://www.time.com/time/time100/scientist/profile/wright.html
84 But Where Will Americans Get It When America’s Wells Cease To Flow, by George Otis Smith Director of the
Geographical Survey 1907 to 1930, 1920
The Energy Crisis Déjà vu All Over Again (Archive), by Blaine Townsend, July 2001, Trillium Asset Mgmt.
http://www.trilliuminvest.com/pages/news/news_detail.asp?ArticleID=73&Status=Archive
The U.S. Energy Crisis of 1920 and the search for oil supplies, by Alan L. Olmstead and Paul Rhode, Davis, Calif.:
Agricultural History Center, University of California, 1986
85 Where the World Gets Its Oil, National Geographic, February, 1920
http://www.energycrisis.com/history/ng20feb.htm

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