Word embedding has become the most popular method of lexical description
in a given context in the natural language processing domain, especially
through the word to vector (Word2Vec) and global vectors (GloVe)
implementations. Since GloVe is a pre-trained model that provides access to
word mapping vectors on many dimensionalities, a large number of
applications rely on its prowess, especially in the field of sentiment analysis.
However, in the literature, we found that in many cases, GloVe is
implemented with arbitrary dimensionalities (often 300d) regardless of the
length of the text to be analyzed. In this work, we conducted a study that
identifies the effect of the dimensionality of word embedding mapping
vectors on short and long texts in a sentiment analysis context. The results
suggest that as the dimensionality of the vectors increases, the performance
metrics of the model also increase for long texts. In contrast, for short texts,
we recorded a threshold at which dimensionality does not matter.
THE ABILITY OF WORD EMBEDDINGS TO CAPTURE WORD SIMILARITIESkevig
Distributed language representation has become the most widely used technique for language representation in various natural language processing tasks. Most of the natural language processing models that are based on deep learning techniques use already pre-trained distributed word representations, commonly called word embeddings. Determining the most qualitative word embeddings is of crucial importance for such models. However, selecting the appropriate word embeddings is a perplexing task since the projected embedding space is not intuitive to humans. In this paper, we explore different approaches for creating distributed word representations. We perform an intrinsic evaluation of several state-of-the-art word embedding methods. Their performance on capturing word similarities is analysed with existing benchmark datasets for word pairs similarities. The research in this paper conducts a correlation analysis between ground truth word similarities and similarities obtained by different word embedding methods.
THE ABILITY OF WORD EMBEDDINGS TO CAPTURE WORD SIMILARITIESkevig
Distributed language representation has become the most widely used technique for language representation in various natural language processing tasks. Most of the natural language processing models that are based on deep learning techniques use already pre-trained distributed word representations, commonly called word embeddings. Determining the most qualitative word embeddings is of crucial importance for such models. However, selecting the appropriate word embeddings is a perplexing task since the projected embedding space is not intuitive to humans.In this paper, we explore different approaches for creating distributed word representations. We perform an intrinsic evaluation of several state-of-the-art word embedding methods. Their performance on capturing word similarities is analysed with existing benchmark datasets for word pairs similarities. The research in this paper conducts a correlation analysis between ground truth word similarities and similarities obtained by different word embedding methods.
CONTEXT-AWARE CLUSTERING USING GLOVE AND K-MEANSijseajournal
ABSTRACT
In this paper we propose a novel method to cluster categorical data while retaining their context. Typically, clustering is performed on numerical data. However it is often useful to cluster categorical data as well, especially when dealing with data in real-world contexts. Several methods exist which can cluster categorical data, but our approach is unique in that we use recent text-processing and machine learning advancements like GloVe and t- SNE to develop a a context-aware clustering approach (using pre-trained
word embeddings). We encode words or categorical data into numerical, context-aware, vectors that we use to cluster the data points using common clustering algorithms like K-means.
Continuous bag of words cbow word2vec word embedding work .pdfdevangmittal4
Continuous bag of words (cbow) word2vec word embedding work is that it tends to predict the
probability of a word given a context. A context may be a single word or a group of words. But for
simplicity, I will take a single context word and try to predict a single target word.
The purpose of this question is to be able to create a word embedding for the given data set.
data set text:
In linguistics word embeddings were discussed in the research area of distributional semantics. It
aims to quantify and categorize semantic similarities between linguistic items based on their
distributional properties in large samples of language data. The underlying idea that "a word is
characterized by the company it keeps" was popularized by Firth.
The technique of representing words as vectors has roots in the 1960s with the development of
the vector space model for information retrieval. Reducing the number of dimensions using
singular value decomposition then led to the introduction of latent semantic analysis in the late
1980s.In 2000 Bengio et al. provided in a series of papers the "Neural probabilistic language
models" to reduce the high dimensionality of words representations in contexts by "learning a
distributed representation for words". (Bengio et al, 2003). Word embeddings come in two different
styles, one in which words are expressed as vectors of co-occurring words, and another in which
words are expressed as vectors of linguistic contexts in which the words occur; these different
styles are studied in (Lavelli et al, 2004). Roweis and Saul published in Science how to use
"locally linear embedding" (LLE) to discover representations of high dimensional data structures.
The area developed gradually and really took off after 2010, partly because important advances
had been made since then on the quality of vectors and the training speed of the model.
There are many branches and many research groups working on word embeddings. In 2013, a
team at Google led by Tomas Mikolov created word2vec, a word embedding toolkit which can train
vector space models faster than the previous approaches. Most new word embedding techniques
rely on a neural network architecture instead of more traditional n-gram models and unsupervised
learning.
Limitations
One of the main limitations of word embeddings (word vector space models in general) is that
possible meanings of a word are conflated into a single representation (a single vector in the
semantic space). Sense embeddings are a solution to this problem: individual meanings of words
are represented as distinct vectors in the space.
For biological sequences: BioVectors
Word embeddings for n-grams in biological sequences (e.g. DNA, RNA, and Proteins) for
bioinformatics applications have been proposed by Asgari and Mofrad. Named bio-vectors
(BioVec) to refer to biological sequences in general with protein-vectors (ProtVec) for proteins
(amino-acid sequences) and gene-vectors (GeneVec) for gene sequences, this representa.
Enhanced sentiment analysis based on improved word embeddings and XGboost IJECEIAES
Sentiment analysis is a well-known and rapidly expanding study topic in natural language processing (NLP) and text classification. This approach has evolved into a critical component of many applications, including politics, business, advertising, and marketing. Most current research focuses on obtaining sentiment features through lexical and syntactic analysis. Word embeddings explicitly express these characteristics. This article proposes a novel method, improved words vector for sentiments analysis (IWVS), using XGboost to improve the F1-score of sentiment classification. The proposed method constructed sentiment vectors by averaging the word embeddings (Sentiment2Vec). We also investigated the Polarized lexicon for classifying positive and negative sentiments. The sentiment vectors formed a feature space to which the examined sentiment text was mapped to. Those features were input into the chosen classifier (XGboost). We compared the F1-score of sentiment classification using our method via different machine learning models and sentiment datasets. We compare the quality of our proposition to that of baseline models, term frequency-inverse document frequency (TF-IDF) and Doc2vec, and the results show that IWVS performs better on the F1-measure for sentiment classification. At the same time, XGBoost with IWVS features was the best model in our evaluation.
Identifying Hot Topic Trends in Streaming Text Data Using News Sequential Evo...Shakas Technologies
Identifying Hot Topic Trends in Streaming Text Data Using News Sequential Evolution Model Based on Distributed Representations.
Shakas Technologies ( Galaxy of Knowledge)
#11/A 2nd East Main Road,
Gandhi Nagar,
Vellore - 632006.
Mobile : +91-9500218218 / 8220150373| land line- 0416- 3552723
Shakas Training & Development | Shakas Sales & Services | Shakas Educational Trust|IEEE projects | Research & Development | Journal Publication |
Email : info@shakastech.com | shakastech@gmail.com |
website: www.shakastech.com
Facebook: https://www.facebook.com/pages/Shakas-Technologies
Text classification supervised algorithms with term frequency inverse documen...IJECEIAES
Over the course of the previous two decades, there has been a rise in the quantity of text documents stored digitally. The ability to organize and categorize those documents in an automated mechanism, is known as text categorization which is used to classify them into a set of predefined categories so they may be preserved and sorted more efficiently. Identifying appropriate structures, architectures, and methods for text classification presents a challenge for researchers. This is due to the significant impact this concept has on content management, contextual search, opinion mining, product review analysis, spam filtering, and text sentiment mining. This study analyzes the generic categorization strategy and examines supervised machine learning approaches and their ability to comprehend complex models and nonlinear data interactions. Among these methods are k-nearest neighbors (KNN), support vector machine (SVM), and ensemble learning algorithms employing various evaluation techniques. Thereafter, an evaluation is conducted on the constraints of every technique and how they can be applied to real-life situations.
TEXTS CLASSIFICATION WITH THE USAGE OF NEURAL NETWORK BASED ON THE WORD2VEC’S...ijsc
Assigning the submitted text to one of the predetermined categories is required when dealing with
application-oriented texts. There are many different approaches to solving this problem, including using
neural network algorithms. This article explores using neural networks to sort news articles based on their
category. Two word vectorization algorithms are being used — The Bag of Words (BOW) and the
word2vec distributive semantic model. For this work the BOW model was applied to the FNN, whereas the
word2vec model was applied to CNN. We have measured the accuracy of the classification when applying
these methods for ad texts datasets. The experimental results have shown that both of the models show us
quite the comparable accuracy. However, the word2vec encoding used for CNN showed more relevant
results, regarding to the texts semantics. Moreover, the trained CNN, based on the word2vec architecture,
has produced a compact feature map on its last convolutional layer, which can then be used in the future
text representation. I.e. Using CNN as a text encoder and for learning transfer.
THE ABILITY OF WORD EMBEDDINGS TO CAPTURE WORD SIMILARITIESkevig
Distributed language representation has become the most widely used technique for language representation in various natural language processing tasks. Most of the natural language processing models that are based on deep learning techniques use already pre-trained distributed word representations, commonly called word embeddings. Determining the most qualitative word embeddings is of crucial importance for such models. However, selecting the appropriate word embeddings is a perplexing task since the projected embedding space is not intuitive to humans. In this paper, we explore different approaches for creating distributed word representations. We perform an intrinsic evaluation of several state-of-the-art word embedding methods. Their performance on capturing word similarities is analysed with existing benchmark datasets for word pairs similarities. The research in this paper conducts a correlation analysis between ground truth word similarities and similarities obtained by different word embedding methods.
THE ABILITY OF WORD EMBEDDINGS TO CAPTURE WORD SIMILARITIESkevig
Distributed language representation has become the most widely used technique for language representation in various natural language processing tasks. Most of the natural language processing models that are based on deep learning techniques use already pre-trained distributed word representations, commonly called word embeddings. Determining the most qualitative word embeddings is of crucial importance for such models. However, selecting the appropriate word embeddings is a perplexing task since the projected embedding space is not intuitive to humans.In this paper, we explore different approaches for creating distributed word representations. We perform an intrinsic evaluation of several state-of-the-art word embedding methods. Their performance on capturing word similarities is analysed with existing benchmark datasets for word pairs similarities. The research in this paper conducts a correlation analysis between ground truth word similarities and similarities obtained by different word embedding methods.
CONTEXT-AWARE CLUSTERING USING GLOVE AND K-MEANSijseajournal
ABSTRACT
In this paper we propose a novel method to cluster categorical data while retaining their context. Typically, clustering is performed on numerical data. However it is often useful to cluster categorical data as well, especially when dealing with data in real-world contexts. Several methods exist which can cluster categorical data, but our approach is unique in that we use recent text-processing and machine learning advancements like GloVe and t- SNE to develop a a context-aware clustering approach (using pre-trained
word embeddings). We encode words or categorical data into numerical, context-aware, vectors that we use to cluster the data points using common clustering algorithms like K-means.
Continuous bag of words cbow word2vec word embedding work .pdfdevangmittal4
Continuous bag of words (cbow) word2vec word embedding work is that it tends to predict the
probability of a word given a context. A context may be a single word or a group of words. But for
simplicity, I will take a single context word and try to predict a single target word.
The purpose of this question is to be able to create a word embedding for the given data set.
data set text:
In linguistics word embeddings were discussed in the research area of distributional semantics. It
aims to quantify and categorize semantic similarities between linguistic items based on their
distributional properties in large samples of language data. The underlying idea that "a word is
characterized by the company it keeps" was popularized by Firth.
The technique of representing words as vectors has roots in the 1960s with the development of
the vector space model for information retrieval. Reducing the number of dimensions using
singular value decomposition then led to the introduction of latent semantic analysis in the late
1980s.In 2000 Bengio et al. provided in a series of papers the "Neural probabilistic language
models" to reduce the high dimensionality of words representations in contexts by "learning a
distributed representation for words". (Bengio et al, 2003). Word embeddings come in two different
styles, one in which words are expressed as vectors of co-occurring words, and another in which
words are expressed as vectors of linguistic contexts in which the words occur; these different
styles are studied in (Lavelli et al, 2004). Roweis and Saul published in Science how to use
"locally linear embedding" (LLE) to discover representations of high dimensional data structures.
The area developed gradually and really took off after 2010, partly because important advances
had been made since then on the quality of vectors and the training speed of the model.
There are many branches and many research groups working on word embeddings. In 2013, a
team at Google led by Tomas Mikolov created word2vec, a word embedding toolkit which can train
vector space models faster than the previous approaches. Most new word embedding techniques
rely on a neural network architecture instead of more traditional n-gram models and unsupervised
learning.
Limitations
One of the main limitations of word embeddings (word vector space models in general) is that
possible meanings of a word are conflated into a single representation (a single vector in the
semantic space). Sense embeddings are a solution to this problem: individual meanings of words
are represented as distinct vectors in the space.
For biological sequences: BioVectors
Word embeddings for n-grams in biological sequences (e.g. DNA, RNA, and Proteins) for
bioinformatics applications have been proposed by Asgari and Mofrad. Named bio-vectors
(BioVec) to refer to biological sequences in general with protein-vectors (ProtVec) for proteins
(amino-acid sequences) and gene-vectors (GeneVec) for gene sequences, this representa.
Enhanced sentiment analysis based on improved word embeddings and XGboost IJECEIAES
Sentiment analysis is a well-known and rapidly expanding study topic in natural language processing (NLP) and text classification. This approach has evolved into a critical component of many applications, including politics, business, advertising, and marketing. Most current research focuses on obtaining sentiment features through lexical and syntactic analysis. Word embeddings explicitly express these characteristics. This article proposes a novel method, improved words vector for sentiments analysis (IWVS), using XGboost to improve the F1-score of sentiment classification. The proposed method constructed sentiment vectors by averaging the word embeddings (Sentiment2Vec). We also investigated the Polarized lexicon for classifying positive and negative sentiments. The sentiment vectors formed a feature space to which the examined sentiment text was mapped to. Those features were input into the chosen classifier (XGboost). We compared the F1-score of sentiment classification using our method via different machine learning models and sentiment datasets. We compare the quality of our proposition to that of baseline models, term frequency-inverse document frequency (TF-IDF) and Doc2vec, and the results show that IWVS performs better on the F1-measure for sentiment classification. At the same time, XGBoost with IWVS features was the best model in our evaluation.
Identifying Hot Topic Trends in Streaming Text Data Using News Sequential Evo...Shakas Technologies
Identifying Hot Topic Trends in Streaming Text Data Using News Sequential Evolution Model Based on Distributed Representations.
Shakas Technologies ( Galaxy of Knowledge)
#11/A 2nd East Main Road,
Gandhi Nagar,
Vellore - 632006.
Mobile : +91-9500218218 / 8220150373| land line- 0416- 3552723
Shakas Training & Development | Shakas Sales & Services | Shakas Educational Trust|IEEE projects | Research & Development | Journal Publication |
Email : info@shakastech.com | shakastech@gmail.com |
website: www.shakastech.com
Facebook: https://www.facebook.com/pages/Shakas-Technologies
Text classification supervised algorithms with term frequency inverse documen...IJECEIAES
Over the course of the previous two decades, there has been a rise in the quantity of text documents stored digitally. The ability to organize and categorize those documents in an automated mechanism, is known as text categorization which is used to classify them into a set of predefined categories so they may be preserved and sorted more efficiently. Identifying appropriate structures, architectures, and methods for text classification presents a challenge for researchers. This is due to the significant impact this concept has on content management, contextual search, opinion mining, product review analysis, spam filtering, and text sentiment mining. This study analyzes the generic categorization strategy and examines supervised machine learning approaches and their ability to comprehend complex models and nonlinear data interactions. Among these methods are k-nearest neighbors (KNN), support vector machine (SVM), and ensemble learning algorithms employing various evaluation techniques. Thereafter, an evaluation is conducted on the constraints of every technique and how they can be applied to real-life situations.
TEXTS CLASSIFICATION WITH THE USAGE OF NEURAL NETWORK BASED ON THE WORD2VEC’S...ijsc
Assigning the submitted text to one of the predetermined categories is required when dealing with
application-oriented texts. There are many different approaches to solving this problem, including using
neural network algorithms. This article explores using neural networks to sort news articles based on their
category. Two word vectorization algorithms are being used — The Bag of Words (BOW) and the
word2vec distributive semantic model. For this work the BOW model was applied to the FNN, whereas the
word2vec model was applied to CNN. We have measured the accuracy of the classification when applying
these methods for ad texts datasets. The experimental results have shown that both of the models show us
quite the comparable accuracy. However, the word2vec encoding used for CNN showed more relevant
results, regarding to the texts semantics. Moreover, the trained CNN, based on the word2vec architecture,
has produced a compact feature map on its last convolutional layer, which can then be used in the future
text representation. I.e. Using CNN as a text encoder and for learning transfer.
Texts Classification with the usage of Neural Network based on the Word2vec’s...ijsc
Assigning the submitted text to one of the predetermined categories is required when dealing with application-oriented texts. There are many different approaches to solving this problem, including using neural network algorithms. This article explores using neural networks to sort news articles based on their category. Two word vectorization algorithms are being used — The Bag of Words (BOW) and the
word2vec distributive semantic model. For this work the BOW model was applied to the FNN, whereas the word2vec model was applied to CNN. We have measured the accuracy of the classification when applying these methods for ad texts datasets. The experimental results have shown that both of the models show us quite the comparable accuracy. However, the word2vec encoding used for CNN showed more relevant results, regarding to the texts semantics. Moreover, the trained CNN, based on the word2vec architecture, has produced a compact feature map on its last convolutional layer, which can then be used in the future text representation. I.e. Using CNN as a text encoder and for learning transfer.
Evaluating sentiment analysis and word embedding techniques on BrexitIAESIJAI
In this study, we investigate the effectiveness of pre-trained word embeddings for sentiment analysis on a real-world topic, namely Brexit. We compare the performance of several popular word embedding models such global vectors for word representation (GloVe), FastText, word to vec (word2vec), and embeddings from language models (ELMo) on a dataset of tweets related to Brexit and evaluate their ability to classify the sentiment of the tweets as positive, negative, or neutral. We find that pre-trained word embeddings provide useful features for sentiment analysis and can significantly improve the performance of machine learning models. We also discuss the challenges and limitations of applying these models to complex, real-world texts such as those related to Brexit.
IJRET : International Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology is an international peer reviewed, online journal published by eSAT Publishing House for the enhancement of research in various disciplines of Engineering and Technology. The aim and scope of the journal is to provide an academic medium and an important reference for the advancement and dissemination of research results that support high-level learning, teaching and research in the fields of Engineering and Technology. We bring together Scientists, Academician, Field Engineers, Scholars and Students of related fields of Engineering and Technology
An Entity-Driven Recursive Neural Network Model for Chinese Discourse Coheren...ijaia
Chinese discourse coherence modeling remains a challenge taskin Natural Language Processing
field.Existing approaches mostlyfocus on the need for feature engineering, whichadoptthe sophisticated
features to capture the logic or syntactic or semantic relationships acrosssentences within a text.In this
paper, we present an entity-drivenrecursive deep modelfor the Chinese discourse coherence evaluation
based on current English discourse coherenceneural network model. Specifically, to overcome the
shortage of identifying the entity(nouns) overlap across sentences in the currentmodel, Our combined
modelsuccessfully investigatesthe entities information into the recursive neural network
freamework.Evaluation results on both sentence ordering and machine translation coherence rating
task show the effectiveness of the proposed model, which significantly outperforms the existing strong
baseline.
International Journal of Engineering and Science Invention (IJESI) inventionjournals
International Journal of Engineering and Science Invention (IJESI) is an international journal intended for professionals and researchers in all fields of computer science and electronics. IJESI publishes research articles and reviews within the whole field Engineering Science and Technology, new teaching methods, assessment, validation and the impact of new technologies and it will continue to provide information on the latest trends and developments in this ever-expanding subject. The publications of papers are selected through double peer reviewed to ensure originality, relevance, and readability. The articles published in our journal can be accessed online
SEMANTIC NETWORK BASED MECHANISMS FOR KNOWLEDGE ACQUISITIONcscpconf
This article summarizes research work started with the SeiPro2S (Semantically Enhanced Intellectual Property Protection System) system designed to protect resources from the unauthorized use of intellectual property. The system implements semantic network as a structure of knowledge representation and a new idea of semantic compression. As the author proved that semantic compression is viable concept for English, he decided to focus on potential applications. An algorithm is presented that employing semantic network WiSENet for knowledge acquisition with flexible rules that yield high precision results. Developed algorithm is implemented as a Finite State Automaton with advanced methods for triggering desired actions. Detailed discussion is given with description of devised algorithm, usage examples and results of experiments.
A simplified classification computational model of opinion mining using deep ...IJECEIAES
Opinion and attempts to develop an automated system to determine people's viewpoints towards various units such as events, topics, products, services, organizations, individuals, and issues. Opinion analysis from the natural text can be regarded as a text and sequence classification problem which poses high feature space due to the involvement of dynamic information that needs to be addressed precisely. This paper introduces effective modelling of human opinion analysis from social media data subjected to complex and dynamic content. Firstly, a customized preprocessing operation based on natural language processing mechanisms as an effective data treatment process towards building quality-aware input data. On the other hand, a suitable deep learning technique, bidirectional long short term-memory (Bi-LSTM), is implemented for the opinion classification, followed by a data modelling process where truncating and padding is performed manually to achieve better data generalization in the training phase. The design and development of the model are carried on the MATLAB tool. The performance analysis has shown that the proposed system offers a significant advantage in terms of classification accuracy and less training time due to a reduction in the feature space by the data treatment operation.
Association Rule Mining Based Extraction of Semantic Relations Using Markov L...IJwest
Ontology may be a conceptualization of a website into a human understandable, however machine-readable format consisting of entities, attributes, relationships and axioms. Ontologies formalize the intentional aspects of a site, whereas the denotative part is provided by a mental object that contains assertions about instances of concepts and relations. Semantic relation it might be potential to extract the whole family-tree of a outstanding personality employing a resource like Wikipedia. In a way, relations describe the linguistics relationships among the entities involve that is beneficial for a higher understanding of human language. The relation can be identified from the result of concept hierarchy extraction. The existing ontology learning process only produces the result of concept hierarchy extraction. It does not produce the semantic relation between the concepts. Here, we have to do the process of constructing the predicates and also first order logic formula. Here, also find the inference and learning weights using Markov Logic Network. To improve the relation of every input and also improve the relation between the contents we have to propose the concept of ARSRE. This method can find the frequent items between concepts and converting the extensibility of existing lightweight ontologies to formal one. The experimental results can produce the good extraction of semantic relations compared to state-of-art method.
Association Rule Mining Based Extraction of Semantic Relations Using Markov ...dannyijwest
Ontology may be a conceptualization of a website into a human understandable, however machine-
readable format consisting of entities, attributes, relationships and axioms. Ontologies formalize the
intentional aspects of a site, whereas the denotative part is provided by a mental object that contains
assertions about instances of concepts and relations. Semantic relation it might be potential to extract the
whole family-tree of a outstanding personality employing a resource like Wikipedia. In a way, relations
describe the linguistics relationships among the entities involve that is beneficial for a higher
understanding of human language. The relation can be identified from the result of concept hierarchy
extraction. The existing ontology learning process only produces the result of concept hierarchy extraction.
It does not produce the semantic relation between the concepts. Here, we have to do the process of
constructing the predicates and also first order logic formula. Here, also find the inference and learning
weights using Markov Logic Network. To improve the relation of every input and also improve the relation
between the contents we have to propose the concept of ARSRE.
AN EMPIRICAL STUDY OF WORD SENSE DISAMBIGUATIONijnlc
Word Sense Disambiguation (WSD) is an important area which has an impact on improving the performance of applications of computational linguistics such as machine translation, information
retrieval, text summarization, question answering systems, etc. We have presented a brief history of WSD,
discussed the Supervised, Unsupervised, and Knowledge-based approaches for WSD. Though many WSD
algorithms exist, we have considered optimal and portable WSD algorithms as most appropriate since they
can be embedded easily in applications of computational linguistics. This paper will also provide an idea of
some of the WSD algorithms and their performances, which compares and assess the need of the word
sense disambiguation.
Sentimental analysis is a context based mining of text, which extracts and identify subjective information from a text or sentence provided. Here the main concept is extracting the sentiment of the text using machine learning techniques such as LSTM Long short term memory . This text classification method analyses the incoming text and determines whether the underlined emotion is positive or negative along with probability associated with that positive or negative statements. Probability depicts the strength of a positive or negative statement, if the probability is close to zero, it implies that the sentiment is strongly negative and if probability is close to1, it means that the statement is strongly positive. Here a web application is created to deploy this model using a Python based micro framework called flask. Many other methods, such as RNN and CNN, are inefficient when compared to LSTM. Dirash A R | Dr. S K Manju Bargavi "LSTM Based Sentiment Analysis" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-5 | Issue-4 , June 2021, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.compapers/ijtsrd42345.pdf Paper URL: https://www.ijtsrd.comcomputer-science/data-processing/42345/lstm-based-sentiment-analysis/dirash-a-r
Mining knowledge graphs to map heterogeneous relations between the internet o...IJECEIAES
Patterns for the internet of things (IoT) which represent proven solutions used to solve design problems in the IoT are numerous. Similar to objectoriented design patterns, these IoT patterns contain multiple mutual heterogeneous relationships. However, these pattern relationships are hidden and virtually unidentified in most documents. In this paper, we use machine learning techniques to automatically mine knowledge graphs to map these relationships between several IoT patterns. The end result is a semantic knowledge graph database which outlines patterns as vertices and their relations as edges. We have identified four main relationships between the IoT patterns-a pattern is similar to another pattern if it addresses the same use case problem, a large-scale pattern uses a small- scale pattern in a lower level layer, a large pattern is composed of multiple smaller scale patterns underneath it, and patterns complement and combine with each other to resolve a given use case problem. Our results show some promising prospects towards the use of machine learning techniques to generate an automated repository to organise the IoT patterns, which are usually extracted at various levels of abstraction and granularity.
Enhanced TextRank using weighted word embedding for text summarizationIJECEIAES
The length of a news article may influence people’s interest to read the article. In this case, text summarization can help to create a shorter representative version of an article to reduce people’s read time. This paper proposes to use weighted word embedding based on Word2Vec, FastText, and bidirectional encoder representations from transformers (BERT) models to enhance the TextRank summarization algorithm. The use of weighted word embedding is aimed to create better sentence representation, in order to produce more accurate summaries. The results show that using (unweighted) word embedding significantly improves the performance of the TextRank algorithm, with the best performance gained by the summarization system using BERT word embedding. When each word embedding is weighed using term frequency-inverse document frequency (TF-IDF), the performance for all systems using unweighted word embedding further significantly improve, with the biggest improvement achieved by the systems using Word2Vec (with 6.80% to 12.92% increase) and FastText (with 7.04% to 12.78% increase). Overall, our systems using weighted word embedding can outperform the TextRank method by up to 17.33% in ROUGE-1 and 30.01% in ROUGE-2. This demonstrates the effectiveness of weighted word embedding in the TextRank algorithm for text summarization.
SEMANTIC INTEGRATION FOR AUTOMATIC ONTOLOGY MAPPING cscpconf
In the last decade, ontologies have played a key technology role for information sharing and agents interoperability in different application domains. In semantic web domain, ontologies are efficiently used toface the great challenge of representing the semantics of data, in order to bring the actual web to its full
power and hence, achieve its objective. However, using ontologies as common and shared vocabularies requires a certain degree of interoperability between them. To confront this requirement, mapping ontologies is a solution that is not to be avoided. In deed, ontology mapping build a meta layer that allows different applications and information systems to access and share their informations, of course, after resolving the different forms of syntactic, semantic and lexical mismatches. In the contribution presented in this paper, we have integrated the semantic aspect based on an external lexical resource, wordNet, to design a new algorithm for fully automatic ontology mapping. This fully automatic character features the
main difference of our contribution with regards to the most of the existing semi-automatic algorithms of ontology mapping, such as Chimaera, Prompt, Onion, Glue, etc. To better enhance the performances of our algorithm, the mapping discovery stage is based on the combination of two sub-modules. The former
analysis the concept’s names and the later analysis their properties. Each one of these two sub-modules is
it self based on the combination of lexical and semantic similarity measures.
A comparative analysis of particle swarm optimization and k means algorithm f...ijnlc
The volume of digitized text documents on the web have been increasing rapidly. As there is huge collection
of data on the web there is a need for grouping(clustering) the documents into clusters for speedy
information retrieval. Clustering of documents is collection of documents into groups such that the
documents within each group are similar to each other and not to documents of other groups. Quality of
clustering result depends greatly on the representation of text and the clustering algorithm. This paper
presents a comparative analysis of three algorithms namely K-means, Particle swarm Optimization (PSO)
and hybrid PSO+K-means algorithm for clustering of text documents using WordNet. The common way of
representing a text document is bag of terms. The bag of terms representation is often unsatisfactory as it
does not exploit the semantics. In this paper, texts are represented in terms of synsets corresponding to a
word. Bag of terms data representation of text is thus enriched with synonyms from WordNet. K-means,
Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO) and hybrid PSO+K-means algorithms are applied for clustering of
text in Nepali language. Experimental evaluation is performed by using intra cluster similarity and inter
cluster similarity.
EXPLOITING RHETORICAL RELATIONS TO MULTIPLE DOCUMENTS TEXT SUMMARIZATIONIJNSA Journal
Many of previous research have proven that the usage of rhetorical relations is capable to enhance many applications such as text summarization, question answering and natural language generation. This work proposes an approach that expands the benefit of rhetorical relations to address redundancy problem for cluster-based text summarization of multiple documents. We exploited rhetorical relations exist between sentences to group similar sentences into multiple clusters to identify themes of common information. The candidate summary were extracted from these clusters. Then, cluster-based text summarization is performed using Conditional Markov Random Walk Model to measure the saliency scores of the candidate summary. We evaluated our method by measuring the cohesion and separation of the clusters constructed by exploiting rhetorical relations and ROUGE score of generated summaries. The experimental result shows that our method performed well which shows promising potential of applying rhetorical relation in text clustering which benefits text summarization of multiple documents.
Many of previous research have proven that the usage of rhetorical relations is capable to enhance many applications such as text summarization, question answering and natural language generation. This work proposes an approach that expands the benefit of rhetorical relations to address redundancy problem for cluster-based text summarization of multiple documents. We exploited rhetorical relations exist between sentences to group similar sentences into multiple clusters to identify themes of common information. The candidate summary were extracted from these clusters. Then, cluster-based text summarization is performed using Conditional Markov Random Walk Model to measure the saliency scores of the candidate summary. We evaluated our method by measuring the cohesion and separation of the clusters constructed by exploiting rhetorical relations and ROUGE score of generated summaries. The experimental result shows that our method performed well which shows promising potential of applying rhetorical relation in text clustering which benefits text summarization of multiple documents.
Convolutional neural network with binary moth flame optimization for emotion ...IAESIJAI
Electroencephalograph (EEG) signals have the ability of real-time reflecting brain activities. Utilizing the EEG signal for analyzing human emotional states is a common study. The EEG signals of the emotions aren’t distinctive and it is different from one person to another as every one of them has different emotional responses to same stimuli. Which is why, the signals of the EEG are subject dependent and proven to be effective for the subject dependent detection of the Emotions. For the purpose of achieving enhanced accuracy and high true positive rate, the suggested system proposed a binary moth flame optimization (BMFO) algorithm for the process of feature selection and convolutional neural networks (CNNs) for classifications. In this proposal, optimum features are chosen with the use of accuracy as objective function. Ultimately, optimally chosen features are classified after that with the use of a CNN for the purpose of discriminating different emotion states.
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Due the growing proliferation of fake news over the past couple of years, our objective in this paper is to propose an ensemble model for the automatic classification of article news as being either real or fake. For this purpose, we opt for a blending technique that combines three models, namely bidirectional long short-term memory (Bi-LSTM), stochastic gradient descent classifier and ridge classifier. The implementation of the proposed model (i.e. BI-LSR) on real world datasets, has shown outstanding results. In fact, it achieved an accuracy score of 99.16%. Accordingly, this ensemble learning has proven to do perform better than individual conventional machine learning and deep learning models as well as many ensemble learning approaches cited in the literature.
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IJRET : International Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology is an international peer reviewed, online journal published by eSAT Publishing House for the enhancement of research in various disciplines of Engineering and Technology. The aim and scope of the journal is to provide an academic medium and an important reference for the advancement and dissemination of research results that support high-level learning, teaching and research in the fields of Engineering and Technology. We bring together Scientists, Academician, Field Engineers, Scholars and Students of related fields of Engineering and Technology
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International Journal of Engineering and Science Invention (IJESI) is an international journal intended for professionals and researchers in all fields of computer science and electronics. IJESI publishes research articles and reviews within the whole field Engineering Science and Technology, new teaching methods, assessment, validation and the impact of new technologies and it will continue to provide information on the latest trends and developments in this ever-expanding subject. The publications of papers are selected through double peer reviewed to ensure originality, relevance, and readability. The articles published in our journal can be accessed online
SEMANTIC NETWORK BASED MECHANISMS FOR KNOWLEDGE ACQUISITIONcscpconf
This article summarizes research work started with the SeiPro2S (Semantically Enhanced Intellectual Property Protection System) system designed to protect resources from the unauthorized use of intellectual property. The system implements semantic network as a structure of knowledge representation and a new idea of semantic compression. As the author proved that semantic compression is viable concept for English, he decided to focus on potential applications. An algorithm is presented that employing semantic network WiSENet for knowledge acquisition with flexible rules that yield high precision results. Developed algorithm is implemented as a Finite State Automaton with advanced methods for triggering desired actions. Detailed discussion is given with description of devised algorithm, usage examples and results of experiments.
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Sentimental analysis is a context based mining of text, which extracts and identify subjective information from a text or sentence provided. Here the main concept is extracting the sentiment of the text using machine learning techniques such as LSTM Long short term memory . This text classification method analyses the incoming text and determines whether the underlined emotion is positive or negative along with probability associated with that positive or negative statements. Probability depicts the strength of a positive or negative statement, if the probability is close to zero, it implies that the sentiment is strongly negative and if probability is close to1, it means that the statement is strongly positive. Here a web application is created to deploy this model using a Python based micro framework called flask. Many other methods, such as RNN and CNN, are inefficient when compared to LSTM. Dirash A R | Dr. S K Manju Bargavi "LSTM Based Sentiment Analysis" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-5 | Issue-4 , June 2021, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.compapers/ijtsrd42345.pdf Paper URL: https://www.ijtsrd.comcomputer-science/data-processing/42345/lstm-based-sentiment-analysis/dirash-a-r
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Patterns for the internet of things (IoT) which represent proven solutions used to solve design problems in the IoT are numerous. Similar to objectoriented design patterns, these IoT patterns contain multiple mutual heterogeneous relationships. However, these pattern relationships are hidden and virtually unidentified in most documents. In this paper, we use machine learning techniques to automatically mine knowledge graphs to map these relationships between several IoT patterns. The end result is a semantic knowledge graph database which outlines patterns as vertices and their relations as edges. We have identified four main relationships between the IoT patterns-a pattern is similar to another pattern if it addresses the same use case problem, a large-scale pattern uses a small- scale pattern in a lower level layer, a large pattern is composed of multiple smaller scale patterns underneath it, and patterns complement and combine with each other to resolve a given use case problem. Our results show some promising prospects towards the use of machine learning techniques to generate an automated repository to organise the IoT patterns, which are usually extracted at various levels of abstraction and granularity.
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The volume of digitized text documents on the web have been increasing rapidly. As there is huge collection
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EXPLOITING RHETORICAL RELATIONS TO MULTIPLE DOCUMENTS TEXT SUMMARIZATIONIJNSA Journal
Many of previous research have proven that the usage of rhetorical relations is capable to enhance many applications such as text summarization, question answering and natural language generation. This work proposes an approach that expands the benefit of rhetorical relations to address redundancy problem for cluster-based text summarization of multiple documents. We exploited rhetorical relations exist between sentences to group similar sentences into multiple clusters to identify themes of common information. The candidate summary were extracted from these clusters. Then, cluster-based text summarization is performed using Conditional Markov Random Walk Model to measure the saliency scores of the candidate summary. We evaluated our method by measuring the cohesion and separation of the clusters constructed by exploiting rhetorical relations and ROUGE score of generated summaries. The experimental result shows that our method performed well which shows promising potential of applying rhetorical relation in text clustering which benefits text summarization of multiple documents.
Many of previous research have proven that the usage of rhetorical relations is capable to enhance many applications such as text summarization, question answering and natural language generation. This work proposes an approach that expands the benefit of rhetorical relations to address redundancy problem for cluster-based text summarization of multiple documents. We exploited rhetorical relations exist between sentences to group similar sentences into multiple clusters to identify themes of common information. The candidate summary were extracted from these clusters. Then, cluster-based text summarization is performed using Conditional Markov Random Walk Model to measure the saliency scores of the candidate summary. We evaluated our method by measuring the cohesion and separation of the clusters constructed by exploiting rhetorical relations and ROUGE score of generated summaries. The experimental result shows that our method performed well which shows promising potential of applying rhetorical relation in text clustering which benefits text summarization of multiple documents.
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Electroencephalograph (EEG) signals have the ability of real-time reflecting brain activities. Utilizing the EEG signal for analyzing human emotional states is a common study. The EEG signals of the emotions aren’t distinctive and it is different from one person to another as every one of them has different emotional responses to same stimuli. Which is why, the signals of the EEG are subject dependent and proven to be effective for the subject dependent detection of the Emotions. For the purpose of achieving enhanced accuracy and high true positive rate, the suggested system proposed a binary moth flame optimization (BMFO) algorithm for the process of feature selection and convolutional neural networks (CNNs) for classifications. In this proposal, optimum features are chosen with the use of accuracy as objective function. Ultimately, optimally chosen features are classified after that with the use of a CNN for the purpose of discriminating different emotion states.
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Speaker identification is biometrics that classifies or identifies a person from other speakers based on speech characteristics. Recently, deep learning models outperformed conventional machine learning models in speaker identification. Spectrograms of the speech have been used as input in deep learning-based speaker identification using clean speech. However, the performance of speaker identification systems gets degraded under noisy conditions. Cochleograms have shown better results than spectrograms in deep learning-based speaker recognition under noisy and mismatched conditions. Moreover, hybrid convolutional neural network (CNN) and recurrent neural network (RNN) variants have shown better performance than CNN or RNN variants in recent studies. However, there is no attempt conducted to use a hybrid CNN and enhanced RNN variants in speaker identification using cochleogram input to enhance the performance under noisy and mismatched conditions. In this study, a speaker identification using hybrid CNN and the gated recurrent unit (GRU) is proposed for noisy conditions using cochleogram input. VoxCeleb1 audio dataset with real-world noises, white Gaussian noises (WGN) and without additive noises were employed for experiments. The experiment results and the comparison with existing works show that the proposed model performs better than other models in this study and existing works.
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Effect of word embedding vector dimensionality on sentiment analysis through short and long texts
1. IAES International Journal of Artificial Intelligence (IJ-AI)
Vol. 12, No. 2, June 2023, pp. 823~830
ISSN: 2252-8938, DOI: 10.11591/ijai.v12.i2.pp823-830 823
Journal homepage: http://ijai.iaescore.com
Effect of word embedding vector dimensionality on sentiment
analysis through short and long texts
Mohamed Chiny1
, Marouane Chihab1
, Abdelkarim Ait Lahcen1
, Omar Bencharef2
, Younes Chihab1
1
Laboratory of Computer Sciences, Ibn Tofail University, Kenitra, Morocco
2
Department of Computer Sciences, Cadi Ayyad University, Marrakesh, Morocco
Article Info ABSTRACT
Article history:
Received May 8, 2022
Revised Nov 29, 2022
Accepted Dec 12, 2022
Word embedding has become the most popular method of lexical description
in a given context in the natural language processing domain, especially
through the word to vector (Word2Vec) and global vectors (GloVe)
implementations. Since GloVe is a pre-trained model that provides access to
word mapping vectors on many dimensionalities, a large number of
applications rely on its prowess, especially in the field of sentiment analysis.
However, in the literature, we found that in many cases, GloVe is
implemented with arbitrary dimensionalities (often 300d) regardless of the
length of the text to be analyzed. In this work, we conducted a study that
identifies the effect of the dimensionality of word embedding mapping
vectors on short and long texts in a sentiment analysis context. The results
suggest that as the dimensionality of the vectors increases, the performance
metrics of the model also increase for long texts. In contrast, for short texts,
we recorded a threshold at which dimensionality does not matter.
Keywords:
Deep learning
Gated recurrent unit
Global vectors
Sentiment analysis
Word embedding
This is an open access article under the CC BY-SA license.
Corresponding Author:
Mohamed Chiny
Laboratory of Computer Sciences, Ibn Tofail University
Kenitra, Morocco
Email: mohamed.chiny@uit.ac.ma
1. INTRODUCTION
Research fields related to natural language processing, e.g. information retrieval [1], [2], document
classification [3], named entity recognition [4], machine translation [5], sentiment analysis [6], [7],
recommendation systems [8] or audience segmentation [9], [10] have in common that they are problems of
perception related to our senses. Thus, they have always represented a great challenge for researchers
because it is particularly difficult to describe a text using algorithms and mathematical formulas. Therefore,
the first models deployed in this field were based on a certain expertise such as the passage through
grammatical and syntactic rules. Several years have been devoted to research on the exploitation and
transformation of this unstructured data in order to give it meaning. One of the most successful techniques is
word embedding.
The foundations of word embedding were set by the linguistic theory of Zelling Harris, also known
as distributional semantics [11], [12]. This theory states that a word is characterized by its context formed by
the words around it. Therefore, words that share similar contexts also share the same meanings.
Word embedding is a numerical representation of text where words that share the same meaning
also share a similar representation. Word embedding consists of representing each word in the dictionary as
real-valued vectors in a defined vector space. These vectors are often generated using neural network-based
models. As a result, the word embedding technique is often grouped into the deep learning domain. Indeed,
the principle of using neural networks to model high-dimensional discrete distributions has already been
2. ISSN: 2252-8938
Int J Artif Intell, Vol. 12, No. 2, June 2023: 823-830
824
supported for learning the joint probability of a set of random variables where each is likely different in
nature [13]. Thus, the idea of word embedding is to use a dense distributed representation for each word,
which results in vectors composed of dozens or hundreds of dimensions, contrasting with the thousands or
millions of dimensions required for sparse word representations, such as one-hot encoding. Indeed, when
applying one-hot encoding to words, we end up with high-dimensional sparse vectors containing a large
number of zeros. On large datasets, this can lead to performance problems. Moreover, one-hot encoding does
not take into account the semantics of words [14].
The word embedding approach seeks to associate each vocabulary word with a distributed word
feature vector. The feature vector represents various aspects of the word that is associated with a point in a
vector space. The number of features on which words are mapped is significantly smaller than the vocabulary
size. In addition, the semantic relationships between words are reflected in the distance and direction of the
vectors [15].
The idea of identifying similarities between words to generalize training sequences to new
sequences dates back to the early 1990s. For example, it is used in approaches based on learning a grouping
of words. Each word is deterministically or probabilistically associated to a class and words of the same class
have a certain silimarity [16], [17].
In our study, we sought to identify the existence of a correlation between the number of dimensions
of a word embedding vector and the performance of a sentiment analysis model according to the size of the
text to be analyzed. We used a recurrent neural network gated recurrent unit (GRU), whose input was
coupled to the word embedding representation vector using the global vectors (GloVe) model with
dimensionality of 50, 100, 200 and 300, respectively. We computed performance metrics, including accuracy
and F1 score, on short texts from the Twitter Airlines Sentiment dataset and relatively long texts from the
Internet Movie Database dataset. The results of this study show that the dimensions of the word embedding
vectors have a positive impact on the performance metrics for long texts, while these dimensions do not
matter for short texts above a certain threshold.
2. LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1. Word embedding
Among the goals of statistical language modeling is learning the joint probability function of word
sequences in a language. This task is intrinsically difficult because of the high dimensionality. Therefore, a
word sequence on which the model will be evaluated is most likely to be different from all word sequences
seen in training phase. Traditional n-gram based approaches succeed in generalizing by clustering very short
overlapping sequences in the training set. However, the resulting models contain millions of parameters and
thus learning them in a reasonable time is a complex task [15]. From a historical point of view, the encoding
of words according to certain characteristics of their meaning began in the 1950s and 1960s [15]. In
particular, the vector model in information retrieval makes it possible to represent a complete document by a
mathematical object that aims to capture its meaning.
There are two approaches to encoding the context of a word: frequency-based approaches that count
the words co-occurring with a given word in order to create dense vectors of small dimensions [18] and
lexical embeddings that seek to predict a given word using its context or vice versa. This is the case for
example of the word to vector (Word2Vec) algorithm [19]. This last approach relies on artificial neural
networks to build these vectors. These models are trained on very large corpora (up to 1.6 billion words per
day) in order to predict a word from its context or vice-versa. The Word2Vec model has two different
architectures for creating word embeddings; the continuous bag-of-words (CBOW) model which attempts to
predict a word from its neighboring words and the skip-gram model which attempts to predict context words
from a central word [19]. It has been shown that distributed representations based on neural networks
significantly outperform n-gram models [20]–[22]. Furthermore, since it is difficult to determine the exact
number of meanings for each word, as the meaning of the word depends on the context, models such as
adaptive probabilistic word embedding (APWE), where the polysemy of the words is defined on a latent
interpretable semantic space [23] or word sense disambiguation [24] have been proposed.
2.2. GloVe
Recently, methods for learning the vector space of word representations have succeeded each other
in capturing the fine-grained semantics of syntactic regularities using vector arithmetics. Nevertheless, the
origin of these regularities has remained unclear. In order to bring out these regularities in word vectors,
researchers at Stanford University combine the advantages of the two major families of models in the
literature, namely the global matrix factorization and the local contextual window. The result is a pre-trained
model named GloVe [25].
3. Int J Artif Intell ISSN: 2252-8938
Effect of word embedding vector dimensionality on sentiment analysis through short … (Mohamed Chiny)
825
The approach used by the GloVe method for word integration is different. Indeed, it is an
unsupervised learning algorithm that computes vector representations for words. The model is trained on
aggregate word-word co-occurrence statistics of a given corpus. The resulting representations present
interesting linear substructures of the word vector space. In fact, unlike Word2Vec, GloVe does not rely only
on local statistics (information about the local context of words), but integrates global statistics (word co-
occurrence) to generate word vectors [25].
The 50-, 100-, 200-, and 300-dimensional GloVe word vectors were trained on the Wikipedia dump
and the gigaword 5 data corpus. They encode 400,000 tokens as single vectors and all tokens outside the
vocabulary were encoded as a vector of zeros. The richness and robustness of GloVe vectors have allowed it to
be at the heart of many works related to natural language processing as in [26], where the authors introduced an
innovative MapReduce enhanced decision tree classification approach. They used several feature extractors,
including the GloVe model, to efficiently detect and capture relevant data from given tweets. Alexandridis et al.
[27] used various language models to represent social media texts and Greek language text classifiers, using
word embedding implemented by the GloVe model, to detect the polarity of opinions expressed on social
media. The GloVe model has also been used in sentiment analysis models, often associated with a recurrent
neural network module like long sort-term memory (LSTM) or GRU [6], [28], [29].
3. ARCHITECTURE AND METHODOLOGY
The objective of our study is to evaluate the effect of the dimensionality of the word embedding
vectors, implemented by the GloVe model, on the performance metrics related to sentiment analysis within
short and long texts. The training and test data come from the Twitter US Airlines Sentiments [30] and
internet movie database (IMDb) [31] datasets, with an overall average sentence length of 17 and 231 words
respectively. For each dataset, we used the GloVe model implementing 50, 100, 200 and 300 dimensions.
The sentiment analysis is performed using a GRU recurrent neural network. At the output, we retrieved the
binary score of positivity or negativity of the sentiment experienced in the input instances as shown in Figure 1.
Figure 1. Proposed GRU-based sentiment analysis model for the study
3.1. Preprocessing
After cleaning and filtering the data from the two datasets, we proceeded to tokenization which
consists in dividing the text into single occurrences or combinations of several successive occurrences of the
same length. This operation also allows us to map the vocabulary of all the words of the dataset in a
dictionary in order to train our model. We selected 10,000 and 2,000 tweets respectively for the train set and
the test set to represent the short texts and 5,000 and 1,000 IMDb comments respectively for the long texts. In
this study, we used word embedding by implementing the GloVe model which uses vectors of single words.
Therefore, we segmented our sentences into single-word tokens. For each dataset used in this study, the
entries do not have the same length. However, in order for our GRU cell-based model to work properly, we
have defined the same sequence length which corresponds to the number of time steps for the GRU layer
which is the maximum length calculated for a training text (36 tokens in the case of Twitter US Airlines
Sentiments and 2,470 tokens in the case of IMDb).
3.2. Word embedding using GloVe
Word embedding improves text classification by solving the problem of sparse matrix (such as that
resulting from the coding scheme of the bag-of-words model) and word semantics. In our study, we
implemented word embedding using the GloVe model. Learning is performed on global word-word co-
occurrence statistics aggregated from a text. The resulting representations thus show linear substructures of
the word vector space [25].
In order to identify the effect of dimensionality of word embedding vectors. We implemented the
GloVe model with dimensions 50, 100, 200, and 300 for both short and long texts. The dimension used will
have a direct impact on the "Input vocab size" hyperparameter of the GRU model used for sentiment analysis
as shown in Table 1.
4. ISSN: 2252-8938
Int J Artif Intell, Vol. 12, No. 2, June 2023: 823-830
826
3.3. GRU layer
Tokenization GRU, introduced by Cho et al. [32], is a class of recurrent neural networks that aims to
solve the vanishing gradient problem that naturally accompanies traditional recurrent neural networks. This
problem arises when backpropagating through the recurrent neural network during training, especially for
networks with deeper layers [33], [34]. GRU is similar to the LSTM networks of the recurrent neural network
class with a forgetting gate [35], but without the exit gate that characterizes LSTMs [33]. The performance of
GRU on some tasks, in this case natural language processing, is similar to that of LSTMs [36], [37]. In
addition, the implementation of GRU is simpler and less expensive in terms of computing power. For our
study, we implemented the GRU layer with the hyerparameters shown in Table 1, in order to handle short
texts (Twitter Airlines Sentiment) and long texts (IMDb).
Table 1. Hyperparameters applied to the GRU model deployed for sentiment analysis
Hyperparameter Short text (Twitter) Long text (IMDb)
Input vocabulary size 36 2,470
Output embedding dim. 50, 100, 200, 300 50, 100, 200, 300
GRU layer internal units 256 256
Optimizer Adam Adam
Loss Categ. Crossentropy Categ. Crossentropy
Activation function Softmax Softmax
3.4. Softmax layer
Softmax constitutes a generalization of logistic regression. It can be used in the case of multi-class
classification. The softmax function transforms a K real values vector into a vector of the same dimension
whose values add up to 1 (1). Thus, the softmax transforms the input values into values between 0 and 1. The
latter can thus be interpreted as a normalized probability distribution.
𝜎(𝑧)𝑗 =
𝑒
𝑧𝑗
∑ 𝑒𝑧𝑘
𝐾
𝑘=1
𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑗 ∈ {1, … , 𝐾} (1)
In practice, most multilayer neural networks end with a softmax layer that produces scaled real-
valued scores that are easier to manipulate in further processing [6]. Indeed, in our work, we used the
softmax layer that delivers two probability scores that represent the positivity and negativity of the input
model text. The higher probability characterizes the overall binary sentiment experienced in the input
sentence.
4. RESULTS
4.1. Evaluation of the dimensionality of word embedding on short texts
In practice, To the input of our model as shown in Figure 1, we applied texts from the Twitter US
Airlines Sentiments dataset with an average length of 17 words. The longest tweet is 36 words. In the word
embedding layer, we applied the GloVe model with the vectors of 50, 100, 200 and 300 dimensions
respectively.
We can see that the accuracy of the model is 0.904 if we apply the word embedding by
implementing the GloVe model whose words are mapped on 50 dimensions. This accuracy is 0.943, 0.944
and 0.946 if we increase the dimensionality of the word embedding to 100, 200 and 300 respectively as
shown in Table 2. As for the F1 score (4), which summarizes the values of accuracy (2) and recall (3) as a
harmonic mean, it is worth 0.721, 0.754, 0.747 and 0.773 with the respective dimensionalities of 50, 100, 200
and 300.
𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 =
𝑇𝑟𝑢𝑒 𝑃𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒
𝑇𝑟𝑢𝑒 𝑃𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 + 𝐹𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑒 𝑃𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒
(2)
𝑅𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙 =
𝑇𝑟𝑢𝑒 𝑃𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒
𝑇𝑟𝑢𝑒 𝑃𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 + 𝐹𝑎𝑙𝑠𝑒 𝑁𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒
(3)
𝐹1 = 2 ∗
𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 ∗ 𝑅𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙
𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 + 𝑅𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙
(4)
We can subtly see that both performance metrics increase from dimensionality 50 to 100 as shown
in Figure 2. However, accuracy remains almost constant from dimensionality 100 onwards. As for the F1
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827
score, it climbs slightly beyond this threshold (after having recorded a slight drop for dimensionality 200). As
for the accuracy, its maximum value (0.805) was recorded for dimensionality 50.
Table 2. Performance metrics for short texts according to the different dimensionalities of the GloVe model
Dimentionality Accuracy Precision Recall F1 Score
50d 0.904 0.805 0.652 0.721
100d 0.943 0.744 0.764 0.754
200d 0.944 0.672 0.840 0.747
300d 0.946 0.789 0.758 0.773
4.2. Evaluation of the dimensionality of word embedding on long texts
Concerning the long texts which come from the IMDb dataset, the average length of the comments
is 231 words. The longest comment is 2,470 words. As for the short texts, we applied the same dimensions in
the word embedding layer and kept the same hyperparameters as shown in Table 1. The performance metrics
for this dataset have been reported in Table 3.
As can be seen, all performance metrics increase as the dimensionality of the word embedding
increases as shown in Figure 3. Indeed, the accuracy increases from 0.686 for dimensionality 50 to 0.854 for
dimensionality 300. The F1 score increases from 0.711 to 0.854. Precision and recall also increase
significantly from 0.830 and 0.622 to 0.918 and 0.8 respectively. Therefore, it seems justified that one could
extrapolate the observed results and deduce that the performance metrics concerning sentiment analysis in
long texts will continue to evolve positively as the dimensionality of the vectors used for word embedding
increases, at least up to a certain threshold that is greater than or equal to the 300d dimensionality.
Table 3. Performance metrics for long texts according to the different dimensionalities of the GloVe model
Dimentionality Accuracy Precision Recall F1 Score
50d 0.686 0.830 0.622 0.711
100d 0.784 0.830 0.739 0.782
200d 0.825 0.891 0.770 0.826
300d 0.854 0.918 0.800 0.854
Figure 2. Graphical representation of the evolution of
performance metrics for short texts
Figure 3. Graphical representation of the evolution of
performance metrics for long texts
5. DISCUSSION
The results of our study clearly indicate that for long texts, such as IMDb comments, the
performance metrics evolve as the dimensionality of the word embedding increases. On the other hand, for
short texts such as tweets, we found that the performance metrics, in this case accuracy and F1 score which
combines precision and recall, increase up to the 100d dimensionality threshold and then stabilize. Indeed,
even if the dimensionality increases after reaching the 100d threshold, we notice that the model is almost
insensitive to it. This behavior suggests to us that there are probably dimensions in the word mapping vector
whose utility is minimized. We attribute this to the existence of dimensions that likely have anomalies in the
GloVe model due to some parameters not being set to optimized global values [38]. The effect of these
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anomalies is revealed in the case of short texts like tweets. This is likely due to the difficulty encountered
when disambiguating words in such texts [39].
Therefore, it would be wise to adopt the minimum dimensionality that ensures the best performance
in order to optimize the use of computational resources. Indeed, word embedding with a small dimensionality
is generally not expressive enough to capture all possible word relations, while a very large dimensionality is
subject to over-fitting. In addition, the number of parameters for a word embedding or a model that relies on
word embeddings, such as recurrent neural networks, is usually a linear or quadratic function of
dimensionality, which affects training time and computational costs [40]. Our study showed that this
dimensionality is 100d for short texts, such as tweets or comments related to blog posts and 300d for long
texts, such as IMDb comments or reviews left on Airbnb [41]. Indeed, mapping each word of the corpus on
such a large number of dimensions, and even more so if the corpus is large, could increase the complexity of
the model, slow down the training speed and add inferential latency, which has as a direct consequence, the
impossibility to deploy the model on real tasks.
6. CONCLUSION
The content generated by users of microblogs, such as social networks or opinion sharing sites, is a
rich and abundant source of opinions and information. If carefully studied, it offers great potential for
extracting useful and precious knowledge, in this case in terms of sentiment analysis, which aims to identify
the opinion and subjectivity of people's feedback from unstructured text written in natural language. The
machine learning models involved in performing sentiment analysis very often require mapping the input text
into vectors that contain real values. This statistical modeling of language involves learning the joint
probability function of sequences of words in a language, but which is marked by high dimensionality. There
are solutions, such as n-grams, which give the possibility to obtain a generalization of overlapping word
sequences, but they result in models that contain an excessively large number of parameters, which makes it
impossible to train them in a reasonable time. The solution to such a problem consists in word embedding
which is a vector model in information retrieval and which allows to represent a complete document by a
mathematical object which aims at elucidating its meaning. Although the Word2vec model is a reference in
terms of word embedding, the GloVe model, which is an unsupervised learning algorithm allowing to obtain
vector representations of words, also seems to be very popular in some natural language processing-related
domains such as sentiment analysis. GloVe allows to map the words of the dictionary on vectors of several
dimensions, the most frequent being 50d, 100d, 200d and 300d. In our study, we investigated whether the
dimensionality of the vector implementing the GloVe model can have an impact on performance metrics in
relation to sentiment analysis for short and long texts. We therefore integrated GloVe into a sentiment
analysis model based on GRU recurrent neural networks. Then, we trained it on corpora coming from the
Twitter US Airlines Sentiments dataset which contains short texts and the IMDb dataset which contains
relatively long texts. Each time, we applied a word mapping through vectors that implement the word
embedding using the Glove model with a different dimensionality, in this case 50d, 100d, 200d and 300d.
The results suggest that for short texts, the performance metrics (i.e., accuracy and F1 score) increase up to
the 100d threshold and then stabilize. Thus, the use of word embedding through higher dimensionality
vectors has almost no impact on the performance of our sentiment analysis model. On the other hand, for
long text, we found that performance metrics increase the more we use word embedding across higher
dimensionality vectors. Therefore, in order to optimize computational resources, we suggest using 100-
dimensional word mapping through the GloVe model for short texts. On the other hand, it is recommended to
use a word mapping with high dimensionality for long texts, within the limit that allows to find a
compromise between the resources and the computational time on the one hand and the targeted performance
metrics on the other hand.
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BIOGRAPHIES OF AUTHORS
Mohamed Chiny is an engineer at Cadi Ayyad University in Marrakech,
Morocco. He obtained a Master in networks and systems. He is a specialist in web
development and application security. He is conducting research in the field of artificial
intelligence, including deep learning and natural language processing. He can be contacted at
email: mohamed.chiny@uit.ac.ma.
Marouane Chihab obtained a Master degree in in jully 2019 from the Faculty of
Sciences, University of Mohammed V, Rabat, Morocco. Currently he is a PhD student at the
Computer Sciences Research Laboratory (Lari), Faculty of Sciences, Ibn Tofail University,
Kenetra, Morocco. His research concerns artificial intelligence, and its applications. He can be
contacted at email: marouane.chihab2@gmail.com.
Abdelkarim Ait Lahcen holds an Engineering Diploma in Computer Science,
Networking & Telecommunications, besides several professional certificates and skills. He is
currently the Head of Information Systems and Digital Resources Department at Cadi Ayyad
University, Marrakesh, Morocco. He is a PhD Student and His research areas of interest
includes artificial intelligence, machine learning, global optimization and data mining. He can
be contacted at email: a.aitlahcen@uca.ac.ma.
Dr. Omar Bencharef received the D.Sc. degree (Doctor Habilitatus D.Sc.) in
computer science from the Faculty of Sciences and Technology, Cadi Ayyad University,
Marrakech, Morocco, in April 2018. he is a Professor of Computer Science in the Faculty of
Sciences and Technology, Cadi Ayyad University, since 2013. His research interests include
the signal and image processing and coding, networking and artificial intelligence. He can be
contacted at email: o.bencharef@uca.ac.ma.
Dr. Younes Chihab received the doctorate thesis in Network Security from the
Faculty of Sciences in the Cadi Ayyad University, Marrakech, Morocco, in December 2013.
His research was in artificial intelligence, signal processing and machine learning. In 2019, He
received the PHD degree in Computer Sciences from the Faculty of Sciences, Ibn Tofail
University, Kenitra, Morocco. His research focuses on signal and image processing and
coding, networks and artificial intelligence. He is currently a professor and member of the
Computer Sciences Research Laboratory (Lari), Superior School of Technology, Ibn Tofail
University, Kenetra, Morocco. He can be contacted at email: younes.chihab@uit.ac.ma.