Ef 300 notes

Matteo E. Mwita Philosophy of Education
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EF 300
PHILOSPHY OF EDUCATION
Conceptualizing philosophy of Education
Basic Concepts in Philosophy of Education
Philosophy
Education
Philosophy of education
How does philosophy helps one as a teacher
Before defining the above outlined terms, it is essential to understand what does the term definition
entails; the word definition is derived from a Latin word de-fainare, whereby the prefix de-means to
set, while fainare means boundary. Therefore the word “define” means to set a boundary or make
demarcation. Boundary has two primary functions; first, boundary aims at excluding things which
are outside from entering inside and secondly; it includes what is required. Thence to define is to
say what belongs and what does not belong in the concept that is what is included and what is
excluded in the particular concept.
Types of definitions
Literal/etymological definition; this means the linguistic concept of the word or the original
of the concept
Descriptive definition; this entails the popular use of the term, it is sometimes referred to as
layman‟s definition
Prescriptive definition; is the technical/expert definition or the definition which is usually
used by the professions in different fields or professionals
Stipulative definition; this type of definition involve the personal use of the term that is how
the person perceives the term.
What is Philosophy
Etymological Definition
The word philosophy is derived from two Greek words Philein which means to love, to seek, to
yearn for search for (philo-a friend, seeker) and Sophia- which means wisdom which includes
knowledge. Therefore philosophy is the love for/search for wisdom; it is a critical mind which takes
nothing for granted; a questioning posture.
Descriptive Definition
Philosophy is a set of principles/values which guide an aspect of life. Things that guides a person in
life can be principles, believes values etc. For example, the philosophy of teaching. (What are the

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basic believes, values or principles that guide one in education. These principles believes and values
come from different sources such as; Religion, Education (learning) and Society.
Prescriptive/technical/professional Definition
Technically philosophy is a discipline like any other disciplines and one can looks at philosophy as a
discipline in three aspects;
Body of knowledge
Set of activities
Attitude of mind
Philosophy is perceived as a body of knowledge developed by philosophers trying to address four
issues around which four braches of philosophy exist;
(i) Issues of Reality (Metaphysics)
(ii) Issues of knowledge/truth (Epistemology)
(iii) Issues of Values(Axiology)
(iv) Issues of correct reasoning/inference (Logic)
Metaphysics
The term „metaphysics‟ in its original meaning refers to what goes beyond (meta) physics, beyond the
study of the nature. Metaphysics is a branch of philosophy that deals with questions that are
concerned with what lies after or beyond the physical world of sense experience. Hence metaphysics
came to be concerned with physical reality as well as the reality that transcends or goes above the
material world, or reality that cannot be reached by mere human sensory experiences. Metaphysics
addresses itself with questions like what is the mind? What is existence? What is living? What is the purpose of
living? Metaphysics has four sub-branches including;
i. Cosmology; which is the study of the nature of the universe. It is a „science‟ of the origin,
nature and the structure of the universe as a whole.
ii. Theology; which is the study of religious beliefs. It studies questions related to God, probing,
for instance, whether there is a God or not. Are there such beings as Angels and Satan? If,
yes what is their relationship to God?
iii. Ontology; which is the study of existence. It deals with questions such as the meaning of
existence and of existing, what exists, and so on.
iv. Anthropology, which is the study of man both as an object and as a subject of inquiry. The
wide ranging of questions are about the relationship of mind and body; about nature of our
moral status; whether man is born goo, evil or neutral; whether he is born free and the

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nature of that freedom; whether it is man‟s environment or his genetic inheritance that
determines free will or not; and whether humans have a soul.
Issues impotence in teacher Education in relation to metaphysics
To be effective a teacher needs to understand the nature of human beings as opposed to sub-
humans. He needs to critically examine his beliefs, perceptions, assumptions and values about the
nature of the learner which fundamentally shape/influence the way he/she educates. For example
should we regard learners to empty receptacles of knowledge or subjects with talents and potential
that needs identification, nurturance and development through education.
Epistemology
Epistemology is the study (logia) of knowledge (episteme); it is a term that dates back to ancient
Greece. As a branch of philosophy, epistemology involves philosophical reflection on issues related
to knowledge. Such as the nature, theory and sources of knowledge, as well as approaches, methods
and techniques by which knowledge is acquired. It seeks to answer such questions as: what does it
mean to ‘know’? What are the sources of knowledge? What is truth? How do we come to know? What can we know?
Epistemology has identified several sources of knowledge including; sense, intuition (immediate
insight), reasoning, practice, revelation/faith and existence. These, has been grouped into five
sources as follow;
(i) Empirical Knowledge; knowledge derived from the sense is referred to as empirical knowledge.
Empiricism is the approach to knowledge through the most practically verifiable and most
reliable means. It is argued that people form a picture of the world around them primarily b
seeing, hearing, smelling, feeling and tasting.
(ii) Revealed Knowledge; revelation is God‟s communication regarding the dive will. The truth
through this method is said to be absolute and uncontaminated.
(iii) Authoritative Knowledge; authoritative knowledge is that kind of knowledge is that kind of
information that originates with experts or has been made authoritative over time by
tradition.
(iv) Rational Knowledge; rational knowledge is derived from reasoning. The rationalist, emphasizing
man‟s power of thought and what he mind contributes to knowledge.
(v) Intuitive Knowledge; intuition involves an instance of coming to know without having gone
through the formal process of reasoning or of an intermediate stage of thinking or sensory
perception. It occurs beyond consciousness and is experience as a sudden flash of insight. It
is a personal way of knowing, in which there is a direct apprehension of perspective,
accompanied by an intense conviction that one has discovered what one was/is looking for.
Issues impotence in teacher Education in relation to Epistemology

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One function of teaching is to impart knowledge and truth. It is therefore significant that a teacher
has a clear notion of what knowledge is, its sources and mode of its validation. Teaches therefore,
should be able to distinguish knowledge from mere belief. Effective methods of teaching capitalize
on knowledge about the source of knowledge.
Axiology
Axiology is the philosophical study of values; the term has been derived from the Greek words logia
(study) and axia (value). It is a branch of philosophy that studies questions like: what are values? How
many types of values are there (material, spiritual, cultural, ethical)? Are values absolute or relative? What values
should education pursue? Axiology is a very broad area of study with several sub-branches, each dealing
with a different set of values. In this work only two branches are discussed;
(i) Ethics or Moral Philosophy, which reflects on the origin and nature of moral values; it
inquires into the meaning of what is right and wrong, thereby distinguishing between the
good of individual and the good of society.
(ii) Aesthetic is also part of axiology; it is the philosophical study of artistic values and is
accordingly interested in the meaning of beauty and art. It studies questions related to
the nature of beauty, especially in art, and the criteria and standards of evaluating art. It is
an area of philosophy that deals with judgments about the value of specific forms of
music, literature and visual art.
Issues impotence in teacher Education in relation to Axiology
One of the main functions of teaching is to pass on from (old) generation to another cultural
heritage of values/beliefs/ideals which make life worthwhile. The teaching profession is actually
guided by an ethical code of conduct to ensure that the teachers are committed to their work for the
benefit of learners.
Logic
Logic may be defined as the study of correct reasoning; it studies the structure and principles of
sound arguments. In logic, interest is in examining the correctness of the products of reasoning and
the grounds or premises on which they rest. The basic aim of logic, as a subject, is to teach us to
reason-to present our thoughts and statements-correctly. Reasoning is here defined as the process of
collecting evidence, weighing it and draws conclusions on the basis of those sets of activities. By
“correct reasoning” we mean finding reasons and evidence that in fact support the claim or
statement we have made and prove the conclusion we have arrived at. Therefore logic is an
indispensable tool for correct reasoning, because it studies how arguments are to be constructed and
how fallacies can be detected and avoided. Logic deals with the issues like; what is inference/reasoning?
What are the types of reasoning? What are the rules of clear and correct reasoning? What are fallacies? Within
traditional or classical logic a distinction is often made between deductive and inductive reasoning

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(i) Deductive reasoning is a process of reasoning whereby a particular conclusion is inferred or
deduced from general premises. These premises often take the form of general statements or
propositions. They are like general principles or axioms that provide the starting point for
deductive reasoning.
(ii) Inductive reason, by contrast, is a process whereby a general law or conclusion is inferred from
particular instances: this process is the reverse of deductive reasoning, as it starts from the
particular and reasons to the general.
Issues impotence in teacher Education in relation to Logic
The promotion of clear, critical and creative thinking is one of the greatest objectives of education.
Needless to say, the teacher will be able to do his job effectively if he/she has acquired skills of
logical analysis, reasoning and meaning clarification. His/her teaching is likely to be effective if
message she wants to impart has been arranged logically and convincingly. After all, all human being
are essentially rational.
Philosophy is defined as a set of activities that philosophers perform: speculation (synthesis),
critical analysis, prescription of norms, values and principles or ideas we should strive for and against
which to judge practice, and introspection (meditation). The detailed description of the named
activities is as follows;
Speculation is an attempt to think in the most general and systematic way about anything in the
universe. It is sometimes referred to as armchair thinking. Contemplation of metaphysical issues
such as: which is primary between matter and idea? What is the nature of human being? Is reality
material or spiritual?
Analysis involves scrutinizing our use of language in an attempt to clarify what we say that is
breaking down the known materials into their constituent parts such as the relative hierarchy of
ideas to clarify them or determine their relationships. Analysis involves a critical examination of the
words we use as well as the statement we make. Examination is also done on the use of logic in
argument by testing the premises on which conclusion rest, making distinctions between statements
of fact and those of value judgment and between facts and assumptions, which are inherent in
educational discourse.
Prescription also known as the normative function of philosophy, seeks to establish norms and
standards of performance and conduct. It sets out the goals and ideals to guide practices and criteria
for evaluating achievement of the goals. Prescriptions are found I expressions of how people “ought
to” act or react in a given situation. In the course of prescribing we also define what is good and
what is bad; what is right and what is wrong; what is beautiful and what is ugly. The aim of
prescriptive philosophy is to discover and illuminate principles for deciding what actions or qualities
are most worthwhile.

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Philosophy is as well technically defined as attitude of mind or mind set. In this aspect philosophy
involves three main aspects, namely awareness of our biases, desire for completeness and openness
to learning.
Awareness of our biases; philosophers have first of all been as honest with themselves as possible when
it comes to personal biases, assumptions and prejudices. It is only when we become aware of the
effect of our predispositions on our view of reality that we can effectively take them into account
both in interpretation and in communication. So the first aspect of philosophy as a attitude of mind
is the need for self-awareness and a commitment to be honest with oneself in examining our biases,
assumptions and prejudices that might hinder our understanding of reality.
Desire for completeness; this involves an inclination towards collecting as much relevant information on
a subject as is possible from a wide variety of sources before coming to a conclusion. This involves
an attitude of never being satisfied with the knowledge as currently available, but rather a desire to
go deep into the problem and gather more information. Philosophers are by their nature, never
satisfied with the knowledge they posses or that put forward by others. They continuously believe
that thee is much more to be learned about anything. Knowledge has no end.
Openness to learning; related to this attitude of mind is an expectation that philosophers should be able
to change positions with regard to certain phenomena in the light of adequate new evidence, which
brings earlier understanding to question. Learning is here defined as a process of changing from a
state of ignorance to a state of knowledge, from a certain stage or level of understanding to a higher
stage or level. Openness to learn is the heart of philosophy. It is an attitude that encompasses the
desire to learn by perceiving old problems in new ways. Openness to learning includes the ability to
envision viable alternatives to a viewpoint and the readiness to make an adequate assessment of new
evidence as well as to decide on position that is most reasonably.
In a nutshell, teachers should ask themselves what type of mind set should be imparted to the
students. Philosophy helps the teacher to have inquiring mind as well as imparting such knowledge
to students. Teachers should critically ask questions not taking anything for granted even to the
things which seem obvious.
What is Education
Etymological Definition
Etymologically education is derived from two Latin expressions, namely Educare which means to
rear, to bring up, to nurture as does a gardener to young delicate plants. (It connotes the idea of a

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learner as an empty receptable to be filled with content) and Educere which means to lead out, to
unfold and develop. (It connotes Education as talent identification and development).
In the first assumption the teacher will not identify the talent of the student while, the second
assumption focuses on identifying the talent of student. In Tanzanian Education system the second
assumption is not embraced.
Descriptive Definition
Education is regarded as formal schooling. Many people equate education with the schooling that is
the process of schooling especially formal education. There are many agents carrying education such
as; school, religion, peers, media, work place. The school is most trusted agent of Education. In this
regard Ivan Illich advocates “deschooling society” by shedding off education responsibility from the
school to other agencies which are also responsible for educating e.g. parents.
Prescriptive/technical/professional Definition
Defining education professionally or technically one has to consider the following dimensions;
i. Process dimension
ii. Content dimension
iii. End point/outcome
iv. The context/setting in which the process takes place.
Process Dimension
Process dimension can either belong to the following aspects;
Educare
Educere
Create a future
In Educare education is viewed as the process of transmission/assimilation of culture heritage. That
is the teacher transmits and the students assimilates the culture heritage. Whereas, in Educere
education is perceived as the process of identification and development of creative talents. That is
the sole responsibility of the teacher is to identify the talents of student in order to change the
environment to suit his/her needs (identify/develop and engage student). In Educare there are a lot
of failures but under Educare, there are no failures because the responsibility of education is to
identify and develop the talents of the learners.
In creating a future, education is said to be a process of preparing the learners to cope with challenges
in a foreseeable future. That is a process of creating a future. Education should produce the
graduates who dare to dream about the future. Not only dreaming but also set standards (prescribe)
quality of life. An educated person should be able to move from the state where he/she is in to a
better state. S/he should set standard of life and see how can the set plans and strategies help

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him/her achieve the predetermined goals. The better future is achievable only if it relates with
present and the past.
Content Dimension
If education is transmission the, the content is organized through cultural heritage. The cultural
heritage has to do with knowledge, skills, values and attitudes. This is organized through subjects,
groups of subjects or interdisciplinary fields of study. And if it is perceived as the process of
identification and development of creative talents then, the content or curriculum will be talent
based(occupational activities). When education is regarded as a process of preparing the learners to
cope with challenges in a foreseeable future, then the content is organized on society problems.
End point/outcome
As outcome education is perceived as liberation from and liberation to decide and do things. It is
conceptualized as self-realization, as development, as civilization, as transformation, as
humanization, as self-reliance.
The context/setting in which the process takes place
There are three contexts in which the process of education occur; that is Formal Education,
Information Education and Non formal Education.
Formal Education
Formal education is an officially instituted and highly controlled education set up. It is in most
countries by law or parliamentary acts. For example in Tanzania the Education Act No. 25 of 1978
is a statute that was enacted on formal education in the country. Thus formal education is highly
systematic and orderly in term of who is to enroll it, to teach, the objectives and contents as well as
methods of the curriculum and the awards to give the learners that achieve and merit such
educational rewards. Formal education is systematically designed, organized and run according to
precise curriculum descriptions.
Informal Education
Informal education is a natural spontaneous process of acquiring knowledge, skills and attitudes
from day-to-day experiences as the individual interacts with stimuli in his environment. According to
B.F. Skinner (1960) the organism learns by emitting spontaneous operant responses on its
environment. John Dewey (1938) proposed that because the world around us keeps in changing we
need to keep on learning how to deal with it at every point in time. A human individual cannot stop
learning; he must go on learning in order to keep abreast with continuously changing conditions
around him. This in essence is informal learning, which spontaneously all the time.

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Nonformal Education
This is an organized set of educational activities provided outside the school or formal educational
system. The concept of nonformal education arises from the distinction made between education
and schooling. Educational scholars realized that people who had no opportunity to enroll in the
school system ought not be ignored or denied organized education. Educational planners saw the
chance of providing education outside the school or formal official system. The provision of
nonformal education is conceived as a complementary of the provision of formal education.
What is philosophy of Education
Philosophy of Education is the application of the meaning and methods of philosophy in order to
clarify issues and problems in education. This can be looked at how philosopher put knowledge in
education or those activities of philosophy in education which create attitude of philosophy to
students. The study of philosophy of education aims at helping current and future educators bring to
the fore the question of the meaning and purpose of education in society. this is achieved through
grappling with questions related to the nature of reality, the meaning and source of knowledge, the
meaning and source of valuation and the role that critical analysis plays in understanding the purpose
and meaning of education. This would involve exposing students to the fundamental questions of
education, enabling them to evaluate the wide variety of suggestions offered as solutions to those
problems, clarifying their thinking about the goals of education and guiding them in developing
educational programmes that re imbued with purpose.
PHILOSOPHY AND EDUCATIONAL AIMS
What Educational Policy should guide the poor country?
What Philosophy of Education is suitable for poor country?
Introduction
Philosophy guides the policy of education. The policy is principles, ideals, values which guides the
education. The prominent, all-time leader and the founding father of Tanzania once commented on
the type of educational policy poor counties should embrace. He said education
Should be universal that is everyone should get education. No one should be left out as far as
education provision is considered because education is one of the basic human rights. He argued
that people dominate others through education. He stressed that it is only education which provide
fair grounds for competition that is through education even poor people can fairly compete with
reach people. Therefore poor countries should democratize education.
Should be of good quality, primary education in particular should be excellent; for this is the only formal
education that most Tanzanians are likely to receive. At present the quality of our primary school
education is appalling. We must do something about it, as a matter of National urgency. Apart from
the fact that it is the education of the vast majority of the citizens of Tanzania, it is also the

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foundation of the whole of our Education System. If it is poor the rest of our Education System is
bound to suffer.
Should be relevant, we must educate our young people for the real life which they are going to live in
Tanzania. Even as we prepare ourselves-as we must prepare ourselves-for a competitive life in the
Global village, we must not forget that our corner in that Global village is in Tanzania: and for most
Tanzanians that corner is going to be in rural Tanzania or the informal sector of urban Tanzania.
Our educators must bear that in mind all the time. In the parlance of to-day: we must educate for the
demands of the market. A few of our people, will receive an education which will probably enable
them to live and work anywhere in the world. But the majority of our people will live and work in
Tanzania. We need to arm them with the attitudes and skills which will help them to do successfully.
We cannot ignore that fact of a Globalization and a liberalization driven by Capitalism and the profit
motive, and still hope to compete successfully in the Global Free Market. But in real life in Tanzania
“the Market” for a long time to come will be mostly in the field of self-employment. For although
to-day some 15 percent of primary school leavers do enter form I, and although also there has been
considerable expansion of Tertiary Education, the majority of our citizens will not be educated
beyond the primary level. They will continue to live and work for themselves in the villages. Indeed,
not even all those who will be lucky enough to receive secondary or Tertiary Education will be able
to find salaried employment. The kind of education which we give to these young people before
they go “into the world,” should be a matter of great national concern. If they can secure paid
employment, wel and good; but their education must prepare them to be self-reliant and self-
employed if they cannot secure such paid employment. Perhaps in the language of to-day we should
say that education should help the young to develop a spirit of private enterprise.
Should be socially responsible, poor country like Tanzania cannot afford to educate the selfish. It invests
in education in the belief that such investment is good for both the individual concerned and for the
community as a whole. In the language of yesterday: Education for Self-Reliance, especially at the
higher level, should be Education for service. Not all of us will have the same concept of
community, but all of us have a need to belong. However, socially insensitive we may be, we have a
need to belong to a community of fellow human beings. No human being can make it alone.
Nobody is asking us to love others more than we love ourselves; but those of us who have been
lucky enough to receive a good education have a duty also to help to improve the well-being of the
community to which we belong.
Five principles which should govern Education in Poor Countries
(i) Conscientization; Education should emphasize on conscientization; conscientization is
to rise awareness, the ability to analyze critically about reality. It entails making some one
conscious of the reality one is in. Paul Freire stipulate three phases of conscientization;
To make people realize that they are oppressed (People should realize that they
are oppressed)
To bring people to a knowledge that they can do something that is to see that the
problems they have can be solved

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To mobilize people to undertake the change that is to take action
Julius Nyerere came up with four phases of conscientization;
To arouse or ignite a desire or urge for change (to remove apathy)
To create an understanding and belief that change is possible
To facilitate or help the oppressed to work out or determine the kind of change
they need and want
To facilitate working out how to create or bring desired change.
Therefore good policy of education should focus on changing the wrong beliefs,
attitudes, values and replace them with new and right belief, attitudes, and values. It
should change the perception especially the wrong perceptions about development.
(ii) Education should be democratized. Democratized education is the education which
is based on the will of the people. The views of people are taken into account in making
decisions pertaining education matters. Therefore under this principle everyone should
get education without any discrimination. People should control education and
education given should be of quality and relevant to them. The country should have
power over education.
(iii) Education should be integrated with production/economy. Economy and
education should go together; it should reflect the economy of the country. Economy is
bout production, distribution and consumption. Therefore education should touch every
aspect of Economy of the country.
(iv) Education should focus on science and technology. Science is perceived as a
process or way of knowing and technology as the application of scientific principles in
order to develop product or means that solve certain specific social problems and
therefore education should aim at understanding and changing the environment where
ones belong hence bring development.
(v) Education should be a lifelong learning. Life long learning can be defined as a
continuous-hence endless-process of acquiring knowledge, skills and attitudes, a process
that begins from birth and ends only with death, and with its purpose and forms adapted
to needs of individuals at different stages in their lives. Lifelong learning is considered to
be necessary because societies and Tanzania in particular is facing rapid social and
technological changes on an unprecedented scale. The implication of this knowledge
explosion is that the knowledge acquired in school is rapidly becoming absolute,
indicating a constant need for the individual to learn further, to learn the same tasks, to
unlearn others or else to learn completely new tasks sooner or later after formal
education. Therefore, good educational policy should stress the need of lifelong learning
in order to insure that peoples‟ skills and abilities are developed, reinforced or sharpened
adequately to meet the increasingly complex challenges posed by the criss-crossing global
situations.
Such philosophy of Education should aim at achieving liberation and development. These two terms
sum up the aspirations of poor counties though there is no any country in this world which can

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achieve complete liberation and development. The two terms remain elusive goals. The terms are
distinct but not separate.
What is Liberation?
Liberation is to set one free from some kind of bondage that is what hinders someone from doing
what s/he desires and achieve his/her goal. Liberation is also perceived as negative freedom. Once one
has achieved negative freedom s/he moves to the second level of achievement that is to do
something which is perceived as freedom of exercise. Therefore two types of freedom are distinguished;
Freedom from bound (negative) and Freedom to do something (exercise). The concept of to do implies that
people have to make need assessment, plan, set strategies as well as to act in order to achieve the
goals set. The term liberation has two aspects namely; negative freedom and development. Thence, the
liberation embodies development.
What is Development?
The term development is referred to as a process and outcome. Therefore development is historical,
nonlinear, complex activities. The historical process of development embraces past- which indicates
what a person/society has achieved. Present-what type of struggle one/society engages in? Is it the
struggle against forces of nature, bondage, or oppressive man made forces, social oppression that
hinders a person/society from being what he/she/it wants to be? Future- in the aspect of future
development is seen as a goal but elusive goal that is an aspiration, ideal/vision of what one/society
want to become or achieve. (Development is to choose what type of future one/society wants to
achieve. The future is something one chooses and plans for).
Dimensions of Development
Liberation of mental development (this is also known as cultural aspect). This involves
changes in thinking as well as change in attitudes.
Economic aspect (ability to produce)
Socio-political aspect (how should society be organized, or one organize him/herself)
Technological aspect
In a nutshell development can be looked at as the process which is nonlinear complex and historical
which embraces past achievements, current struggle and future achievements one/society aspires in
terms of better life culturally, economically, socio-politically and technologically. The aim of all
process is aspiration for change which can either be qualitative or quantitative or both qualitative
and quantitative change of life.
There four principles of Education are intertwined in four aspects of development;
(i) Mental/culture-lifelong learning/conscientization
(ii) Economy-integrating education with production that is education should go together
with economy. Grandaunts should make different in production.

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(iii) Social-political- democratization of education, people should have power on education
(iv) Technology- science and technology; education should embrace science and technology
in order to understand and have the tool to control the nature.
Education for Self-Reliance
In March 1967, president Julius K. Nyerere issued the first of his post Arusha directives on
education. It analyses the system and attitudes of education as they had evolved in Tanganyika and
demand on educational revolution-a re-casting of the system in the light of Tanzania‟s needs and
social objectives.
Before particularly in colonial era, education was perceived as a training for the skills required to
earn high salaries in the modern sectors of our economy. The independent state of Tanzania in fact
inherited a system of education which was in many aspects both inadequate and inappropriate for
the new state.
Education for Self-Reliance was introduced mainly for two reasons; first, a critique of colonial
Education system and secondly, propose of a new system of education for post independent in
Tanzania only when we are clear about the kind of society we are trying to build can we design our
educational service to serve our goals……the values and objectives of our society have been stated
many times. We have said that we want to create socialist society which is based in three principles:
equality and respect for human dignity; sharing of the resources which are produced by our efforts;
work by everyone and exploitation by none.” (Nyerere1968: 272).
How can education be integrated with production
i. Ideological; integrating education with production in schools should help change the
negative attitudes of learners towards productive work and the working class whose sweat
and toil supports education
ii. Economic; integrating education with production in schools would engage otherwise idle
energies of young people in bearing the cost of education in the country.
iii. Pedagogical; education with production in school should make education to be less
bookish and more practical and functional. Students should learn by doing, and hopefully
more effectively
iv. Sociological; through education, Tanzania will produce elites who are not out of society but
who are part of the society and they will be the agents of changes and development of the
entire community and have to serve the community. The productive activities taking place in
the school will be shared with the community and school are part of the community
The History of Philosophy of Education

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Introduction
There are different ways of organizing knowledge; knowledge can be organized through branches of
philosophy and around individual philosophers that those philosophers who talked about
philosophy, knowledge can as well be organized through epoch/eras; Ancient philosophy, Medieval
philosophy, Renaissance philosophy, Early and Late Modern philosophy and Contemporary
philosophy. Or continent; Asian philosophy, European philosophy, American Philosophy, African
Philosophy etc. Lastly, knowledge can be organized through School of thought.
Epoch/eras of Philosophy
Ancient philosophy (c. 600 B.C.E. – c. C.E. 500)
Ancient philosophy is the philosophy of the Graeco-Roman world from the 6th century [circa 585]
BC to the 6th century AD. It is usually divided into three periods: the pre-Socratic period, the period of
Plato and Aristotle, and the post-Aristotelian (or Hellenistic) period. A fourth period is sometimes
added which includes the Neoplatonic and Christian philosophers of Late Antiquity. The most
important of the ancient philosophers (in terms of subsequent influence) are Plato and Aristotle.
The main subjects of ancient philosophy are: understanding the fundamental causes and principles
of the universe; explaining it in an economical and parsimonious way; the epistemological problem of
reconciling the diversity and change of the natural universe, with the possibility of obtaining fixed
and certain knowledge about it; questions about things which cannot be perceived by the senses,
such as numbers, elements, universals, and gods; the analysis of patterns of reasoning and argument; the
nature of the good life and the importance of understanding and knowledge in order to pursue it; the
explication of the concept of justice, and its relation to various political systems.
In this period the crucial features of the philosophical method were established: a critical approach to
received or established views, and the appeal to reason and argumentation.
Medieval philosophy (c. 500–c. 1350)
Medieval philosophy is the philosophy of Western Europe and the Middle East during the Middle Ages,
roughly extending from the Christianization of the Roman Empire until the Renaissance. Medieval
philosophy is defined partly by the rediscovery and further development of classical Greek and
Hellenistic philosophy, and partly by the need to address theological problems and to integrate sacred
doctrine (in Islam, Judaism, and Christianity) with secular learning.
The history of medieval philosophy is traditionally divided into three main periods: the period in the
Latin West following the Early Middle Ages until the twelfth century, when the works of Aristotle and
Plato were preserved and cultivated; and the 'golden age' of the twelfth, thirteenth and fourteenth
centuries in the Latin West, which witnessed the culmination of the recovery of ancient philosophy,
and significant developments in the field of Philosophy of religion, Logic and Metaphysics.

15
The medieval era was disparagingly treated by the Renaissance humanists, who saw it as a barbaric
'middle' period between the classical age of Greek and Roman culture, and the 'rebirth' or renaissance
of classical culture. Yet this period of nearly a thousand years was the longest period of
philosophical development in Europe, and possibly the richest. Jorge Gracia has argued that 'in
intensity, sophistication, and achievement, the philosophical flowering in the thirteenth century
could be rightly said to rival the golden age of Greek philosophy in the fourth century B.C.'
Some problems discussed throughout this period are the relation of faith to reason, the existence and
unity of God, the object of theology and metaphysics, the problems of knowledge, of universals, and of
individuation.
Philosophers from the Middle Ages include the Muslim philosophers Alkindus, Alfarabi, Alhazen,
Avicenna, Algazel, Avempace, Abubacer and Averroes; the Jewish philosophers Maimonides and Gersonides;
and the Christian philosophers Augustine of Hippo, Boethius, Anselm, Gilbert of Poitiers, Peter Abelard,
Roger Bacon, Bonaventure, Thomas Aquinas, Duns Scotus, William of Ockham and Jean Buridan. The
medieval tradition of scholasticism continued to flourish as late as the seventeenth century, in figures
such as Francisco Suarez and John of St. Thomas.
Aquinas, father of Thomism, was been immensely influential, placed a greater emphasis on reason and
argumentation, and was one of the first to use the new translation of Aristotle's metaphysical and
epistemological writing. His work was a significant departure from the Neoplatonic and Augustinian
thinking that had dominated much of early Scholasticism.
Many modern ethicists both within and outside the Catholic Church (notably Philippa Foot and
Alasdair MacIntyre) have recently commented on Aquinas's virtue ethics as a way of avoiding
utilitarianism or Kantian "sense of duty" (deontology). Through the work of twentieth century
philosophers such as Elizabeth Anscombe, his principle of double effect and his theory of intentional
activity generally have been influential. Cognitive neuroscientist and philosopher Walter Freeman
proposes that Thomism is the system explaining cognition that is most compatible with
neurodynamics, in a 2008 article in the journal Mind and Matter entitled "Nonlinear Brain Dynamics and
Intention According to Aquinas." The influence of Aquinas's aesthetics also can be found in the
works of the Italian semiotician Umberto Eco.
Renaissance philosophy (c. 1350–c. 1600)
The Renaissance ('rebirth') was a period of transition between the Middle Ages and modern thought,
in which the recovery of classical texts shifted philosophical interests away from technical studies in
logic, metaphysics, and theology towards eclectic inquiries into morality, philology, and mysticism.
The study of classics, particularly the newly rediscovered works of Plato and the Neoplatonists, and of
the humane arts more generally (such as history and literature) enjoyed a popularity hitherto
unknown in Christendom. The concept of man displaced God as the central object of philosophical
reflection.
The Renaissance also renewed interest in nature considered as an organic whole comprehensible
independently of theology, as in the work of Nicholas of Kues, Giordano Bruno, and Telesius. Such
movements in natural philosophy dovetailed with a revival of interest in magic, hermeticism, and

16
astrology, which were thought to yield hidden ways of knowing and mastering nature (e.g., in Marsilio
Ficino and Giovanni Pico della Mirandola).
These new movements in philosophy developed contemporaneously with larger political and
religious transformations in Europe: the decline of feudalism and the Reformation. The rise of the
monarchic nation-state found voice in increasingly secular political philosophies, as in the work of
Niccolo Machiavelli, Thomas More, Jean Bodin, Tommaso Campanella, and Hugo Grotius. And while the
Reformers showed little direct interest in philosophy, their destruction of the traditional foundations
of theological and intellectual authority harmonized with the revival of fideism and skepticism in
thinkers such as Erasmus, Montaigne and Francisco Sanches.
Early modern philosophy (c. 1600 – c. 1800)
Modern philosophy begins with the response to skepticism and the rise of modern physical science.
Philosophy in this period centers on the relation between experience and reality, the ultimate origin
of knowledge, the nature of the mind and its relation to the body, the implications of the new natural
sciences for free will and God, and the emergence of a secular basis for moral and political philosophy.
Canonical figures include Hobbes, Descartes, Locke, Spinoza, Leibniz, Berkeley, Rousseau, Hume, and Kant.
Chronologically, this era spans the 17th and 18th centuries, and is generally considered to end with
Kant's systematic attempt to reconcile Newtonian physics with traditional metaphysical topics.
Late Modern Philosophy (c. 1800 – c. 1900)
Later modern philosophy is usually considered to begin after the philosophy of Immanuel Kant at the
beginning of the 19th-century. German idealists, such as Fichte, Hegel, and Schelling, transformed the
work of Kant by maintaining that the world is constituted by a rational or mind-like process, and as
such is entirely knowable. Schopenhauer's identification of this world-constituting process as an
irrational will to live would influence later nineteenth and early twentieth century thinking, such as the
work of Nietzsche and Freud.
Rejecting idealism, other philosophers, many working from outside the university, initiated lines of
thought that would occupy academic philosophy in the early and mid-20th century:
Frege's work in logic and Sidgwick's work in ethics provided the tools for early analytic
philosophy
Husserl initiated the school of phenomenology
Peirce and William James initiated the school of pragmatism
Kierkegaard and Nietzsche laid the groundwork for existentialism and post-structuralism
Karl Marx began the study of social materialist philosophy.
Contemporary philosophy (c. 1900 – present)
Within the last century, philosophy has increasingly become an activity practiced within the
university, and accordingly it has grown more specialized and more distinct from the natural
sciences. Much of philosophy in this period concerns itself with explaining the relation between the
theories of the natural sciences and the ideas of the humanities or common sense.

17
In the Anglophone world, analytic philosophy became the dominant school. In the first half of the
century, it was a cohesive school, more or less identical to logical positivism, united by the notion that
philosophical problems could and should be solved by attention to logic and language. In the latter half
of the 20th century, analytic philosophy diffused into a wide variety of disparate philosophical views,
only loosely united by historical lines of influence and a self-identified commitment to clarity and
rigor. Recently, the experimental philosophy movement has reappraised philosophical problems through
the techniques of social science research.
On continental Europe, no single school or temperament enjoyed dominance. The flight of the
logical positivists from central Europe during the 1930s and 1940s, however, diminished
philosophical interest in natural science, and an emphasis on the humanities, broadly construed,
figures prominently in what is usually called "continental philosophy". 20th-century movements such as
phenomenology, existentialism, hermeneutics, critical theory, structuralism, and poststructuralism are included
within this loose category.
Major philosophers of the 20th century include:
Ludwig Wittgenstein, who profoundly shaped both logical positivism and ordinary language
philosophy
Bertrand Russell, whose pioneering work in logic was a model for the early development
of analytic philosophy.
Martin Heidegger, who drew on the ideas of Kierkegaard, Nietzsche, and Husserl to
propose an existential approach to ontology
Karl R. Popper, whose work on falsifiability is seen as a major development in the
Philosophy of Science[
W.V.O. Quine, whose work in logic and the philosophy of language underpinned a highly
influential form of naturalism.
Saul Kripke, whose work in modal logic and the philosophy of language led to a revival of
metaphysics in English-speaking philosophy.
The Pre-Socratic Views on Education
It is considered to be part of the widespread legends of Pythagoras of this time. "Philosopher"
replaced the word "sophist" (from sophoi), which was used to describe "wise men", teachers of
rhetoric, who were important in Athenian democracy.
Protagoras held that man is the measure of all things. Then man is the measure of good and evil. By
man the sophists meant the individual man-You, me and your neighbor-And each one according to
them has the right to determine for themselves what is good and what is evil. The end of this
practice is chaos because what one consider evil may be considered good by others. As a result each
man had his own code of good and bad. People at this time were not speaking of a common goal.
The sophists taught that morality was a mere convention/principle and the arguments aimed at
justifying the principle that a man should live as he/she desires and gets whatever he wanted
through any means. Man should frame his own code of conduct. The result of this position was

18
what people called moral anarchy (pure individualism and selfishness.) A closer study of this of this
position revealed a tendency which is very rich in the following possibilities;
(i) The sophists were champion of individual and his independence.
(ii) They were trying to rebel against arbitrary authority in matters of moral. They were
arguing that human mind must think for itself and in thinking the mind will discover a
code of right and wrong.
(iii) Sophists sold skills for money and spend most of the time instructing male offspring
who could afford to pay. Other people including women could not afford paying
sophists. In this respect it was only the rich people who were taught by sophists.
In particular the key skill from sophists was rhetoric which based on the art of pursuing and
speaking. Such teaching aimed at making people have the power to argue and speak. Other skills
taught included music, gymnastics, javelin etc.
Individual Philosophers
The Pre-Twentieth Educational Thinkers
Socrates, c.470-399 BC
Socrates was a Greek who started as a sculptor, subsequently becoming a soldier who, nevertheless,
spent most of his life and time in creative thinking, philosophical discussion and instructing people
in rational thinking and logical arguments. An idealist who believed in the reducibility of the universe
and all knowledge in it to ideas rather than material things, Socrates rejected a method of arriving at
knowledge through “empiricism”. He believe in a method of guiding men to knowledge through
clear though and argument, to him much of the subject matter worth thinking and arguing clearly
about was ethics and politics in society. such a method, according to Socrates, was to consist of the
teacher or instructor “pretending ignorance” about a subject matter in order to encourage others
that is his/her learners or students to talk, express their ideas and to make sensible and logical
conclusions. Then the teacher as a facilitating “ignorant”, listener, would cross- examine what they
talked about or exchanged, expose inconsistencies in the thought expressed, or lack of logical
linkages in the statements made. Characteristics of Socratic question of asking question;
(i) Dialogue; Socrates and his method and mode of asking questions had the aim of
establishing dialogue (an egalitarian kind of conversational exchange) between two
individuals or two parties, the kind of exchange governed by and stimulated by a desire
to arrive at a plane of knowledge and understanding that is based not on dictation,
coercion or manipulation by either of the parties but rather on a logical process of
questions, responses, formulations and mutual conviction and agreement.
(ii) Virtue; as the ultimate goal for a search for or demonstration of truth. While the precise
definition of virtue was difficult to come by, Socrates insisted that the process of
education, or schooling, should aim at virtue; and the kind of teacher pupil interaction
(or master student exchange), as a subset of the process should aim at promoting virtue.
To Socrates, virtue was a kind of knowledge but not simply, common-sense knowledge
of ordinary things such as stars and facts in books; nor was it simply knowledge about

19
the norms and standards of conduct as such. Rather virtue was more than ordinary
cognition.
(iii) Exhortation and dialectical self-examination, as two important didactic techniques. These two
didactic strategies or techniques are self evident in Socrates‟ teaching (dialogues).
Exhortation- appealing to the learner to become concerned about the important
of his/her achieving these norms and standards
Dialectical self-examination- the art of logical argumentation, or reasoning, that
leads to the arrival at the plane of truth by isolating, disclosing and investigating
contradictions (in the statements by an opponent or oneself)
(iv) Self mastery and a deliberative course of intellectual dialectical training as two other didactic
techniques. These are thought not to have originally involved from Socrates rather from
his pupil, Plato, probably in the letter‟s own elaborate for raising an ideal state and an
ideal guardian of that state as set forth in his Republic
Self mastery-disciplining one‟s appetites
intellectual training course – a course in intellectual training that results in grasp and
use of dialects (that is of logical argumentation and disputation about the truth,
achieved through identification and disclosure of contradiction in an opponents
statements and viewpoints)
(v) Step-by-step argumentation and disputation through logical progression. The process consists in
a form of reasoning that relies on a laying of premise as foundation upon which
progressively finer statement are built and marshaled into “blocks” of interlocking
arguments that best manifest themselves in clarity of thought and consistency of facts.
This is self evident in all of the Socratic dialogues recorded
Plato, c.427-347
A pupil of Socrates, Plato maintained that mind, not matter, is the fundamental base of knowledge
and understanding. He maintained that the material objects we see in our everyday world are but
imperfect copies of abstract and eternal ideas; hence his rejection of experimental conclusions (that
is, scientific empiricism) in favour of logical argument and logical conclusion. How Plato perceives
Education;
Setting; Plato emphases formal education that is Education should be structured and organized that
is the purpose and method of education is well premised on the vision and mission.
Process; Plato emphasized on the identification and development of talents and therefore grouped
the children into three categories as follow;
The bright ones, the golden boys, would thus have to be educated for future positions as
philosopher-kings (rulers and policy-makers, planners)
The less bright but physical fit- the silver boys- to be trained to become defenders of the
republic (solders)

20
The dull-iron boys-to be prepared for an intellectually less demanding vocation, in the realm of
manual, menial and similar occupation.
Therefore, to Plato education was a natural pre-occupation of each man throughout his life, as well
as the central public concern of any well-ordered government.
Content; Plato argued, there must be a sound political system as well as a sound education system
that would selectively prepare the young generation for future roles according to their abilities.
Outcomes/End Product; Education should classify and set the people where they belong in the
society so that they can be utilized effectively. The major concern of Plato was how to bring up a
generation that was sensitive to the service of their society; he also believed that the character of any
state depends in the final analysis, on the quality of its people and their rulers
Aristotle, 384-322 BC
Aristotle was a Greek philosopher who studied in Athens under Plato; and he in turn become a
tutor of Alexander the Great.
Setting; Aristotle emphasized on formal education,
Process; he believed that sense experience was the only source of knowledge and that the essence
of things could be discovered only trough reasoning.
Content; Aristotle stressed that the content of education should focus on ethics and politics; where
by he held the view that the principle of life in a living creature is the soul and not matter viewed as
separable from soul. He further held the view that the essence of beauty is order and symmetric and
that man‟s happiness consists in living in conformity with nature. He abode with a philosophy of life
that virtue lay in the attainment of happiness or “goodness”, not as a passive state of seclusion and
contemplation but as an active attitude of will.
Outcome/End product; the focal aspect of education was to make learner both being good and
doing good.
Jean Jacques Rousseau 1712-1778
Jean Jacque Rousseau was a French philosopher and pungent critic of the social and political system
prevailing in Europe generally and in French society in particular during his time.
Setting; Rousseau stressed on informal education in the sense that it was a family controlled
education that is education of human beings starts at birth; the child should learn through nature
and not bookish, this is due to the fact that schools themselves, apart from being accessible to only a
few, were institutions far removed from the “real world”, teaching things were an related to the
social realities of their everyday life.
Process; education is the process of interacting with nature that is using senses to get knowledge. In
his appeal for redressing the situation, Rousseau advocated a “going back to nature”, rather than

21
acting in artificiality. Teachers were to teach and guide the children according to the children‟s
nature and not according to imposition that did not conform to their nature. This meant that
children should develop and be taught in accordance with the laws of nature-that is, in accordance
with the children‟s own environment.
Content; to promote liberty and happiness in the individual (i.e. the learner), to defend and not to
restrict the child‟s interests. The task of the teacher is, first of all to study what these laws are and
then to guide the children in their interest and instinct through their four stages of development
(infancy, childhood, pre-adolescence and adolescence)
Outcome/End Product; education should transform people for radical product or protect child
from the evil of the society.
Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi (1746-1827)
Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi was influenced by both Comenius and Rousseau. Pestalozzi believed all
education is based on sensory impression and that through the proper sensory experiences; children
can achieve their natural potential.
Setting; formal education
Process; education is the process of interacting with nature that is using senses to get knowledge,
here Pestalozzi was inspired by Rousseau‟s ideas about children and nature; and he practically tested
them in the course of teaching (by “intuitive practice”) Where, as teachers were to influence on what
was to be learned by the pupils. He insisted that those who teacher must accept responsibility not
only for what the pupils learn but also for what they become.
Content; practical observance, Pestalozzi would more often argue observers to see what he was
doing than come out with a theoretical base or principle for practices “go and see for yourself, it
works splendidly”
Outcome/End Product; education should make student inquisitive and make the practical
observation of nature. He insisted that those who teach must accept responsibility not only what the
pupils learn but also for what they become.
Friedrich Wilhelm Froebel (1782 – 1852)
F.W. Froebel was born Thuringia, Germany came into a contact with Pestalozzi and his educational
experiment in Swaziland which greatly stimulated his interest while, at the same time, offering some
points for criticism. He added a significant dimension to Pestalozzi‟s practical experiments in the
teaching methodology by actual supplying some theoretical explanations and guiding models to
practise.
Setting; Formal education

22
Process; education is the process of interacting with nature that is using senses to get knowledge.
Froebel insisted that children must be accorded a free, conducive and well facilitated environment to
enable them to grow and to learn basic concepts as freely and happily as the plants grow in the field.
His point was for the children to grow according to the laws of Nature-as a plant does, in contrast
with how a mould grows!
Content; “Handwork” activities; clay modeling, cardboard work, woodcarving, paper folding, paper
cutting, paper perforating, drawing, pattern flooring, painting, interlacing, bead stringing weaving
and embroidery.
Outcome/End Product; make the students be able and comfortable to observe, and participate in,
the activities of the home.

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