educational technology and communication

DRAFT
KENYATTA UNIVERSITY
INSTITUTE OF OPEN LEARNING
ECT 300
EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY
NDICHU GITAU
LORDVICUS W. OLANGA
DAVID OLUDHE
COLLINS O. OGOGO
DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATIONAL COMMUNICATION
AND TECHNOLOGY
Courtesy of Mekubo Matini
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
LESSON ONE 1
EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY 1
Overview ............................................................................................................................ 1
Assessment......................................................................................................................... 1
Educational Technology in Focus...................................................................................... 2
Activity 1.A........................................................................................................................ 6
Activity 1.B........................................................................................................................ 7
Activity 1.C........................................................................................................................ 8
Examples............................................................................................................................ 9
Activity 1.D...................................................................................................................... 11
REFERENCES................................................................................................................. 13
LESS0N TWO 14
VISUAL LITERACY 14
LESSON THREE 20
SYSTEMATIC PLANNING FOR THE USE OF INSTRUCTIONAL MEDIA.
20
LESSON FOUR 40
PRINT AND NON-PRINT MEDIA 40
LESSON FIVE 56
EDUCATIONAL BROADCASTING 56
References........................................................................................................................ 65
LESSON SIX ................................................................................................................... 66
COMMUNITY RESOURCES FOR LEARNING .......................................................... 66
LESSON SEVEN 71
TWO AND THREE DIMENSIONAL MEDIA 71
LESSON EIGHT 79
DISTANCE EDUCATION 79
Question 8.1 ..................................................................................................................... 80
Question 8.2 ..................................................................................................................... 81
Question 8.3 ..................................................................................................................... 82
Question 8. 4 .................................................................................................................... 84
Question 8.6 ..................................................................................................................... 86
Question 8.7 ..................................................................................................................... 86
Question 8.8 ..................................................................................................................... 88
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Question 8.9 ..................................................................................................................... 89
FURTHER READINGS................................................................................................... 89
LESSON NINE 90
MANAGEMENT OF LEARNING RESOURCES 90
ACTIVITY 9.B.................................................................................................................... 95
ACTIVITY 9.D ................................................................................................................... 98
ACTIVITY 9.E.................................................................................................................. 102
REFERENCES............................................................................................................... 103
Activity 12.C................................................................................................................... 109
Activity 12.D................................................................................................................... 110
REFERENCES ............................................................................................................... 111
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LESSON ONE
EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY
1.0 Introduction
This LESSON briefly discusses the process nature of communication and its
effects in learning. We are saying that the quality of classroom instruction is
directly related to the quality of the teacher’s communication with the learners.
The LESSON defines educational technology, looks at the application of that
technology from the point of view of putting more humanity in that use and
delineates the communication barriers in classroom situations. The LESSON
gives some research findings about learning and argues that the nonverbal
elements of classroom communication are more important than the verbal
elements.
Overview
One of the trends within education is learner-centred instruction. All too often
however, when learner-centred-instruction is applied to educational technology, it
is translated to mean leaner-machine-interaction. We want to make it clear that,
instead, we see relationships among three components in the teaching-learning
context: student-content-interaction, student-equipment-instructor-interaction and
student-student-equipment-interaction.
This course aims at imparting technological literacy on learners through all the
three components. We want to find ways and means of making explicit, different
pedagogic applications using equipment and resources to bring about effective
learning.
The course’s locus therefore is a mediated multichannel learning approach where
the available media are used creatively and interactively to connect with learners’
drive for knowledge and skills. We however wish to rationalize too, that this
course is about education not just technology. Hence, the application process is
emphasized through the use of both human and non-human resources to bring
about effective learning.
Simple but practical approaches towards the use of locally available resources for
instance, are included. The inclusion helps to open up various innovative
possibilities for teachers and students alike.
Since the design and use of resources are integral to teaching methodologies,
there are media practical tutorial sessions to serve as points of connection to
module content. Those tutorial sessions focus on planning, designing, selecting,
production and the techniques of utilizing technology-based audio-visual learning
formats.
Assessment
Activities, exercises, assignments and food for thought questions are provided
throughout this module in an attempt to make the learning process dialogical and
thought-provoking. New terms are explained and references given, the aim being
to make the module more user-friendly, and the learning more practical.
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Sample examination questions are provided at the end of the module to acquaint
the learner with the terrain that he/she should expect to encounter.
Educational Technology in Focus
Research has shown that we learn through our senses with each sense accounting
for a different percentage of that learning (Sampath et al., 1981:15). Through the
skillful use of audio-visual recordings and other instructional media, we can bring
the world to the classroom. We can make the past come alive either by
reconstructing it through the use of educational technology or by using dioramas,
models, objects, specimen and realia to stimulate experiences that are not readily
available for classroom instruction.
The use of educational technology in the teaching and learning process heightens
motivation to learn. Ideally then, learners should have available, combinations of
audiovisual experiences which reinforce one another so as to provide the most
efficient path for possible mastery of understanding and concepts.
1.1 Objectives
On completion of this LESSON, you should be about to:
• Define educational technology
Define communication.
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Describe the notion of process as it relates to communication and
learning.
Understand the conceptual foundations of technology-based learning.
List three major categories of barriers to effective classroom communication.
Differentiate between field and discipline.
Enumerate five basic things we need to know about classroom
communication.
1.2 The Conceptual Foundation of Technology Based Learning
The perceptions of what constitutes educational technology have evolved over a
period of 50 years. This evolvement has resulted in some confusion as to what
educational technology is or stands for. To most people, the term at best implies
computers or computer-based learning (CBL). At worst, the term tends to put
them off precisely because of the pervasive ambiguity that surrounds its many
definitions. But for us, there is a need to keep good sense alive in this module.
Specifically, the term is often associated solely with the technical equipment and
media of education such as projections, televisions, films, tape-slide programmes,
audiocassette recorders and even computers. Other people take the view that
educational technology involves a systematic studio analysis of the entire
teaching and learning process whereby use of the machines is maximized almost
to the exclusion of teaching methodologies. Indeed, proponents of this latter
view have sometimes been accused of taking a ‘machine approach.’ A machine
approach in teaching has failed to lead to improved levels of educational quality
because it runs contrary to the tutorial principle that demands more humanity in
student-teacher relationship.
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Part of the reason for the machine approach is due to the fact that the bulk of
media research had been directed to investigating the nature of a single approach
or medium instead of establishing how various approaches and media could be
combined to create a multi-media learning environment. This single medium
approach has been the major cause of the confusion in perceptions.
Today, we can speak of two different perceptions of educational technology
(Percival and Ellington, 1988) namely;
i. Technology in education and
ii. Technology of education.
1.2.1 Technology in Education
Technology in education is one very important aspect of educational technology.
Indeed, in many developed countries, many of the universities’ and college based
Education Technology Departments evolved from LESSONs which were
previously called ‘audiovisual aids LESSONs’ (Percival and Ellington, 1988).
The argument then, for starting those departments was that by making
appropriate use of hardware along with suitable software, it was possible to
improve the efficiency or quality of learning in a given situation.
One of the earliest phases in the evolution of educational technology was
therefore the ‘hardware phase,’ in which a great deal of work was done in
developing effective instructional equipment. Let us nonetheless examine this
concept in more specific details. Technology in education:
Embraces every possible means by which information can be presented.
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It concerns itself with the gadgetry of education and training such as:
− Television
− Language laboratories
− Various projected media such as audiovisual aids.
Audiovisual aids themselves comprise two related but distinguishable
components namely;
− Hardware and
− Software
Hardware are the actual equipment such as:
− Overhead projectors
− Slide projectors
− Opaque projectors
− Film projectors
− Video cassette recorders
− Computers, etc.
Software are the various items used to accompany the hardware, examples
being:
− Transparencies
− Slides
− Audiotapes
− Films
− Video and audio cassette recordings
− Computer programmes, etc.
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Technology in education is sometimes referred to as the ‘machine approach.’
The machine approach occurs when the teacher first identifies an equipment and
then finds a suitable problem for it. Such an approach is
mechanistic/reductionistic in nature. It focuses on particular technologies and
ignores the educational processes or outcomes. The proper approach is one
where the teacher identifies the problem first and then looks for a suitable
equipment to solve that specific problem.
1.2.2 Technology of Education
As we have pointed out in 1.2.1 above, when hardware eventually became
generally available, it was found that there was a shortage of suitable software to
use with it. That situation necessitated a subsequent ‘software phase,’ in which
particular attention was paid to the development of suitable learning materials
and programmes, often based on the contemporary theories of learning and
perception.
The main thrust of educational technology hence changed from hardware to the
development of suitable software for use with the machines. That change
consequently led to a new and broader interpretation of educational technology as
the entire ‘technology of education’ rather than merely as the use of technology
in education. We can therefore say that, ‘technology of education:’
Concerns itself with the intangible aspects of education for instance, the
techniques of teaching and learning rather than the hardware itself.
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Recognizes that the principal role of educational technology is to help
improve the overall efficiency of the teaching/learning process.
Technology of Education was developed as a result of three realizations:
i. That there was much more in education than simply the use of machines
(technology in education).
ii. A mere use of machines in teaching and learning does not guarantee the
efficacy expected using resources.
iii. Teaching and learning could be improved by thinking more carefully about
all aspects of design, selection, and application of teaching strategies where a
change in one will impact on the whole either positively or negatively.
A ‘technology of education’ approach to educational technology thus involves a
systematic, scientific approach to a problem. The ideal position is to view
educational technology as technology of education.
Within this view, changes are not made to a system for their own sake, but for
good educational reasons that are generally based on research findings.
At the heart of technology of education therefore is the ‘systems approach’ where
a system is seen as a collection of interrelated parts that together constitute a
larger whole. These component parts, or elements of the system are intimately
linked with one another either directly or indirectly. And any change in one or
more elements may affect the overall performance of the whole system either
positively or negatively (Romiszowski, 1974).
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Technology in education on the other hand is one of the possible means to an
end. It emphasizes on the selection and designing appropriate hardware and
software to back up a particular strategy so as to achieve a given set of
educational aims or objectives.
1.3 Definitions of Educational Technology
We have so far looked at different perceptions of educational technology from
three viewpoints. These are: technology in education, technology of education,
and technology from the general systems approach. We now want to specifically
focus on some of the definitions of educational technology so that we can link
these definitions with the classroom discourse or classroom communication
between teacher and pupil.
(a) Definition One
• Educational technology is the development, application and evaluation of
systems, techniques and aids to improve the process of human learning.
Source: Council for Educational Technology for the United Kingdom (CET).
(b) Definition Two
• Educational technology is the application of scientific knowledge about
learning and the conditions of learning to improve the effectiveness and
efficiency of teaching and training.
In the absence of scientifically established principles, educational
technology implements techniques of empirical testing to improve learning
situations.
Source: National Centre for Programmed Learning UK.
(c) Definition Three
• Educational technology is a systematic way of designing, implementing and
evaluating the total process of teaching and learning in terms of specific
objectives, based on research in human learning and communication, and
employing a combination of human and non-human resources to bring about
more effective instruction.
Source: Commission of Instructional Technology USA.
Note:
Each of the three definitions above emphasizes the primary function of
educational technology as improving the efficiency of the process of
learning. But as we discussed earlier, the tutorial principle entails more of
the human element in classroom communication than the non-human
(technology) to bring about effective learning. In the next paragraphs then,
we want to pay special attention to the human element to see how the
quality of classroom teacher communication affects the quality of
instruction.
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Activity 1.A
Differentiate between technology in education and technology of education.
Find out which approach is more prevalent in the schools around your area.
What do you understand by the term the ‘machine approach?’
1.4 Communication in the Classroom
There are four major problems that have hindered our understanding of classroom
communication. According to Budd and Ruben (1979), these problems are:
(a) Its ubiquitousness. Being everywhere even in our own dreams, we find
that as such we cannot not communicate even if we tried not to.
(b) Lack of discipline. Communication is a field rather than a discipline.
Fields are less rigorous than disciplines and they also draw
knowledge/ideas from disciplines. The fact that communication draws
ideas from fields creates for us a problem of understanding because it has
no theories of its own. It borrows theories from fields and different fields
define communication differently.
(c) Familiarity. Communication is a very familiar term to most people.
Familiar terms like slogans tend to loose their vigour and vitality
whenever they are overused. For example, the meaning of the word
democracy depends on the person defining it. Communication is that
kind of a term.
(d) Approachable both operationally and Scientifically. Communication
can be approached either as an operational or as a scientific phenomenon
or both. That is, communication is not only something that can be
studied, it is something most of us do.
1.5 Things we need to know about classroom communication
i. Information is not communication. Information can be defined as that which
reduces uncertainty in the learners. When a teacher dictates notes, for
example to students he/she has only transferred information from his/her
notes to the students’ exercise books. In that sense, we cannot say with
certainty that he or she has communicated.
ii. Not all information is relevant or useful. In other words, the learner must be
able to make use of the information as intended.
iii. Communication is incomplete unless it is received and understood. The
implication of this in teaching and learning is that the learner must be able to
use the information passed on to him/her to:
− Do something with it;
− Perform a task after appropriate help from the teacher.
iv. We do not communicate meanings. Meanings are in us or are generated from
within each individual learner depending on the way he/she
understands/interprets the information passed on to him/her.
v. All classroom communication is verbal and nonverbal, situation dependent
and interdependent meaning what I do affects you and what you do affects
me. But neither of us determines the other’s behaviour or feelings.
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Interdependence does not mean linear causality. Therefore, my poor teaching
does not cause a specific response in you. I cannot for example, make you angry.
You choose to be angry on the basis of the things I have done to you. In the final
analysis, you have many options open to you.
1.6 Communication Defined
In this sub-section, we want to recognize the fact that there are many definitions
of communication. This is because every practitioner defines the term in a
manner that is appropriate to his/her discipline. The definition we have given
below is relevant to classroom teaching and learning.
Communication is a process through which we are constantly offering definitions
or images of ourselves and responding to definitions or images of the others
through a multiple of feedback mechanisms. That process is ongoing in the sense
that it has no beginning or end. We only arbitrarily assign those beginnings and
ends. That process is verbal and non-verbal, interpersonal unless intrapersonal,
irretrievable, irreversible, situational or situation specific and transactional.
The key word in our definition of communication is process. A process has no
tangible attributes in the sense that you cannot see it or feel it. Communication is
that kind of thing. Learning too, is a process and through that ongoing process,
the teacher is constantly defining himself or herself both verbally and non-
verbally in relation to the students.
Activity 1.B
• Approach your colleagues and request them to define
communication for you.
• Compare the differences in their definitions and explain why
there are variations.
• Why is the traditional concept of communication as the transfer
of ‘meaning’ untenable?
1.7 Verbal and Nonverbal Aspects of Human Communication
In offering definitions of others, we find that the non-verbal elements of teacher
communication are more important than the verbal elements because learning is
basically a visual activity.
Research has indeed shown that we learn through our senses with each sense
accounting for a different percentage of that learning as follows:
Taste accounts for 1%
Touch accounts for 1½%
Smell accounts for 3½%
Hearing accounts for 11%
Sight accounts for 83%.
The onus is therefore on the teacher to try and reduce those barriers so that
learning can take place.
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Note:
• In all statistics of this nature, there is always a margin of error of plus
or minus three percentage points.
• Nature does compensate those learners like the visually impaired and
physically challenged, who are not able to utilize all their senses.
• A mere utilization of the sense of sight will not automatically
guarantee one the attainment of the 83% learning efficiency because
every classroom communication situation has its own unique barriers
otherwise referred to as noise.
Activity 1.C
Discuss the notion of process as it applies to classroom communication.
What are the implications of viewing classroom communication as a
process of offering definitions of selves and responding to definitions of
others?
1.8 Barriers to Effective Classroom Communication
In dealing with communication barriers, the first thing is to recognize that
communication does not occur in a vacuum, rather, it always takes place within a
context or situation. Moreover, each situation comes with its own unique barriers
which affect the quality of the communication transaction.
We generally speak of three broad categories of barriers which affect both verbal
and nonverbal communication.
(a) Physiological Barriers. These include all kinds of illnesses such as
headache, toothache, heartburn, hunger pangs, etc.
Since these illnesses are confined in the learners, the teacher is limited
in the extent to which he/she can control them.
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It is nevertheless important for the teacher to recognize that those
barriers exist in any classroom and that they do affect teaching and
learning.
(b) Physical Barriers. Physical barriers are influential non-verbal cues and
they are of two types, namely:
Those that use mostly teacher created such as physique or body
appearance, teacher’s general attractiveness and even body odours. We
may also add to this list fatigue and stress which may be in either the
teacher or his/her pupils.
The second kind of physical barriers are those that are environmentally
determined such as:
− Furniture (desks) arrangement.
− Lighting in the room
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− Lack of ventilation or stuffiness in the room.
− External noises.
It is the responsibility of every teacher to try and eliminate any physical
barrier that may emanate from him/her or the classroom environment.
(c) Psychological Barriers. The psychological characteristics of a situation
exist in the mind of the teacher or pupil and can be controlled because they
are external to the learning situation. Some examples are attitudes,
anxieties, mental anguish, strong opinions of any land, prejudices, etc.
Like physiological barriers, psychological barriers too, are mostly confined inside
the teacher or learners. Unless they are spoken or written they remain primarily
nonverbal in nature.
The important thing for the teacher to do is to be aware that psychological
barriers exist and can affect teaching and learning if not alleviated. Being aware
means more than knowing what is around us. It means being aware of our own
awareness:
Being able to question the consequences of our own choices.
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Being reflective.
Being able to empathize with the learners and
Being an active listener.
Active or emphatic listening is motivational in nature. A teacher should
motivate learners by giving them positive reinforcements.
Teacher reinforcements can be verbal, nonverbal, positive and negative.
1.8 Types of Teacher Reinforcements
One basic assumption in writing this LESSON is that the quality of each student’s
learning is directly linked to the quality of the communication he or she
experiences. If in the process of teaching and learning a learner is constantly
bombarded with disparaging remarks from the teachers, the net effect will be
reflected in his/her poor performance. The reverse is also true that teachers’
encouraging comments are related to learners’ improved performance. Powell in
Stewart (l982:7) puts the same idea in simpler terms.
What I am, at any given moment in the process of my
becoming a person, will be determined by my relationships
with those who love me or refuse to love me, with those I
love or refuse to love.
Our thesis here is that the things we do and say to one another affect people’s lives
either positively or negatively. Let us then look at the four types of reinforcements
mentioned above.
(a) Positive Verbal Reinforcements. These include statements a teacher
makes to the learner that serve to reinforce the later positively.
Examples
− Good, very good
− Right, great
− Good trial/attempt
− Excellent
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− That is correct
− Well done, etc.
(b) Positive Nonverbal Reinforcement. Since these are nonverbal, they are
not verbalized, rather, they are made through body language or kinesic
behaviour.
− Nodding affirmatively
− Smiling
− Eye contact
− Writing the learner’s answer on the board
− Moving closer to the learner
− Giving positive hand gestures, etc.
(c) Negative Verbal Reinforcements. These come about when we
disconfirm others. Disconfirmation means communicating as if the other
person does not exist. There are two ways through which we disconfirm
others namely;
• By being impervious. Imperviousness in communication means
speaking for the other person. It comes when we assume that we know
what the leaner is thinking or feeling. Imperviousness also comes with
some accompanying statements like:
− You are disappointing;
− Where were you when I taught this?
− You are wasting your parents money.
• By Disqualification. This is responding in a manner that is totally
irrelevant to the other’s prior utterance. It is refusing to respond or
acknowledge the learner’s statement. Once a teacher disqualifies a
learner through this behaviour he/she is denying the legitimacy of the
learner’s contribution to the learning process. He/she is in a sense
communicating rejection.
(d) Negative Nonverbal Reinforcements. This is the situation where a
teacher refuses to audibly express his/her feelings but does it nonverbally
albeit negatively. It includes behaviours like:
− Deliberate lack of eye contact.
− Grimacing of the face (frowning).
− Silence or failure to reinforce.
− Ignoring the learner’s contribution in class.
1.10 Consequences of Negative Reinforcements
The fundamental fact of classroom discourse is that something is continually
happening between teacher and learners. The reason is because human beings as
such cannot not communicate (Stewart, J & B. Angelo, G., 1980). We are
constantly interpreting the behaviours of others towards us. Hence, the
perceptions learners forming of their teachers affect them either positively or
negatively.
One basic assumption then about teacher-learner interaction is that the quality of
learning is linked to the quality of the communication. This assumption underlies
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everything we have said in this LESSON about the process nature of
communication and its effect in learning. When a teacher constantly discourages
his/her learners through negative reinforcements the consequences are that he/she
creates:
− non-listeners.
− the impatient types.
− the negative personalities.
− the know-it-all types of learners.
1.11 Suggestion for an Effective Teacher/Communicator
(a) Listen to confirm.
− Both verbally and non-verbally by saying I may not agree or accept your
point of view, but I care about what you are saying – I care about your
learning.
(b) Listen to understand.
− The key characteristic of listening to understand is that it is primarily
verbal. As a teacher you must verbalize your positive
feelings/reinforcements.
(c) Listen to diminish defensiveness.
− Defensiveness occurs when a teacher perceives threat.
− Such a teacher therefore listens not to understand but to prepare
himself/herself to tear down the learner’s argument – to belittle the
learner.
Activity 1.D
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Conduct a classroom observation of a colleague in your school for one working
day. Make a minute-by-minute account of what he or she does. By the end of
the day, group the types of communication barriers you observed if any.
How many of those barriers were teacher-created that is, psychological, how
many were contextual (environmentally determined) and how many were
physiological in nature?
Pay special attention to teacher’s kinesic behaviour (body language). How
much did it seem to reinforce the message either positively or negatively?
Was there any evidence of a multisensory approach to teaching and learning
in this class?
1.12 Summary
In this LESSON, you have learnt a new definition of communication which
relates specifically to teaching and learning. You have been introduced to the
process nature of communication and helped to delineate barriers to effective
classroom communication. The conceptual foundations of technology-based
learning is highlighted and a distinction made between technology in education
and technology of education.
We have argued that although ‘technology of education’ involves a systematic
and scientific approach, the tutorial principle that advocates more humanity in the
use of technology be emphasized as a means of bringing about effective learning.
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This is unlike in the mechanistic and reductionistic approach found in technology
in education whereby the use of machines is maximized to the exclusion of other
methodologies.
Communication is revisited and the problems that have prevented our
understanding of the process enumerated. More significantly, we have said that
all classroom communication is verbal, nonverbal, situation-dependent and
interdependent-meaning that what a teacher does or says affects learning but
neither the behaviour of the teacher nor that of the learner cause the others
behaviour or feelings.
After examining the barriers to effective classroom communication, you realize
that it is not what we say to our learners that matters but how we say it
(paralanguage). Finally, we posit that the nonverbal elements of classroom
communication are more important than the verbal elements because we learn
through our senses with the sense of sight accounting for the highest percentage
of that learning.
1.13 Definition of Terms
Computer-Based Learning (CBL). A term used to embrace all the present
forms of educational computing.
Diorama. A static display employing a flat background and three-dimensional
foreground to achieve a lifelike affect.
Hardware. The physical equipment that makes up any audiovisual or computer
system.
Kinesic or Kinesic Bahaviour. Body motion which typically includes gestures,
movements of the body parts namely; limbs, hands, head, feet and
legs, facial expressions (smiles), eye behaviour and posture.
Machine Approach. A situation in teaching and learning where a teacher
identifies an equipment first and then finds a suitable problem for it
instead of letting the lesson objectives dictate the type of machines to
be used. In the machine approach, the gadgets only serve as marginal
aids to teaching – something peripheral or on the borderline of
teaching.
Mechanistic. A way of looking at issues or processes from a mechanically
determined perspective whereby we isolate issues into their
constituent parts for the sake of analysis.
Mediated Learning. Learning where a technical instrument is utilized for
message transmission.
Paralanguage. Paralanguage deals with how something was said rather than what
was said.
Reductionism. A view that all living things must be seen in terms of interacting
wholes that cannot be reduced to their constituent parts for the
purposes of analysis. Under this view, one looks at issues holistically
rather than isolating parts.
Software. Control instructions such as computer programmes and audiovisual
materials plus accompanying documentation stored in diskette or tape
cassette recordings. It also includes slides and transparencies when
written on.
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Ubiquitousness. Existing or being everywhere at the same time: constantly
encountered.
REFERENCES
Bertalanffy, Von Ludwig (1995). 12th
Ed. General System Theory. George Braziller.
New York.
Budd, R.W., and B.D. Ruben (1979). Interdisciplinary Approaches to Human
Communication. Hayden Book Co., Inc. Rochelle Park, New Jersey.
Commission on Instructional Technology, U.S.A
Council For Educational Technology for the United Kingdom (CET).
National Centre for Programmed Learning UK.
Percival, F., and Ellington (1988). A Handbook of Educational Technology 2nd
Ed.
Kogan Page, London/Nichols Publishing Co., New York.
Romiszowski, A.J. (1974). The Selection and use of Instructional Media: A Systems
Approach. Kogan Page, London.
Sampath, K., A. Pannirselvan and S. Sauthanam (1981). Introduction to Educational
Technology. New Delhi, Sterling.
Stewart, J. (1982). Brigdes Not Walls. Addison, Wesley Publishing Co., Reading,
Massachusetts.
Stewart, J. and Gary D’Angelo (1980). Together, Communicating Interpersonally.
Addison -Wesley Publishing Co., Reading Massachusetts.
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LESS0N TWO
VISUAL LITERACY
2.0.Introduction
When we think of literacy, the ability to read and write words quickly comes to mind.
There are, however, other forms of literacy besides reading and writing words. For
instance, the term computer literacy has become a catchword in recent years. Another
form of literacy is visual literacy. In this lesson, we shall concern ourselves with visual
literacy.
2.1 Objectives
By the end of this lesson, you should be able to:
Explain the significance of visual literacy in everyday life and in the learning
process.
Identify the skills of visual literacy
Suggest methods by which the skills of visual literacy can be developed.
Distinguish between the kinds of pictorial formats that people prefer to look at and
those that are more effective for communication and learning
Make correct selection between visuals preferred by learners and visuals that are
more effective for learning based on specific classroom situations
2.2. The Concept of Visual Literacy and its Relevance to Everyday life and
Learning
Interest in the concept of visual literacy is fairly recent. Interest in this area only
came into prominence in the mid-1960s when it became apparent that specific skills were
required for one to be able to “read” and “write” visual messages in much the same way
that specific skills are usually required to read and write words. Like the skills of reading
and writing words, it was recognized that the skills of visual literacy did not evolve
naturally as a consequence of maturation; they were acquired through some kind of
exposure like even direct teaching. It is with this in mind that experts in education have
since advocated the need to purposely attend to the development of the skills of visual
literacy.
Why should we bother to develop visual literacy? One reason is that visual
messages of all kinds confront us every day; thus the skills of visual literacy have
become indispensable to every-day life. Examples of visual messages we are likely to
encounter in our day-to-day lives include pictures in books, newspapers and magazines;
adverts in the print and electronic media; directions on how to use a variety of products
ranging from chemicals to machinery and tools.
Increasingly, there is a worldwide trend towards the use of visuals or pictorial
communication. This is because visuals are a form of Esperanto. In other words, they are
a universal language, likely to be understood by all throughout the world.
But why is worldwide communication important? In a world of free-flow of ideas,
products and people- a universally understood medium of communication is necessary.
So far, no spoken or written language or any other means of communication exists that is
as efficient, universal and direct as visuals.
Some of the information often communicated visually bear to our safety; for example,
the ability to “read” (interpret the meaning of) the various colours of the traffic lights.
14

Another kind of information usually presented visually and one that relates to our safety
is direction on how to use a wide variety of products ranging from pesticides, machinery
and tools. In each of these cases inability to “read” the visual messages can well mean
risk to limb or life.
Besides everyday living, visual literacy is also important from an instructional viewpoint.
First, a large number of instructional media such as graphic materials, films and slides
have a visual component. They make use of the sense of sight. Second, research on
learning invariably reveals that the sense of sight is indispensable to learning. This
sensory channel contributes overwhelmingly to learning, much more than any other
sense. It is essential, therefore, that the sense of sight should be engaged if effective
learning is to be realized.
Note
In light of the importance of visual literacy in everyday life and in the learning process,
it is the responsibility of schools to ensure that learners do not leave school visually
illiterate.
2.3 How Visuals Convey Meaning
Visuals communicate meaning more readily than the written and spoken word.
This is because visuals are much more concrete and direct. Words whether written or
spoken are arbitrary symbols; they usually neither look like nor sound like the objects or
things that they represent. Visuals, on the other hand, resemble things or objects and are
thus able to communicate information much more directly.
Although visuals are suited for communication, not all visuals will communicate
information to the same degree. Different visuals present different degrees or levels of
efficacy in as far as communication is concerned. One of the major determinants of
efficacy in communication is the degree of realism presented in visuals; in other words
the extent to which a visual resembles the thing or object it represents.
It is conceivable that visuals could be arranged on a continuum according to their degree
of realism. On one extreme we would have the highly realistic visuals; and on the other,
the very abstract visuals. In-between the two extremes there would be a lot of shades of
realism. The crucial question, then, is: what degree of realism is likely to be the most
efficient communication-wise? To most people, the highly realistic visual is likely
to be thought of as the most efficient with the argument being its close resemblance to
the object or event it represents. Further, its level of detail would be seen as likely to
make interpretation much easier. Despite this, however, research seems to contradict this
view. Research shows that under certain circumstances, realism can in fact interfere with
communication and the learning. For example, the ability to sort out relevant from
irrelevant details in a visual depends on age and experience. Thus, a wealth of detail may
distract rather than enhance communication and learning. Too little detail (abstraction)
may also be disadvantageous to communication and learning; it is difficult to understand
a visual that presents too little content.
But these observations cannot be applied wholesale. The right degree of realism in a
particular lesson will depend on factors peculiar to lesson contexts. Three (3) major
factors affect the right degree of realism for instructional purposes. These are:
15

The age and level of the learners. Clearly, age and experience determines a learner’s
ability to discriminate between relevant and irrelevant details. A young learner may
be overwhelmed by too much detail making “reading” of a visual difficult.
The purpose of the lesson. If say the objective of a lesson were that the learner is to
discriminate relevant from irrelevant information, then, the visual presented for study
would have to be very realistic (contain a wealth of detail).
Learners’ picture preferences. The interest of learners cannot be ignored if
successful learning is to be achieved. This is because learners’ interests always relate
to issues of motivation. In this regard, then, a teacher planning to use a visual needs
to take into account what is likely to appeal to learners’ interests.
All in all, however, the most effective visual is usually that which presents
moderate degree of realism. Not too much or too little detail, something in-between.
The graph below illustrates the relationship between amount of learning and the
degree of realism presented in a visual. From the graph it is evident that the greatest
amount of learning will be achieved when a visual presents moderate realism.
Activity II A
Examine the graph below and comment on phenomenon happening in the points
labelled: A, B, and C. In what ways does event in position A differ from that in
position C?
2.4. The Skills of Visual Literacy
To become visually literate, one must be able:
1. to “read” visuals and,
2. to create visuals.
The ability to “read” visuals is usually referred to as the decoding skill. To decode a
B
High
AMOUNT
OF
LEARNING
C
A
Low
Very
Abstract
Highly
Realistic
DEGREE OF REALISM
16

visual, one must be able to accurately “read” visuals; in other words, to translate visual
messages into verbal messages. The second ability is usually referred to as the encoding
skill. To encode visuals, one must be able to create visuals as a tool for communicating
effectively with others.
The development of the two skills, decoding and encoding skills, requires
practice over a long period of time using the right tools and in the right environment.
These conditions must prevail where mastery of any kind of skill is required. Take for
example the skill of riding a bicycle; here, the learner must practise (as opposed to
listening to a lecture or explanation) with the right tool (a bicycle) in the right
environment (a flat terrain).
Each and every subject in the school curriculum can contribute towards the development
of the two visual literacy skills. Indeed, the skills are usually developed inadvertently. By
being aware of his/her contribution towards the development of such an important
ability, a teacher will be better able to make a better job of the task. Here below are
insights into how the skills can be developed in various subject areas.
To develop the decoding skill, learners need ample opportunities to examine and study
visuals. But seeing visuals does not always guarantee understanding it or learning from
it. To this end, therefore, a teacher must ask probing questions to find out what the
learner is seeing. This will ensure that the learner is properly studying and interpreting
the visual. The learner should subsequently get into the habit of looking at visuals more
intensely and learning to interpret visuals appropriately. Examples of learners’ tasks that
can lead towards developing the ability to decode visual include: examining, study or
analyzing diagrams, drawings, photographs, maps, charts, graphs, and so on.How one
decodes is, however, affected by two major factors. One is the age and level of the
learners and the other is the learner’s cultural background. As regards age and level, it
should be noted that young children particularly of age six and below tend to decode
visuals section by section; whereas, older learners and adults are able to see a visual as a
whole, summarize it and give a conclusion about its meaning. People who have little or
no exposure to visuals (whether they are adults or not) will generally interpret visuals the
way young children do.
Culture, on the other hand, provides a screen against which visuals are
interpreted. Take, for instance, the quality- colour. Different cultural groups attach
different meanings to different colours. Thus, when a picture is dominated by a particular
colour, this may affect the way a person interprets the picture. A colour, say black may
elicit different emotions depending on one’s cultural background. To Westerners, the
colour is usually associated with negative emotions such as death; but to an African,
black being a strong colour may elicit positive emotions such as strength, power and
success. Thus, two persons from different cultural backgrounds may actually be reading
slightly different things from a picture presented to them.
Finally, the best way to develop the encoding skill is to encourage
learners to present their ideas visually. This can be done by providing for activities such
as observational drawing, making of maps, charts, graphs, among others.
17

Activity II B
Take a topic from one of your teaching subjects and list as many learning activities
as you can that could lead to the development of each of the skills of visual literacy.
2.5. Pictures Preferred by Learners and Their Effectiveness
From the outset, it must be emphasized that the kinds of pictures or visuals people prefer
are not necessarily those from which they learn most. Whereas it is important that a
teacher tries to incorporate in his teaching the interests of his learners, s/he needs to also
consider that which is effective. If it so happens that the visual selected is that which will
appeal to learners and at the same time prove to be effective for learning then this should
be perfect. However, in some instances a teacher will need to either strike a balance or
choose one or the other. A good teacher will always strive to make the best judgment that
suits his/her circumstance.
Why do we need to consider the learner’s interest? The preference or interest of learners
relates to issues of motivation. When motivation is lacking, then we should not expect
any meaningful learning to take place.
2.5.1 Guidelines to Preferred Visuals and Effective Visuals
Research findings reveal the following points in respect to preferred visuals on
one hand and effective visuals on the other. We, here, below examine the following
pictorial qualities of visuals in respect to learner preference and effectiveness:
Coloured and black and white visuals
Most people prefer coloured visuals over black and white. However, studies
show that there is no significant difference between these visuals in as far as
learning and communication are concerned; except where colour is an important
part of what is to be learnt.
Photographs and drawings
Whereas most learners prefer photographs, in many situations drawings are more
effective. This is because drawings tend to emphasize important details.
Highly realistic and very abstract representations
Although most people prefer very realistic (detailed) visuals as opposed to
abstract representations, moderation tends to be the guideline for instructional
purposes and communication.
Simple and complex illustrations
Young children prefer simple visuals, older children, and adults- complex
visuals. Nevertheless, simple visuals are more effective irrespective of age.
2.5.2 Questions
What kinds of visuals and pictorial qualities do your learners prefer to look at?
Are these visual /pictorial qualities the most effective for learning purposes? Why? Explain
your response to the question above.
2.6. Summary
Visual literacy is the ability to create and accurately interpret visual messages. It
involves two skills- the encoding and the decoding skills. Visual literacy skills are
important in everyday living as well as in instruction and learning; accordingly, it is
essential for teachers and schools to pay deliberate attention towards the development of
18

the ability. In this lesson qualities that make visuals ideal for communication and learning
are highlighted; the skills of visual literacy and strategies for developing the skills are
delineated; factors affecting how people decode are discussed; and the visual qualities
preferred by learners as well as the efficacy-level of the qualities are detailed.
2.7. Definition of Key Terms
Visual literacy The ability to create and accurately interpret visual
messages.
The decoding skill The ability to “read” visuals; in other words, to translate
visuals into verbal; messages.
The encoding skill The ability to create visuals as a means for communicating
effectively with others.
2.8.Further Reading
Brown, W.J. AV Instruction: Media and Methods. McGraw-Hill Bk. Co., 1973.
Erant, M.(Ed), The International Encyclopedia of Educational Technology.
Pergamon Press, 1989.
Unwin, D. and Rav McAleese (Eds). The Encyclopedia of Educational Media
Communications & Technology. The MacMillian Press Ltd., 1978.
19

LESSON THREE
SYSTEMATIC PLANNING FOR THE USE OF INSTRUCTIONAL MEDIA.
3.0 Introduction
The ASSURE Model analyzes the learner's general characteristics, their
specific entry competencies, learning styles, stating the objectives, selecting
media and materials utilizing media and materials, require learner's participation,
and evaluation and revise all that you have done with the learners. Much later in
this model, we are going to go through all these steps one by one to cover the
different aspects of the model. The model has been stated in a systematic manner
to help you learn in a systematic and more coherent manner. But since the
ASSURE model is covered within the ambit of instructional technology, you are
obliged to know as part of your training the meaning of the term instructional
technology, and its concepts thereof. We are therefore going to start by stating
what you are going to cover as part of your learning objectives.
3.1 Instructional Objectives
By the end of this LESSON, the learner should be able to:
Define the term Instructional Technology
Define the concept of Instructional Technology
Define the term media
Apply media and technology as dynamic learning processes.
Identify different general uses of media.
Identify some flaws and confusions in the application and use of
media technology
Suggest different ways of avoiding such flaws and confusions.
Identify some of the most common teaching media commonly
being used in our classrooms today.
Describe six procedures (steps) in systematic planning for the use
of media. (The ASSURE MODEL).
State the criterion for the selection of the most appropriate media
Identify at least three characteristics necessary for media
selection procedures.
3.1.1 Definitions of Instructional Technology
The term technology is a systematic application of scientific or other organized
knowledge to practical tasks. Instructional technology may be defined as the
application of our scientific knowledge about human learning to the practical
tasks of teaching and learning. It is a systematic arrangement of teaching and
learning events designed to put our knowledge of learning into practice in a
predictable and effective manner to attain specific learning objectives.
Instructional technology also involves the learners' application of different
learning styles. Learning style is a cluster of psychological traits that determine
how the individual learner perceives, interacts with and responds emotionally to
learning environments. They are also fixed patterns for viewing the world
(Bonham, 1988). The main purpose of learning style is to select information to
which the learner will organize, attend, and integrate what is to be learned in a
meaningful manner. Learning styles also control and effectively moderate the
learners' different aspects of personalities. The styles also enable the learners to
adapt to different situational constraints as imposed by the different learning
20

tasks. Hence, instructional technology is the process by which instructional
problems are analysed and solutions sought through the application of
knowledge about learning, with the help of the learners and the use of media
resources.
Instructional technology is just but what it sounds like using computers, CD-
ROMs, interactive media, modems, satellites, teleconferencing, and other
technological means to support learning. Some educators believe the use of
interactive, computer-based technology is crucial to improving classroom
learning. These educators contend that advanced technology will fundamentally
change the learning process and structure. Other educators believe technology is
merely a tool that has minimal impact on the quality of learning.
3.1.2 Effects of Instructional Technology On Human Learning
Instructional technology may affect human learning in several ways. These are
through:
Curriculum
Instruction and
Assessment
3.1.3 Curriculum: Advanced technology has the potential to significantly expand the
breadth and depth of the curriculum. With the Internet for example, students can
access information far beyond the scope of their traditional textbooks. Curricula
can be individualized and adapted to students' specific learning styles.
Instructional technology therefore has the power to enhance overall knowledge
accumulation, instead of just focusing on content mastery.
3.1.4 Instruction: Advance technology could significantly affect the role of teachers,
as well as the structure of schools and classrooms. The use of instructional
technology also changes the teacher's role from an expert to a facilitator or
coach. For example, students can take courses from a global satellite feed or on
the Internet (the example of AVU at Kenyatta University). In this way, learning
can take place either at home, at place of work, or anywhere else that has the
capacity for a television, a telephone, or a computer i.e. distance or open
learning centers.
3.1.5 Assessment. Instructional technology focuses more and more on building
feedback loops directly into the learning process. Students can obtain frequent
and accurate feedback. They can also make corrections of their work on their
own and structure learning experiences around their individual needs. Offsite
instructors can monitor assessment, or it can be on going and cumulative.
Question
How does instructional technology affect learning?
3.1.6 Procedures of Instructional Technology
The procedures of instructional technology often result in the creation of new
instructional products or strategies. One major goal of the procedures is to
improve instruction by increasing effectiveness and efficiency through learning.
Since the application of instructional technology very often results in the creation
and use of media or both, all educators should have the knowledge and skills
21

necessary to use it as a means of solving instructional problems. Some educators
known as media specialists do this on a full-time basis. It is therefore within the
dockets of a teacher to apply the principles of media and instructional technology
to meet their instructional needs whether in the schoolroom, private industries,
non-profit organizations, or in the universities.
3.1.7 The Concepts of Instructional Technology
The concept of instructional technology stresses the use and application of
instructional media in the teaching learning process. The concept relates how
media and technology interacts with human learning with respect to the following
areas:
Planning
Selecting.
Designing
Using and
Evaluating all types of media with respect to human learning.
The concept not only explains how each media can be applied in human learning,
but also describes the medium's inherent capabilities. The concept therefore,
assumes that whoever is dealing with the learner in the school, as a teacher must
have had a few teaching skills before getting a chance to go to the classroom.
Going to the classroom means that the teacher must have the ability to interact,
speak, and talk to the students. This is because:
• A great deal of instruction is based on talking.
• The interaction between the teacher and the student is often the main element
that binds them together with other components of teaching.
• The way in which the teacher presents verbal information provides the
foundation for other instructional events to take place during the lesson.
• Quite a great deal of teaching is done with the help of two media i.e. (the
teacher's voice and the chalkboard). Hence, these two media of
communication provide a starting point for any instructional strategy.
However, teaching by talking involves styles that require little activity on the part
of the student. Moving a way teaching and learning out of the realm of a
spectacular spot and into the arena of active involvement is the subject covered
within the perimeters of instructional technology.
3.2 MEDIA
3.2.1 General Uses of Media
Media can be used in many different settings for different purposes. Obtaining
abundant resources for improving human performance and promoting learning
requires the following:
A broad knowledge of different media.
Abroad knowledge of different methods for designing instructions and
A broad knowledge of factors affecting learning and media use.
However, the three general uses of media are:
For entertainment
For information and
For Instruction.
3.2.2 Media for Entertainment
This includes the use of media for recreation and enjoyment. Entertainment
media include fictional stories, and radio broadcasts of music, and movies which
22

are typically shown in motion picture theatres and comedies, dramas, and
sporting events on televisions.
3.2.3 Media for Information
This is another common use of media. Through information, media increases the
level of awareness and present facts necessary for the user/consumer. Examples
in this categories are newspapers, news magazines, and their accounts on currents
events that takes place and eventually affects human balance with his natural
environment. Other print media give spellings and stock market analyses, news
broadcasts and documentaries on both radios and TVs. Computerized data bases
for information retrieval and advertisements in all media are included in this
category. Human learning at these levels are largely incidental and are not
necessarily the main intention of the senders or the receivers of information.
3.2.4 Media for Instruction
This is the third use of media. Whenever media are used for this purpose, usually,
programmes are designed intentionally to take the viewer and the listener from
the state of not knowing to one of knowing. It also takes the user or learner from
the state of poor performance to a state of competence.
3.2.5 Examples of Teaching Media Commonly Used in our Classrooms today
Blackboard, graphics, chalks, chalkboards, and text books. Yet, quite steadily,
there has been increased use of other sophisticated media technologies in our
classrooms today that we cannot enumerate all of them here. Some of these
media include.
Motion pictures, slides and slide projectors, film strips, records and
audiotapes still picture cameras and computers both hardware and software
gadgets.
The use of computers and TVs in our classrooms today increases day by day. At
the same time, the appearances of other new media technologies like videodiscs
and Liquefied Crystal Discs (LCD) have typically revolutionized our classrooms
and conferences today. The education system today is a welcome of innovations
in the education sector. Media which was originally intended as an entertainment
or information device can now be used as an instructional device with some few
adaptations and moderation where necessary. Such uses require some
adaptations, extra guidance, careful selection, planning, preparations, analyses,
utilization, learners' participation, and proper evaluation before it is put into
practice. Teachers of Literature or drama may require showing short cartoon
films or excerpts from motion pictures to illustrate a lesson on humour. Hence,
the effectiveness of the lesson will automatically depend on the teacher's careful
structuring of the most appropriate examples and class discussions to give a well-
intended output. Incorporating newspapers or reference books into lessons can
help to teach reading skills and improve language status of the learners. Such
media that the teacher incorporates with learning activities may enhance media
technology into mechanisms of learning.
3.2.6 Some Flaws/Confusions in the Application and Use of Media Technology
The adaptation of media, which is originally intended for a particular purpose, is
a good sign of practice when appropriately applied. However, problems, flaws
and confusions arises when:
The methods of creating entertainment and information programmes are
confused with methods of creating instructional programmes.
Contending every instructional programme with commercial televisions.
23

Most programmes for teaching and training are presented in settings where
students or trainees are cumbered by distractions or by the learners that are
not highly motivated to learn.
Boring programmes are being used.
Entertainment in some programmes may interfere with learning, hence,
unnecessarily increases instructional time and expenses.
Activity III- A
Media which was originally intended as an entertainment or information
device can now be used as instructional devices with few adaptations
and moderation where necessary. Elucidate with reference to the
context.
Identify some flaws and confusions in the application and use of media
technology.
3.2.7 Different Ways of Avoiding Such Flaws and Confusions
Make instructions enjoyable but not at the expense of efficiency and
effectiveness.
The difference between the methods of creating entertainment and
information programmes should be clearly stated to avoid confusion
with the methods of creating instructional programmes.
Avoid contending every instructional programme with commercial
Televisions.
Most programmes for education and training should be presented in
settings where students and trainees are unnumbered/ bothered by
distractions and the learners who are not highly motivated to learn.
Promote interactive, interesting, but not boring instructional
programmes.
Avoid programmes which may unnecessarily interfere with learning or
increases instructional time expenses of the learner.
3.2.8 Definition
Media are the means (usually audiovisual Electronics) used for transmitting or
delivering messages. It includes such gadgets like:
Print Media
Graphics
Audio-Communications
TV sets and Monitors
Simulation and Games and
Computers.
Hence, media may be subdivided as Print and Non-Print Media having two main
components.
3.2.9 Components of Media
There are two main components of media. These are:
Hardware and
Software.
3.2.9.1 Hardware. This is the type of equipment needed to produce and present
information. It is also the machinery or device used to produce or present a
message.
♠ Examples of Hardware Devices
Film Projectors
Tape recorders
Over Head Projectors (OHPs)
24

Transparency Projectors
Record Players
TV Monitors and
Computer Terminals
3.2.9.2 Software Devices
In software devices, all information is placed upon these materials. They are the
materials that are transmitted through Hardware.
♠ Examples of Software Devices
Films
Audio tapes
Transparencies
Records
Video tapes and
Computer Programmes
Activity III-B
Define the term Media.
What are the various components of Media
Identify the principles that influence the application, designing,
and use of media
Identify common results responsible for the application of media
and technology as dynamic learning processes.
3.2.10 Application of Media
The application of the principles for designing instruction and using media is
influenced by factors like:
Nature of the students.
Constraints of time and resources
What media and technology will be expected to accomplish.
How ready people are to accept innovations that might results and
How decisions concerning technology and media are made.
3.2.11 Application of Media and Technology as Dynamic Learning Processes
The application of media using knowledge to solve problems and implement
desirable learning outcomes involve procedures like:
Identification of appropriate theory and relevant resources to solve
problems involving learning and performance.
Prioritization (setting up) as to which problems are to be solved first and
Finding out Procedures and Techniques necessary for the application of
theory and resources.
3.2.12 Common Results Responsible for the Application of Media and Technology
as Dynamic Learning Processes
Common results responsible for the application of media and technology as
dynamic learning processes require knowledge of the capabilities and limitations
of different instructional media. Both teachers and trainers who contemplate to
develop and use mediated instructions should first find out what others have done
and how successful or unsuccessful they have been in similar circumstances. In
this way, they can benefit from other's experiences and avoid mistakes or
duplication. Perhaps, they may exchange information with similar persons doing
similar work. This may help avoid time constraints, financial limitations, and
25

administrative problems arising from different opinions, ideas and opposing
attitudes from different managers and supervisors. However, a dynamic learning
process involve parameters like:
Acquisition of new knowledge that can often guide future applications.
Adoption and adaptation of existing products, methods and approaches and
Development of new products, methods and new approaches to teaching and
training.
Note
Other dynamic factors like Knowledge of theories and Knowledge of
resources are also responsible for the application of media technology.
The theories that practitioners who teach with media and technology use
come from researches conducted from many disciplines like
psychology, communications, evaluation, and economics. Theories have
great practical relevance in the field of education and training. Some of
the most important experimental psychologists who have contributed to
the field of education were people of great repute in this discipline. A
quick overview of their contribution has been stated hereunder.
Thorndike E.L.(1874-1949)-Fundamental Gulf Between Man and
Animal (The Law of Effect)
B.F.Skinner(1904)- Operant conditioning.
Guthrie E.R.(1886-1959).Contiguity.
Pavlov I.P. (11849-1936). Classical Conditioning.
Watson J.B. (1878-1958). Connectionist. The Nervous System.
Tolman E.C. (1886-111959). The Goal Theory-Adaptive, Creative and
Intelligence aspects of behavior.
Hull E.C. (1884-1952) - Systems Behavior.
Experimental Psychologists have discovered that behavior reinforced (Reward)
increases frequency of occurrence. Whereas that which is scolded (Punished),
decreases the occurrence. Thorndike's (1874-1949), Law of Effect maintains that
learning consists of strengthening of connections between a stimuli situation and
a response. If this connection is strengthened, (Reinforced), then, the response
has the effect of producing satisfaction to the animal and not weakened.
However, if the response has the effect of producing discomfort or an annoying
state of affairs, then, extinction occurs.
3.2.13 Educational Implication of the Theory on both Human and Animal
Organisms
Learning is an automatic process that builds a direct connection between
the stimulus and the response (S=>R) with animal awareness. This has
brought about improved performance over the trials.
26

3.2.14 Educational Implications of the Law on Human Organism
Praise, Power, Recognition, and Success are all satisfying to human
organism. Human motivation depends upon certain characteristics of
each individual and the immediate circumstances.
However, one basic principle of Thorndike's Law of Readiness is that
particular states of affair will prove to be satisfying only to the extent
that the subject is ready for it. Food is a satisfier (Reinforcer) only
when the organism is hungry (Stimulus).
Evasive Case: However, if a certain state of affair may be an annoyer
just because of the momentary state of the organism, then, the organism
will adopt a conflict avoidance situation. Like in the case of an electric
shock.
3.2.15 Impact of Thorndike's Contributions
Learning depends upon the occurrence of particular events, which today
are termed as reinforcers.
All learning involves the formation of new (S=>R) connections.
Learning in human beings was supposed to involve the association of
ideas. However, Thorndike gave us a new alternative on human
learning.
The basic LESSON used for describing behavior was no longer to be an
idea or a nerve cell, rather, it was to be the S=>R connections.
Learning involves association, but it is S and R elements that are
connected.
This proposal was a radical departure from an earlier established
thinking.
Thorndike brokered the mentalistic-mechanistic, intelligence-instinct or
Man-Animal Dualism that had such a hold upon psychological thought
at the turn of the century.
He gave us the concept of reinforcement, the idea that learning occurs
when a response produces a particular kind of event like a satisfying
state of affair.
He introduced a variety of experimental techniques for studying human
learning and verbal behavior.
Note
Teachers and trainers can use reinforcement to improve performance.
Other reinforcements like prize giving, praise, gold-medals, giving free
time to school that perform better or well in school increases the
probability that high performance level will continue. Likewise,
employees who receive time off, bonuses and other incentives tend to
increase their workload and responsibilities leading to high productivity.
27

Activity III- C
These activities are based on the discussions from the text: Answer all of
them:
What is the difference between technology of education and
educational technology?
What is Instructional Technology?
What is a software device?
What are the differences between a software device and a hardware
device?
Explain the meaning of Media and Instruction?
What are learning styles?
What are the educational implications of Thorndike's Law of Effect
on Human learning?
Explain into details the meaning of these statements:
∗ A particular state of affair will prove to be satisfying only to the
extent that the subject is ready for it.'
∗ Sometimes, merely making a particular response in a given
situation will strengthen the connection between S=>R'.
Identify common results responsible for the application of media and
technology as dynamic learning processes.
3 . 3 The ASSURE Model
All effective instructions require careful planning. The ASSURE Model is a well-
constructed procedural model designed to ensure effective use of media
instruction. It is also a guide for planning and conducting instructions that
incorporates media. Teaching with instructional media has become paramount.
Since the ASSURE Model is a procedural guide for planning and conducting
instruction that incorporates media. This subsection of the model assumes that
training or instruction really is required where students are to use a new
laboratory microscope or how to handle toxic materials. This LESSON further
continues to examine how to plan systematically for the effective use of
instructional media. The Model therefore focuses on planning surrounding the
actual classroom use of media.
Note
Suppose a teacher wants to teach Form -I students the following:
How to use and operate microscopes in a laboratory.
How to safely handle toxic materials or
How to operate a video camera, an OHP, a film projector etc.
The ASSURE Model through careful planning will help the teacher to focus on
how to handle such situations well in advance before the lesson begins. The
teacher will have to plan, on what materials to use, how to use them, where to get
them and decide on the cost effectiveness of the materials and their availability.
The model is less ambitious than other models of instructional development,
which are intended to guide the entire process of designing instructional systems.
Such processes are required to undergo other procedures like:
Needs Analysis
Product Design
28

Prototype -tryout
System Implementation and
Evaluation and Assessment procedures.
These larger-scale instructional development procedures typically involve teams
of specialists and require major commitments in terms of time and money. Yet,
this long-term procedure is not within the purview of the model. Above all, the
model is meant for use by the individual teachers in planning everyday classroom
use of media. The model was the brainchild of Molenda, M.; Russell. J. D. and
Heinich. R R. (1989; 1993). The model therefore proposes six steps or procedures
in Systematic Planning for the Use of Media. These were given in the form of
Acronym ASSURE which means:
A- Analyse the Learners.
S- State the Objectives
S- Select Media and Materials
U- Utilize Media and Materials
R- Require the Learners Participation
E- Evaluate and Revise.
The six different steps of Systematic Planning for the Use of Media are discussed
hereunder.
3.3.1 STEP IAnalyse the Learners
The first step or procedure in planning is to identify the learners who may be the
students, trainees or members of any organization. As a teacher, you must know
your students thoroughly to enable you select the best media to meet your
objectives. The effective use of instructional media involves a match between the
learners' characteristics and the content of the lesson, and its presentation. The
first step in the ASSURE model is therefore the Analysis of the audience
(learners). Analysing the learners also involve knowing the learner's general
characteristics, their specific entry competencies, their learner's learning styles,
analysing more on their information-processing habits, motivational factors and
psychological factors as well. Psychological factors are more related to sex
differences, health and environmental conditions. These factors obviously
influence the effectiveness of learning. In specific entry competencies,
researchers have stressed more on the entry competencies through informal
means such as , in-class-questioning, out-of -class interviews, testing- with-
standardized or teacher-made-tests. Hence, entry tests are assessments, both
formal and informal, that determine whether or not the student possess the
necessary pre-requisites (entry-skills) which are the competencies the learner
must possess in order to benefit from the instruction.
29

Note
In view of the above discussions, we may conclude this step by summarizing and
identifying several factors about the learners that must be considered for making
good and judicious decisions on media selection. These factors are as stated
below:
General Characteristics: whereby broad-identifying descriptions must be
identified. They include the following:
∗ Age factor, Grade Level, Job Positions, Cultural back -ground and Socio-
economic status of the learners: These are the factors that are not in
anyway, related to the lesson-content. They help the teacher to determine
the level of the lesson and select contexts and examples that are
meaningful to the audience (students).
Specification of the Entry Competencies: These include:
∗ Knowledge and skills that the learners have or lack. They are sometimes
referred to, as the (pre-requisite skills) needed by the leaner to start
instruction. Do the learners have the knowledge base required to enter the
lesson. Form I students must have undergone Standard VIII and
successfully passed K C P E.
∗ Mastery: Have they mastered some of the skills you are planning to teach?
∗ Attitude: Are there biases or misconceptions about the subject or the
teacher?
3.3.2 STEP II State the Objectives
This is the second step of the ASSURE Model. Objectives must be stated as
specifically as possible. They must be derived from a course, a syllabus stated in
a textbook, taken from a curriculum guide or developed by the teacher. Every
activity has an objective. Objectives are unifying statements for our daily and
future activities. Objectives may be imposed on or even offered to us by someone
and may even be of our own making. They may be conceived as points marking
the achievements of some effort, ambition, or accomplishment. All objectives rest
upon an assumption or underlying complex of value. They lie at the very heart of
a planning process. Planning objectives enables the teacher to command the
future rather than be commanded by it. Planning a head makes it possible
anticipate and hopefully avoid unforeseen classroom difficulties.
3.3.2.1 Importance of Stating Objectives
Stating the objectives require the teacher to analyse and understand the following
questions.
What do you hope to accomplish by the end of the instruction and how much
time do you need to present the lesson effectively and successfully? Above all,
limit your objectives and content on the available time.
As a teacher, you must know your instructional objectives thoroughly in order to
make the correct selection and judgments of media and methods to be used. Your
objectives will undoubtedly dictate your choice of media and the sequence of
learning activities.
30

To create a conducive and relevant learning environment in which specific
objectives can be reached i.e. to solve quadratic equations correctly within five
minutes; to change a flat tyre within seven minutes. The learning environment
here must include a sum to be solved, time probably a stopwatch, and a car with a
flat tyre.
To help assure proper evaluation. The teacher will not know if the learners have
achieved the objective unless proper evaluation is done. Without explicit
objectives, students will not know what is expected of them.
Objectives must dictate the choice of media and the learning sequence (activities)
To enable teaching and learning environment become objectively oriented.
Before we conclude this step, it is imperative to say that a statement of objective
is a type of contract between the teacher and the learner.
Note
• Objectives state what learning goals each learner is expected to
reach.
• What new capability should the learner possess at the completion of
instruction. Thus, objectives are not statements of what the teacher
plans to put into the lesson, but, rather, of what the learner ought to
get out of the lesson. Hence, statements of objectives must be:
∗ Specific. The required responses must be acceptable as adequate.
Attempts to describe in the clearest term possible, exactly what a
student will think, act, or feel at the end of a learning experience.
∗ Measurable in Behavioural Terms: Must show details of desired
behaviour,
∗ Observable. Details of any limiting conditions under which the
responses will be gauged must be observed. and
∗ Achievable. Just like goals describe destinations or events, so,
objectives (specific) describes an activity that the learner will be
able to do in order to demonstrate mastery.
Relevancy. Objectives must demonstrate to be related to the real world
and to the problems at hand. Such abstracts, and isolated activities, which
are unrelated to human concerns, are likely to be regarded as irrelevant,
unless steps are taken to demonstrate their utility. Objectives therefore give
clarifications to the intentions for a learning situation.
3.3.2.2 Characteristics of a well stated objective
A well stated objective starts:
By naming the audience or the learners for whom the objective is intended. The
teacher must give major focus on what the learner is doing rather than what the
teacher is doing. In this way, learning is most likely to take place when the
learner is active, mentally processing an idea, and physically practicing a skill.
This is because, accomplishment of an objective depends upon what the learner
does, but not what the teacher do. All specific objectives must begin by stating
whose capability is going to be changed.
To specify the behavior or capability to be learned and the conditions under
which capability will be observed. Objectives must be stated in observable and in
behavioural terms. What will the learner be able to do by the end instruction?
Vague terms like understand, know, and appreciate do not communicate the aim
clearly. Behaviours, which denote observable performance, are Recall, Revise,
31

Demonstrate, Generate, Define, Categorize, Apply, Plot, Select, Illustrate, Solve,
Devise, Categorize, Compute, Write, Describe, Devise, Label, and Classify etc
are action oriented. Hence, recommended for writing objectives.
Conditions: Any statement of the objective must include conditions under which
performance is to be observed. Given a political map of East Africa, the learner
will be able to mark the major coal mining areas without referring to the
atlas.(any library material, seeking the help of the teacher etc)
To specify the degree to which the new skills must be mastered i.e. the standard
by which, the capability can be judged. This is the final requirement of a well-
stated objective. It usually indicates the standard under which performance must
be judged. It also states the criterion which acceptable performance will be
fulfilled. To what degree of accuracy or proficiency must the learner display? (Be
judged?). Whether the criteria is stated in qualitative or quantitative terms, they
should be based on some real world requirements i.e. How well must a mechanic
be able to operate a lathe in order to be a productive employee? How much time
should the learner take to be able to solve quadratic equations? (5Minutes).
Activity III-D
After going through the second step of the ASSURE Model, you should try to
attempt the following activities stated below.
What is the importance of stating instructional objectives?
What are the major characteristics of a well-stated objective?
It has been established that a well-stated objective caters for the audience
or learners behaviour (capabilities), conditions, and degree or criteria by
which acceptable performance will be judged. Elucidate.
In any one of your teaching subjects, write at least five objectives that
include the learner's, behavioural outcome, and conditions (if appropriate)
and degree of mastery.
Write at least six objectives into the following domains and skills:
Cognitive, Affective, and Psychomotor Domains, and Motor and
Interpersonal Skills.
3.3.3 STEP III Selecting Media and Material
A systematic plan for using media demands that media be selected systematically.
The selection process involves, choosing an appropriate media format and,
selecting, modifying, and designing specific materials within that format. There
are four main procedures involved in the selection, modifying, and designing
specific materials. Media selection usually takes different forms. Within these,
instructional situations may take different settings in the form of large group
format, small group, or self-instruction formats. Due consideration must take care
of other key players of learner variables such as reader, non-reader, or auditory
preference and the nature of the objectives like cognitive, affective, and
psychomotor domains and interpersonal skills. Selection of instructional media
must also give more preferences against the presentational capabilities of each of
the media formats e.g. presenting still visuals, motion visuals, and printed and
spoken words. Above all, selection of an appropriate media must give feedback to
both the learner and the teacher. There are certain procedures to be followed when
selecting an appropriate media. These procedures are:
Choose the Media Format,
32

Obtaining Specific Materials,
Survey the Sources,
Modifying available Materials and
Design New Materials.
We can now discuss very briefly about these procedures to be followed when
selecting media.
3.3.3.1 Obtaining Specific Materials
As a teacher, having decided what media format suits your immediate
instructional objective, your main task now is to find out specific materials to
convey your lesson so that the learners can be in a position to learn effectively.
Obtaining specific and appropriate materials involve the following alternatives.
Selecting available materials. If materials are already available that will
allow your students to meet your objectives; then, the materials should be
used to save both time and money. Majority of instructional materials used by
teachers today is ready-made, available in most schools, districts, or Teachers'
Advisory Centers (TAC) and most of them are commonly found on the
shelves in the schools. It is therefore the duty of the teacher to source out
these learning resources and make sure that they are easily available in their
institutions ready for classroom use.
3.3.3.2 Modifying the available and existing materials. However, when the media and
the available material do not meet the requirements of your audience, then
modify them to suit your objectives and needs of the learners. This could be done
if as a teacher you survey some of the published media reference guides to get a
general idea of what is available or not. Modification of the media also comes in
when you cannot locate suitable materials and media in the shelves or at the
various resource centers nearer to you.
33

3.3.3.3 Designing new materials. However, if no alternatives match your needs, then
design your own materials. It is much easier and less costly to use available
materials and media without modification than to start from the scratch.
Note
Certain basic considerations must be taken into account when designing new
materials. These are:
Objectives. What do you want your students to learn?
Audience.What are the characteristics of your audience/learners? Do
they have the pre-requisite knowledge and skills to use or learn from
the materials?
Cost.Is sufficient money available in your budget to meet the cost of
supplies (films, audio tapes, videocassettes and TV sets etc? If not,
then you will need to prepare the materials yourself.
Technical Expertise. Do you have the necessary expertise to design
and produce the kind of materials you wish to use? If not, will the
necessary technical assistance be available to you? Try to keep your
design within the range of your own capabilities. Do not waste time
and money trying to produce expensive materials.
Equipment. Do you have available the necessary equipment to
produce or use the materials you intend to design?
Facilities. If your design calls for use of special facilities for
preparation or use of your materials, are such materials available?
Time. Can you afford to spend whatever time may be necessary to
design and produce the kind of materials you have in mind?
Question
What are the basic procedures for selecting, modifying and designing
instructional materials?
Indicate when each procedure is appropriate.
List two general characteristics of the learners and two types of specific
competencies that could affect media selection.
Select a topic in your subject area and suggest two media that would be
appropriate for use in your teaching.
Discuss in your own words, how each of the above procedures may
effectively contribute to the selection of media and materials.
3.3.4 STEP-IV Utilize Media and Materials
This is the fourth step of systematic plan for using media. This step involves the
following procedures:
Preview of the Materials,
Practice the Presentations,
Prepare the Learning Environment,
Prepare the Audience/Learner,
Require/Seek for the Learner's Active Participation and Present the Material.
Let us discuss very briefly one by one all the five procedures involved in the
utilization of media and materials.
34

3.3.4.1 Preview of the Materials
As we have discussed earlier during the selection process, you as a teacher, you
should have determined that the objectives and materials you are going to use in
your lesson are appropriate for your audience/learners. Before you go to class,
you must ensure that you have a full mastery of the materials to be effectively
used in your class. Previewing the materials in advance enables you to detect
some parts, which might be objectionable or distract the class participation. It
also enables you to eliminate some sensitive sections or if need be, discuss with
them in advance those portions which might cause ripples in the class. This will
let the learners be aware of what is to take place in advance and avoid classroom
embarrassment.
3.3.4.2 Practice the Presentation
Previewing the materials leads us to actual practice of some important portions of
the presentation. It is advisable for the teacher to go through the presentation at
least once well in advance and then to review your notes just immediately before
the presentation. During this reviewing process, you should avoid over practice.
Depending on the nature of the available resources you have, you should always
try to get some feedback during practice time. Some teachers prefer using
mirrors, others like to have a colleague/friend around to provide feedback.
Usually, and depending on its availability, always try to use media to provide you
with feedback. The type of media can be audiotape, or video recorder, which can
give an accurate replay while practicing the presentation. These two types of
media will not only let you hear what you said but see yourself presenting. This
will definitely make you improve and correct yourself where you went wrong.
Note
It is important for us to tell you that you should observe the following:
That during the practicing time, the newness of the material, the
importance of the presentation, and the amount of time available will
automatically determine how many times you should practice.
Always try to use a real mirror, a friend, an audiotape, or a video
cassette recorder for immediate feedback.
That the importance of practice cannot be overstated. Do not just walk
through it in your mind but you should actually stand up and practice it.
3.3.4.3 Prepare the Learning Environment
Depending on the place where presentation may take place, always remember to
consider the following factors, which might make delivery of instruction become
more comfortable.
Consider the seating plan of the class.
Adequate ventilation.
Suitable lighting.
A good conducive classroom climate.
Many media require a darkened room, a convenient power supply, and access
to light and switches. Ensure that all these facilities are available at the right
time before you begin your lesson.
As a teacher, you should always check if the equipment is in good working
order.
Always try to arrange the facilities in such a way that the learners, audience
can see and hear properly whatever is going on in the classroom.
35

3.3.4.4 Prepare the Audience/Learner
Various researches conducted on human learning have concluded that whatever is
learned from a presentation depends highly on how the learners are prepared for
the presentation. Starting a lesson by giving a broad overview of the content and
its rationale. Telling the learner how the content is related to the topic being
studied. At the same time, giving motivating statements, which relates to the
content will definitely capture the learner's attention and interests. This is
sometimes termed as giving warm-up to the learner in preparation for the real
classroom presentation. Warm ups prepare the learners to have the need and urge
to know how they are going to profit from paying attention and provide cues
which directs their attention to specific aspects of the presentation.
3.3.4.5 Present the Material.
This is the most opportune time you have been preparing for. You are therefore
ready to show your learners that you really know your subject matter quite well.
You have to control the attention of your students during the presentation time.
You are therefore considered to act like a general showmanship that you are in
charge of the class. The success of the lesson will depend on how you present the
lesson and how you conduct yourself throughout the entire period.
ACTIVITY III E
Give examples of five basic procedures in Utilizing Instructional
Materials.
Explain how these five basic procedures may be used effectively to aid
teaching learning process.
Describe several methods for eliciting student response during and after
using media.
Justify the need for requiring the learner's response when using media.
3.3.5 STEP V Require Learner Response
The fifth step in the ASSURE Model is to provide opportunities for learners to
practice the capability of being taught. This is because active participation in the
learning process enhances learning. In order to enhance active classroom
participation, the teacher should incorporate topics, which promote more
classrooms activities. Such topics are, class discussions, short quizzes, and
application exercises. These may provide immediate response and reinforcement
during instruction. Follow-up activities may also provide further opportunities for
learning. At the same time, teachers' guides and manuals that accompany
instructions elicit a lot of learner's responses and reinforcement during
instruction. Since the utmost aim of the teacher is to provide learning, it is his/her
utmost duty to ensure that meaningful learning is actually taking place during
instruction. Several researchers and psychologists have realized that active
participation in the classroom learning process enhances meaningful learning.
Some of their contributions, which gave more emphasis on active learner
participation, have been highlighted hereunder.
36

Note
Contributors of Learner's Active Participation
•
•
•
•
In the early 1900s, John Dewey campaigned for the reorganization of
curriculum and instruction to make students participation a central
part of the teaching learning process.
B.F.Skinner, a behavioural psychologist demonstrated that
instructions providing for constant reinforcement of desired
behaviour are more effective than instruction in which responses are
not reinforced.
Cognitive theories of learning, more recently focused on internal
mental processes and have also supported the principle that effective
learning demands active manipulation of information by the learners.
Gagne. R.M. (1985), concluded that there are several necessary
conditions for effective learning of each type of objective. Gagne
therefore asserted that:
∗ The one condition that pertains to all objectives is practice of
the desired skills.
∗ The most effective learning situations are those that require
learners to perform activities that build toward the objective.
The form of participation may include repetitive drill of new spelling or
vocabulary words, solving mathematical problems, rehearsal of a basketball
play, and creating an original product such as term paper.
3.3.6 STEP VI Evaluate/Revise
There is need for teachers to know the total picture of the entire instructional
episode being undertaken in any instruction. The teacher is the master and
essential player in the game of teaching learning process. He is the one in charge
of everything going on in the classroom. While in the classroom, the teacher's
duty is to facilitate meaningful learning. Evaluating and revising instruction
definitely makes the teacher aware of any loophole if any in his lesson. In order
to do this he needs to:
To get the total picture of the entire instructional process very clearly.
Ask himself, did the learners meet the objectives?
Did the media use help in assisting the learners reaching the objectives? and
Did all the learners use the materials properly? etc.
After going through this type of checklist, you are likely to identify some
discrepancies. Wherever there are discrepancies between what you intended to do
and what you actually attained, you need to revise your plan for the next attempt.
There are many different types of evaluating the learners. For proper evaluation
to take place, the teacher should try to evaluate the student's achievement, media
and methods used during instruction, and evaluation of the entire instructional
process.
One utmost question in the instructional process is whether or not the students
have learned what they were supposed to learn. Are they able to display the
capabilities specified in the original statements of objectives? When the
objectives were formulated in the initial stage, remember to include statements of
objectives criteria of acceptable performance which will be evaluated by the end
of instruction because you must assess whether the learner's skills meet that
criteria. The method of evaluating achievement also depends on the nature of the
37

objective itself. Some objectives call for relatively simple cognitive skills, others
may call for process- type behaviour i.e. (operating a lathe machine, and solving
quadratic equations, and observing safety procedures in the laboratory etc).
Lastly, evaluating objectives must indicate that the learners have the capabilities
of the process, product, or attribute to solve problems. Evaluation must also show
that the learner by the end of instruction must display a behavior in action. This
means setting up a situation where the learner must demonstrate the new skills in
which instructional judgment can be based. Although attitudes are rather difficult
to evaluate at all time, setting up long time goals and observation may be required
to determine if the learner really attained the goals set. Depending on the
outcomes of your evaluation, you as a teacher will be free to Revise the
instruction. Revising and evaluation of instruction are essential elements that
determine whether or not the lesson is a success.
Activity III F
In view of the topic discussed in the last step of systematic planning
for the use of media, briefly discuss how you would
Evaluate media and the methods used during instruction.
Evaluate the learner's achievement
Evaluate his/her performance and attitude towards the instruction.
Evaluate the instructional objectives. Were the objectives very clear?
/Unclear? Dull?
Appraise the modules/content used. Was the lesson very interesting?,
Dull? Was the module difficult? Simple? etc.
Hints
The hints listed below are meant to enable you gain more confidence before you
go to class to meet your students.
Always Remember to Mentally run through the presentation to review
each idea in sequence.
Do a stand-up rehearsal of your presentation. Try to practice in the room
where you will be presenting or the one similar to it. Give a simulated
presentation, idea for idea (but not word for word) using all visual aids
and props.
Practice answers to questions you anticipate from the audience or
learners.
Videotape or (audiotape) yourself or have a colleague sit on your
rehearsal to give you immediate feedback.
Always Use Keyword Notes. Not a script. Print keywords on index
cards. Never Read from a script because written language is different
from spoken language.
38

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