The document summarizes 5 studies that examined the use of motor skills and technology to improve dysgraphia in elementary students. Study 1 found that students with DCD had poorer handwriting and more difficulty learning a new letter than peers. Study 2 found students with lower self-efficacy regarding handwriting also performed worse. Study 3 found computer-assisted practice improved handwriting more than traditional methods. Study 4 showed handwriting biomechanics deteriorated more over time in students with dysgraphia. Study 5 examined using computer programs to improve visual perception and motor integration for Chinese handwriting.

1. The Use of Motor Skills to
Improve Dysgraphia in
Elementary Students
By: Angela Horne
EDN 501

2. What is dysgraphia?
 “Dysgraphia is a learning disability that affects writing
abilities. It can manifest itself as difficulties with spelling,
poor handwriting and trouble putting thoughts on paper.
Because writing requires a complex set of motor and
information processing skills, saying a student has
dysgraphia is not sufficient. A student with disorders in
written expression will benefit from specific
accommodations in the learning environment, as well as
additional practice learning the skills required to be an
accomplished writer.”
ldonline.org/article/12770

3. Study 1: Graphomotor skills in children with
developmental coordination disorder (DCD):
Handwriting and learning a new letter.
 Purpose of Investigation:
 analyze the specific handwriting difficulties children with developmental
coordination disorder (DCD), and test the hypothesis that a deficit in procedural
learning could offer an explanation.
 compare handwriting performance of children with DCD to a non-DCD group,
relying on motor skills in handwriting and learning a new letter using a graphic
tablet.
 The study also narrowed in on how a student with and without DCD process how
to write a letter, a word and a whole sentence.
Huau, A., Velay, J., & Jover, M. (2015). Graphomotor skills in children with developmental coordination
disorder (DCD): Handwriting and learning a new letter. Human Movement Science, 42, 318-332.
Doi:10.1016.j.humov.2015.03.008

4. Study 1: Graphomotor skills in children with
developmental coordination disorder (DCD):
Handwriting and learning a new letter.
 Procedure:
 Students were asked to reproduce a made up “sign” on a
graphic tablet.
 Student was asked to copy the sign six times with model
 The model was then removed, and students were expected
to copy the sign again
 Students were asked to do this in “normal” and “fast” speed
 Study continued with words, and eventually sentences.
Huau, A., Velay, J., & Jover, M. (2015). Graphomotor skills in children with developmental coordination
disorder (DCD): Handwriting and learning a new letter. Human Movement Science, 42, 318-332.
Doi:10.1016.j.humov.2015.03.008

5. Huau, A., Velay, J., & Jover, M. (2015). Graphomotor skills in children with developmental coordination
disorder (DCD): Handwriting and learning a new letter. Human Movement Science, 42, 318-332.
Doi:10.1016.j.humov.2015.03.008

6. Study 1 Results
Huau, A., Velay, J., & Jover, M. (2015). Graphomotor skills in children with developmental coordination
disorder (DCD): Handwriting and learning a new letter. Human Movement Science, 42, 318-332.
Doi:10.1016.j.humov.2015.03.008

7. Study 1:
Results
Huau, A., Velay, J., & Jover, M. (2015). Graphomotor skills in children with developmental coordination
disorder (DCD): Handwriting and learning a new letter. Human Movement Science, 42, 318-332.
Doi:10.1016.j.humov.2015.03.008

8. Study 1: Results Debriefed
 Ultimately, children with DCD produced poorer quality new letters than non-DCD
children.
 Also, students with DCD also demonstrated that they made more “stops” in their
writing when the model was removed than non-DCD children.
 Children with DCD had difficulty performing this lengthy handwriting task. Half of
them exhibited dysgraphia, and none scored above the mean for handwriting quality.
The generally lower level in the children with DCD is consistent with previous studies
reporting impaired handwriting in DCD in a number of different tests.” (Huau, Velay,
Jover, 328)
 In regards to the procedural learning deficit hypothesis, it was expected that
children with DCD and non-DCD children would demonstrate a clear-cut difference
when learning a new letter. These results were not as clear as expected.
 Non-DCD children did produce better quality “new letters”, but the effect of
sequence did not significantly increase quality during the learning process. Both
groups of children performed similarly.
Huau, A., Velay, J., & Jover, M. (2015). Graphomotor skills in children with developmental coordination
disorder (DCD): Handwriting and learning a new letter. Human Movement Science, 42, 318-332.
Doi:10.1016.j.humov.2015.03.008

9. Study 2: Handwriting Performance, Self-
Reports, and Perceived Self-Efficacy Among
Children With Dysgraphia
 Purpose: To examine the relationships between
children’s self-reports of their handwriting
performance, their actual production of handwriting,
examined the relationships between children’s self-
reports on their handwriting, and their perceived
self-efficacy, and relate it to the possibility of
improving their hand writing skills.
Engel-Yeger, B., Nagauker-Yanuv, L., & Rosenblum, S. (2009). Handwriting Performance, Self-Reports, and Perceived Self-
Efficacy Among Children With Dysgraphia. American Journal of Occupational Therapy, 63(2), 182-192. Doi:
10.5014/ajot.63.2.182

10. Study 2:
 Methods:
 Students began by completing the Children’s
Questionnaire for Handwriting Proficiency (CHaP)
 The Perceived Efficacy and Goal Setting System
(PEGS)
 and then completing a copying task from the
Hebrew Handwriting Evaluation (HHE) through use
of the Computerized Penmanship Evaluation Tool
(ComPET).
Engel-Yeger, B., Nagauker-Yanuv, L., & Rosenblum, S. (2009). Handwriting Performance, Self-Reports, and Perceived Self-
Efficacy Among Children With Dysgraphia. American Journal of Occupational Therapy, 63(2), 182-192. Doi:
10.5014/ajot.63.2.182

11. Study 2:
 Results:
 “When examining the relationship between the
CHaP and handwriting process and product
measures, it was found that children with
dysgraphia who exhibited lower self-efficacy
regarding handwriting abilities indeed had
impaired handwriting processes and products, as
manifested in impaired fluency and spatial
arrangement and slower handwriting velocity.”
(189)
Engel-Yeger, B., Nagauker-Yanuv, L., & Rosenblum, S. (2009). Handwriting Performance, Self-Reports, and Perceived Self-
Efficacy Among Children With Dysgraphia. American Journal of Occupational Therapy, 63(2), 182-192. Doi:
10.5014/ajot.63.2.182

12. Study 3: The Effect of Computer-Assisted
Therapeutic Practice for Children with
Handwriting Deficit: A Comparison with the
Effect of the Traditional Sensorimotor
Approach.
Purpose: to compare the effects of
computerized-assisted practice with the
sensorimotor approach to remediate
students with dysgraphia.
Chang, S., & Yu, N. (2014). The effect of computer-assisted therapeutic practice for children with handwriting deficit: A
comparison with the effect of the traditional sensorimotor approach. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 35(7),
1648-1657. doi:10.1016/j.ridd.2014.03.024

13. Study 3:
Computerized
Assistance
Chang, S., & Yu, N. (2014). The effect of computer-assisted therapeutic practice for children with handwriting deficit: A
comparison with the effect of the traditional sensorimotor approach. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 35(7),
1648-1657. doi:10.1016/j.ridd.2014.03.024

14. Study 3 Results
Chang, S., & Yu, N. (2014). The effect of computer-assisted therapeutic practice for children with handwriting deficit: A
comparison with the effect of the traditional sensorimotor approach. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 35(7),
1648-1657. doi:10.1016/j.ridd.2014.03.024

15. Study 3 Results:
Chang, S., & Yu, N. (2014). The effect of computer-assisted therapeutic practice for children with handwriting deficit: A
comparison with the effect of the traditional sensorimotor approach. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 35(7),
1648-1657. doi:10.1016/j.ridd.2014.03.024

16. Study 4: Changes in Kinetics and Kinematics
of Handwriting During a Prolonged
Writing Task in Children with and without
Dysgraphia
Purpose: to examine the changes in the
biomechanics of handwriting over a
prolonged writing task.
Kushki, A., Schwellnus, H., Ilyas, F., & Chau, T. (2011). Changes in kinetics and kinematics of handwriting
during a prolonged writing task in children with and without dysgraphia. Research in Developmental
Disabilities, 32(3), 1058-1064. doi:10.1016/j.ridd.2011.01.026

17. Study 4: Methods
 Before the assessment began, students
were given time to practice writing on the
digitizing tablet for one minute.
 Afterwards, students copied a fourth grade
text onto the digitizing tablet for 10
minutes. This duration was purposeful, as
it had previously shown to be an amount of
time which induced fatigue in children of
similar age.
Kushki, A., Schwellnus, H., Ilyas, F., & Chau, T. (2011). Changes in kinetics and kinematics of handwriting
during a prolonged writing task in children with and without dysgraphia. Research in Developmental
Disabilities, 32(3), 1058-1064. doi:10.1016/j.ridd.2011.01.026

18. Study 4: Setup
Kushki, A., Schwellnus, H., Ilyas, F., & Chau, T. (2011). Changes in kinetics and kinematics of handwriting
during a prolonged writing task in children with and without dysgraphia. Research in Developmental
Disabilities, 32(3), 1058-1064. doi:10.1016/j.ridd.2011.01.026

19. Study 4: Results
Kushki, A., Schwellnus, H., Ilyas, F., & Chau, T. (2011). Changes in kinetics and kinematics of handwriting
during a prolonged writing task in children with and without dysgraphia. Research in Developmental
Disabilities, 32(3), 1058-1064. doi:10.1016/j.ridd.2011.01.026

20. Study 4:
Results
Kushki, A., Schwellnus, H., Ilyas, F., & Chau, T. (2011). Changes in kinetics and kinematics of handwriting
during a prolonged writing task in children with and without dysgraphia. Research in Developmental
Disabilities, 32(3), 1058-1064. doi:10.1016/j.ridd.2011.01.026

21. Study 5: The Effect of a Computerized Visual
Perception and Visual-Motor Integration
Training Program on Improving Chinese
Handwriting of Children with Handwriting
Difficulties
 Purpose: To examine the effect of a computerized visual
perception and visual motor integration program to increase
Chinese handwriting performance among children with
learning disabilities, especially those with handwriting
deficiencies.
Poon, K., Li-Tsang, C., Weiss, T., & Rosenblum, S. (2010). The effect of a computerized visual perception and
visual-motor integration training program on improving Chinese handwriting of children with handwriting
difficulties. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 31(6), 1552-1560. doi:10.1016/j.ridd.2010.06.001

22. Study 5: Procedures
 The computerized training program used an interactive
computer. The software contains 8 different games:
Supermarket, School, Family, Sport, Restaurant, Picnic,
Occupation and Playground.
 Each game trains the child visual perception skills, visual-
motor integration skills and the grip modulation skill. This
study specifically focused on the intended training of visual-
motor integration ability of the participants, including hand-eye
coordination and fine motor control.
 Students were to complete 8, 45 minute computerized game
sessions. They were to practice once a week with parent
supervision.
Poon, K., Li-Tsang, C., Weiss, T., & Rosenblum, S. (2010). The effect of a computerized visual perception and
visual-motor integration training program on improving Chinese handwriting of children with handwriting
difficulties. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 31(6), 1552-1560. doi:10.1016/j.ridd.2010.06.001

23. Study 5:
Poon, K., Li-Tsang, C., Weiss, T., & Rosenblum, S. (2010). The effect of a computerized
visual perception and visual-motor integration training program on improving Chinese
handwriting of children with handwriting difficulties. Research in Developmental
Disabilities, 31(6), 1552-1560. doi:10.1016/j.ridd.2010.06.001

24. Study 5: Results
Poon, K., Li-Tsang, C., Weiss, T., & Rosenblum, S. (2010). The effect of a computerized visual
perception and visual-motor integration training program on improving Chinese handwriting of children
with handwriting difficulties. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 31(6), 1552-1560.
doi:10.1016/j.ridd.2010.06.001

25. REFERENCES
 Chang, S., & Yu, N. (2014). The effect of computer-assisted therapeutic practice for children
with handwriting deficit: A comparison with the effect of the traditional sensorimotor
approach. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 35(7), 1648-1657.
doi:10.1016/j.ridd.2014.03.024
 Engel-Yeger, B., Nagauker-Yanuv, L., & Rosenblum, S. (2009). Handwriting Performance, Self-
Reports, and Perceived Self-Efficacy Among Children With Dysgraphia. American Journal of
Occupational Therapy, 63(2), 182-192. Doi: 10.5014/ajot.63.2.182
 Huau, A., Velay, J., & Jover, M. (2015). Graphomotor skills in children with developmental
coordination disorder (DCD): Handwriting and learning a new letter. Human Movement
Science, 42, 318-332. Doi:10.1016.j.humov.2015.03.008
 Kushki, A., Schwellnus, H., Ilyas, F., & Chau, T. (2011). Changes in kinetics and kinematics of
handwriting during a prolonged writing task in children with and without dysgraphia.
Research in Developmental Disabilities, 32(3), 1058-1064. doi:10.1016/j.ridd.2011.01.026
 Poon, K., Li-Tsang, C., Weiss, T., & Rosenblum, S. (2010). The effect of a computerized visual
perception and visual-motor integration training program on improving Chinese handwriting
of children with handwriting difficulties. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 31(6), 1552-
1560. doi:10.1016/j.ridd.2010.06.001

26. Resource List
Websites:
 http://www.ldonline.org/article/5890/
 https://ldaamerica.org/types-of-learning-disabilities/dysgraphia/
 http://www.resourceroom.net/readspell/dysgraphia.html
Journals:
 Kouhbanani, S. S., Khosrorad, R., & Sani, A. R. (2014). The comparison of motor-
coordinated skill in students with dysgraphia disorder and normal ones. Journal of
Current Research in Science, 2(6), 977.
 Deuel, R. K. (1995). Developmental dysgraphia and motor skills disorders. Journal
of Child Neurology, 10 Suppl 1(1 suppl), S6-S8. doi:10.1177/08830738950100S103
 Tatiana, B. N. (2015). Physical therapy - an alternative for rehabilitating motor
dysgraphia in school age children. Gymnasium, 16(1), 311.
 Rostami, A., Allahverdi, F., & Mousavi, F. (2014). Dysgraphia: The causes and
solutions. International Journal of Academic Research in Business and Social
Sciences, 4(2), 7.