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- 1. I0018* Property of STI DNA and Genetics Mendel and Heredity DNA Structure and Function DNA Technology I0018 1 __________________________ ____________________________ ____________________________ ____________________________ ____________________________ ____________________________ ____________________________ ____________________________ ____________________________ I0018* Property of STI Eiffel Tower Paris, France Petronas Towers Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia Empire State New York, USA Burj Khalifa Dubai, UAE Image source: Google image search 2 _________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ I0018* Property of STI What is a blueprint? Blueprint Image source: jtanhueco.devianart.com • Contains vital information regarding the design specifications such as the size, numeric equations involved, and the scope of the type of construction to be done • Ensures that the measurements are correct so that the structure will be well-built • Contains the instructions on how to build something 3 __________________________ ____________________________ ____________________________ ____________________________ ____________________________ ____________________________ ____________________________ ____________________________ ____________________________ I0018* Property of STI DNA and Genetics DNA is the Blueprint of Life Image source: worldmag.com Image source: dbriers.com 4 _________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________
- 2. I0018* Property of STI DNA and Genetics • Deoxyribonucleic acid • Molecule that encodes all genetic information used in growth and functioning • Every cell in the body contains DNA which has all the information to make a person who he/she is • Most DNA molecules are double- stranded helices, consisting of two long biopolymers of simpler units called nucleotides What is DNA? * Property of STI 5 __________________________ ____________________________ ____________________________ ____________________________ ____________________________ ____________________________ ____________________________ ____________________________ ____________________________ I0018* Property of STI DNA and Genetics • Each nucleotide is composed of Nucleobases (guanine, adenine, thymine, and cytosine), recorded using the letters G, A, T, and C Backbone made of alternating sugars and phosphate groups, with the nucleobases attached to the sugars • Well-suited for biological information storage, since the DNA backbone is resistant to cleavage and the double- stranded structure provides the molecule with a built-in duplicate of the encoded information What is DNA? * Property of STI 6 _________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ I0018* Property of STI DNA and Genetics • Genetics is the branch of science that deals with the study of genes, heredity, variations among organisms, and DNA What is DNA? * Property of STI 7 __________________________ ____________________________ ____________________________ ____________________________ ____________________________ ____________________________ ____________________________ ____________________________ ____________________________ I0018* Property of STI Mendel and Heredity • Father of modern genetics • Born July 20, 1822 • Died January 6, 1884 • Botanist and a priest • Researched on plants (pea) to study about heredity Gregor Mendel (1822 - 1884) Image source: en.wikipedia.org 8 _________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________
- 3. I0018* Property of STI Terminologies Mendel and Heredity • Genotype – genes that are present in the DNA of an organism • Phenotype – what an organism looks like as a result of the genotype and its environment • Allele – alternative form of the same gene • Gamete – a reproductive cell 9 __________________________ ____________________________ ____________________________ ____________________________ ____________________________ ____________________________ ____________________________ ____________________________ ____________________________ I0018* Property of STI Terminologies Mendel and Heredity • Heterozygous – condition in which two alleles for a given gene are different from each other • Homozygous – A condition in which two alleles for a given gene are the same • Dominant traits – traits that are expressed • Recessive traits – traits which are covered up • Probability – the chances that something will occur 10 ________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ I0018* Property of STI How did Mendel’s Laws started? Mendel and Heredity • Mendel worked as a gardener and bee- keeper during childhood • He entered the monastery and from there, his interest with the plants variation grew • He used peas in his study because they were available in many varieties, reproduced quickly, and showed obvious differences in their traits • The use of peas gave Mendel control over which plants mated 11 _________________________ ____________________________ ____________________________ ____________________________ ____________________________ ____________________________ ____________________________ ____________________________ ____________________________ I0018* Property of STI How did Mendel’s Laws started? Mendel and Heredity • Mendel bred pea plants and recorded inheritance patterns in the offspring • He hypothesized that parents pass on to their offspring separate and distinct factors that are responsible for inherited traits 12 ________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________
- 4. I0018* Property of STI How did Mendel’s Laws started? Mendel and Heredity • He selected seven traits to study that each occurred in different forms: Flower color – purple or white Flower position – axial or terminal Seed color – yellow or green Seed shape – round or wrinkled Pod shape – inflated or wrinkled Pod color – green or yellow Stem length – tall or dwarf 7 Traits of Peas Mendel Chose Image source: http://www.wilson.wynric.org 13 _________________________ ____________________________ ____________________________ ____________________________ ____________________________ ____________________________ ____________________________ ____________________________ ____________________________ I0018* Property of STI Mendel’s Steps in Breeding Peas Mendel and Heredity • Chose purple and white flowers as parent 1 and parent 2 • Removed stamen (male reproductive organ in plants) from parent 1 to prevent self-fertilization • Transferred pollen from stamen of parent 2 to carpel (female reproductive organ in plants) of parent 1 • Pollinated carpel matured into a pod containing seeds (peas) • Planted seeds from pod • Examined offspring which are all purple flowers 14 ________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ I0018* Property of STI Mendel’s Steps in Breeding Peas Mendel and Heredity • The resulting hybrid offspring was called the first filial or F1 generation • The F1 generation resulted in all purple flowers • He then allowed the F1 plants to self pollinate and referred to the offspring as the F2 generation • This time, he noticed a 3:1 ratio of purple and white flowers • Mendel then realized that this was the key to understanding the basic mechanisms of inheritance 15 _________________________ ____________________________ ____________________________ ____________________________ ____________________________ ____________________________ ____________________________ ____________________________ ____________________________ I0018* Property of STI Mendel’s Conclusions Mendel and Heredity • From his experiments, he came to three important conclusions: • The inheritance of each trait is determined by “factors” that are passed on to descendants unchanged • The individual inherits one such factor from each parent for each trait • A trait may not show up in an individual but can still be passed on to the next generation 16 ________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________
- 5. I0018* Property of STI Law of Dominance Three Laws of Inheritance • When two parents with different traits are cross- bred, a dominant trait will appear • The dominant traits from the seven traits he chose were: • purple (flower color) • axial (position) • yellow (seed color) • round (seed shape) • inflated (pod shape) • green (pod color) • tall (stem length) • The other traits are called recessive traits 17 _________________________ ____________________________ ____________________________ ____________________________ ____________________________ ____________________________ ____________________________ ____________________________ ____________________________ I0018* Property of STI Law of Segregation Three Laws of Inheritance • Allele pairs separate during gamete formation and randomly unite at fertilization • There are four main concepts in this idea: There are alternative forms of genes – a gene can exist in more than one form For each trait, organisms inherit two alternative forms of that gene, one from each parent When gametes are produced, allele pairs separate leaving them with a single allele for each trait When the two alleles of a pair are different, one is dominant and the other is recessive 18 ________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ I0018* Property of STI Law of Independent Assortment Three Laws of Inheritance • Different pairs of alleles are passed to offspring independently of each other • New combinations of genes present in neither parent are possible 19 _________________________ ____________________________ ____________________________ ____________________________ ____________________________ ____________________________ ____________________________ ____________________________ ____________________________ I0018* Property of STI Punnett Square Punnett Square • A diagram that is used to predict an outcome of a particular cross or breeding experiment • Named after Reginald C. Punnett, who devised the approach, and is used by biologists to determine the probability of an offspring's having a particular genotype • A tabular summary of every possible combination of one maternal allele with one paternal allele for each gene being studied in the cross • These tables give the correct probabilities for the genotype outcomes of independent crosses where the probability of inheriting copies of each parental allele is independent • A visual representation of Mendelian inheritance 20 ________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________
- 6. I0018* Property of STI Punnett Square • B – Black (dominant trait) • b – White (recessive trait) 21 _________________________ ____________________________ ____________________________ ____________________________ ____________________________ ____________________________ ____________________________ ____________________________ ____________________________ I0018* Property of STI Punnett Square • A pure bred black dog with dominant black alleles • A pure bred white dog with recessive white alleles Image source: Google image search 22 ________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ I0018* Property of STI Punnett Square • A black dog with a dominant black allele and a recessive white allele • A pure bred white dog with recessive white alleles Image source: Google image search 23 _________________________ ____________________________ ____________________________ ____________________________ ____________________________ ____________________________ ____________________________ ____________________________ ____________________________ I0018* Property of STI Punnett Square • A black dog with a dominant black allele and a recessive white allele • A black dog with a dominant black allele and a recessive white allele Image source: Google image search 24 ________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________
- 7. I0018* Property of STI Mendelian Genetics Image source: Google image search Did you cheat on me?! 25 _________________________ ____________________________ ____________________________ ____________________________ ____________________________ ____________________________ ____________________________ ____________________________ ____________________________ I0018* Property of STI Mendelian Genetics Question # 1 A recessive allele (f) is responsible for a fire-breathing dragon. A male dragon who does not breathe fire carries this allele and reproduces with another dragon. One of their four (4) hatchlings is a fire-breather. What are the possible genotypes of the male and female dragon? Show using a Punnet Square. 26 ________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ I0018* Property of STI Mendelian Genetics Blending Theory of Inheritance Widespread hypothetical pre-Mendelian model of inheritance No scientific basis Traits were passed on from parents to offspring like a blended liquid solution Once traits have been mixed, they cannot be separated anymore After lots of generations, the individuals would arrive to a uniform appearance Image source: en.wikipedia.org 27 _________________________ ____________________________ ____________________________ ____________________________ ____________________________ ____________________________ ____________________________ ____________________________ ____________________________ I0018* Property of STI DNA Structures and Functions Frederick Griffith’s Experiment Image source: http://www.nature.com 28 ________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________
- 8. I0018* Property of STI DNA Structures and Functions DNA Structure Composed of nucleotides which consists of a phosphate group, a five-carbon sugar and a nitrogenous base bonded together Each nucleotide has one of four nitrogenous bases: o Adenine o Guanine o Thymine o Cytosine Adenine and Guanine are called purine bases Thymine and Cytosine are known as pyrimidine bases 29 _________________________ ____________________________ ____________________________ ____________________________ ____________________________ ____________________________ ____________________________ ____________________________ ____________________________ I0018* Property of STI DNA Structures and Functions DNA Structure 1940s: Erwin Chargaff found that a DNA molecule contains the same amount of adenine as thymine, and the same amount of cytosine as guanine 1953: James Watson and Francis Crick worked out the actual structure of DNA Watson and Crick deduced that the DNA molecule was arranged in the form of a double helix 30 ________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ I0018* Property of STI DNA Structures and Functions DNA Structure The sides of the ladder are composed of nucleotides with their nitrogenous bases pointed toward the center of the ladder The rungs of the ladder are bonds between the bases on the opposite sides Watson and Crick suggested that adenine only forms a bond with thymine, and guanine only forms a bond with cytosine If one side of the DNA molecule reads TTGACTA, then the other strand must read AACTGAT 31 _________________________ ____________________________ ____________________________ ____________________________ ____________________________ ____________________________ ____________________________ ____________________________ ____________________________ I0018* Property of STI DNA Structures and Functions DNA Structure • The opposite sides of the helix are antiparallel • At the very end of each side of the molecule is a nucleotide • At one end, the phosphate group is the very last molecule, while at the other end; the sugar molecule is the last one • Scientists have dubbed the end with the phosphate group the 5' end, and the end with the sugar the 3' end • The 3' end on one side of the ladder is opposite the 5' end on the other side Image source: http://library.thinkquest.org/27819/ch6_3.shtml 32 ________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________ ___________________________
- 9. I0018* Property of STI DNA Technology Fields that have shown remarkable growth from DNA Technology: Forensics Restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) Short tandem repeat profiling (STR) Bioinformatics Pharmacology and nanotechnology Archaeology and anthropometry Image source: Google image search 33 _________________________ ____________________________ ____________________________ ____________________________ ____________________________ ____________________________ ____________________________ ____________________________ ____________________________