1. LATER VEDIC AGE By: Dr Ashwani Asthana
Sources: The four Vedas were followed by Brahmanas, Aranyakas
and Upanishad.
The Brahmanas are earliest of the Aryan prose literature explain in
detail various Vedic sacrificial ceremonies and their origins.
Aranyakas are the concluding portion of the Brahmanas and are
called so because this philosophical and mystical character of their
contain required that they should be studied in the solitude of the
Aranyakas or forest.
The Aranyakas formed a tradition that culminated in the Upanishad
the last phase of the Vedic literature.
The Rig Veda broadly deals with ritualistic (Karma Kanta) and
philosophical aspects.
The ritualistic aspect is elaborated in the Brahmanas and
Upanishads.
2. Geography and new political state of the later Vedic
period
As we know that the main settlement of the later Vedic
period was the Indus and Saraswati region. During the
period it represent by the Samhitas and Brahmanas.
Its settlement covers the whole of north India. The centre
of civilization now shifted from Saraswati to Ganga which
now occupies the proud place of most of the rivers of India.
This was accompanied by another remarkable development
and gradual expansion and consolidation of Vis.
The early known Janas like Bharatas, Urus, Trittsu, Turvasah
of the Rig Vedic period were slowly merging with other
Janas of Rig Vedic time and disappearing from the scene in
a way gradual expansion and consolidation of some of the
states started taking place relatively.
3. Minor Janas of Rig Vedic time like Purus became more powerful and
began to play more dominant role. We no longer hear of Anus, Driyas,
Turbasas, kribis etc besides these in the eastern U.P and Bihar area
also much such state as Kasi, Kosala Vidhya, Magadha and Anga
developed.
The idea of universal empire loomed large. The expansion of people
towards east is indicated in the legend of Satapatha Brahman how
Videhg Madhav migrated from Saraswati region, the land of Vedic
culture crossed Sadnira modern Gandak, the eastern boundary of
Kolasa and come to the land of Vedheha (modern Tirkat)
The text testified growth of the three kingdoms namely Kosala, Kasi
and Vidheha. It may be noticed that till 1950 no archaeological
evidence could take the antiquity of cultures in the Ganga valley prior
to the 6th cent. B. C.
Thereafter, the excavation at Hastinapur, Atranjikhera and many other
sites has reveals cultures ranging from 2000 B.C onwards. .
4. The recent excavation at Raja Nal Ka Tila in Sonbhadra district and
other sites have taken back the date of use of iron in adjoining
Varanasi district (ancient Kasi to circa 1500-1900 B.C) some
characteristic pottery of post-Harappan period are OCP ( C. 2000 B.C to
1500 B.C), NBPW, BRW, PGW (1200 B.C – 600 B.C) etc.
By about 7th cent B.C, NBPW came to be manufacture. Kuru Panchala
appears to be the same geographical region as modern western and
central UP. In the Upanishad, Kuru-Panchala region is mentioned as the
seat of culture and prosperity.
The Panchala King Parbhana Jaibali is mentioned as daily attending the
Panchala Parishad. The text testified the three kingdoms of Kosal, Kasi
and Vedheha as a seat of Vedic culture.
Magadha and Anga are also mentioned as distinct land in the
Atharveda. The Rig Vedic Kikatas have been identified with Magadh,
Matsya, Janpath also mentioned.
In south Vidharbha (Maharastra) is mentioned. Madra was located in
the Punjab region further west is associated with Bahalikas, Kesanis,
Kekeyas and Kambuj.
5. Polity and Administration:
With the growth of larger states we find that detail political and
administrative structure also emerging. Kingship was
consolidating itself as the normal form of government with the
states growing in both the number and size.There was also
emerging the concept of king of kings, expressions like Adhiraj,
Rajadhiraj, Samrat and Bikrat are used in most of the texts. There
also developed special ceremonies for the anoiment of the kings
such as Bajapayi, Rajsuri and Aswamedha.
6. These were the people’s right and duties in choosing their king
to the condition imposed of kings right and duties;
the kings dependence on the council of his ministries and their
assemblies of their people; Sabha and Samiti as check on king
about absolutism and under no circumstances the king was
considered the sole owner of the kingdom with absolute power
over the objects and subject.
The chief of the Sabha was called Sabhapati, the keeper as
Sabhapalak, SabhasHowever the increase in the complexity of
the society and the political structure is dully reflected in the
large entourage of the state.
We hear of new officials such as Suta (Chariotor), Sangrahitari
(treasurer), Bhagadhugha (collector of taxes), Gramini (head of
village), Sthapati (chief judge), Takshan (carpenter), Kshatri
(chamberial) and several others whose exact function can not be
ascertained. ada or Sabhasina.
7. Everything indicates that the administration machinery was
highly organized and became an efficient instrument for ruling
over a large kingdom.
We find that the legal institution was also coming in shaped. The
king administered justice and valid the norm of punishment.
Among the crimes enumerated are theft, robbery, adultery,
incest, abduction, killing of men, killing of cow, slang of
Brahmans, drinking intoxicating liquor, treachery etc are
punishable by death.
Pity offences were left to village judges. For evidence eye
witness was owned important then informer. The punishments
for crime were rather savior. The law was also very clear on the
question of inheritance of property, ownership of land etc.
Father’s property was too inherited by son alone.
The daughter could inherited if she if she is the only child or
there was no male issues.
8. • Social System:
• The gradual political evolution was by no means the most important
factor in the history of later Vedic period. Changes of far greater
significance were gradually taking place in society and religion.
• In the Rig Veda period, society comprised of four varnas depending
on once profession and within a family. Members could follow
professions of different varnas in the later Vedic period. Varnas
came to the birth based rather than profession based.
• The poliference of profession gave rises to Jatis but the Jati system
was not as rigid as it became during the period of sutras. It was
somewhere in the middle of flexible Rig Vedic society and rigid
society of the sutra period.
• Emergence of Jati was very unusual but perhaps not impossible in
that age. Rig Veda describes Vishwamitra as a Rishi but at Aiterya
Brahman mentioned him as Kshetriya. In the same Brahmans we
find that the rigidity in terms of Jati was coming up.
• The position of four varnas i.e Sudra was made miserable by
depriving them of the rights of performing sacrifices, learning the
sacred text and even holding landed property. Most glaring evil of
the Jati system namely the concept of untouchables had not yet
reared its ugly hand.
9. • There are instance of individuals such as Kavasha, Vasta and
Satykama, Jabala who were born in non-Brahmin Jatis but
came to known as great Brahmanas.
• On the whole, Jati had not yet become a rigid system and none
of the three factors which characterized in the later viz.
probation inter dinning, inter marriage and determination of
varna by descent were yet established as rigid basis.
• Economic life
• The growth of economic prosperity is indicated in many
prayers contained in the Atharveda for the success of farmers,
shepends, and merchants so on.
• There are prayers of ploughing, sowing rains, increased in
cattle, wealth and exorcism against beast, wild animals and
robbers etc. The plough was known as sira, and faros as sita,
cow dung was used as manure.
• There is mention of 6, 8 and 24 oxen yoked to a plough. Many
kinds of grains were grown such as rice, barley, beans, sesame.
10. • Atharveda mention that drought and excess rains threatened
agriculture which merchants have been often referred to money
lending was vogue.
• Specific measure and weight units were the also known Nishka and
Satamana were the units of currency.
• Bali which earlier only a voluntary gift to chief had now become a
regular tax and was collected to maintain the political and
administrative structures.
• During this period we hear of fisherman, fire and rangers and
watchmen, barber, elephant keepers, footmen, messengers, makers
of jewels, baskets, smiths, potters etc. The word Sresthi, head of
guilds finds mention in several texts.
• During the period of Rig Veda, we find mentioned of only Ayas,
which taken as copper bronze with the introduction of a new metal
i.e iron in this age.
• We get the term Syam Ayas (iron) and Lohit Ayas (copper). Beside
these gold, lead and tin also referred to while the iron was used fro
making objects like hammers etc.
11. • Education
• This period witnessed the growth of vast and vivid
literature. The Upanishads being the highest level of
intellectual attainments which was no doubt the outcome
of the intellectual pursues of the time.
• Education began with the Upanyan ceremony which was
considered as second birth of the child and that is why
after this ceremony he comes to be known as Dvija.
• The duties of the pupils were well defined in the first
stage. Pupil studied at the home of the teacher where they
lived as a family member and participated in the
household works also.
• Besides this there were small schools of learning run by
and individual teacher who would choose his own people.
There were other means of education.
12. A great input to learning came from the assemblies of learned
man gathered by kings.
A typical example of this was conference of the learned organized
by king Javaka of Vidha which is mentioned in the
Brishdaranyaka Upanishad. The participants in this conference
were Jajnavalkya, Uddalaka, Aruni, Sakalya, Gargi and members
of other scholars.
The details of this conference and various topics discussion their
arguments in Brishadaranyaka Upanishad. Learning was short
from those who are knowledge.
We learnt that Yajanaka after completion his education went to
Janaka to study philosophy and other subjects. However in the
Janaka conference Yajanakalaka defeated all the participants in
discussion and was declared as the most learned and wise.
The woman was also active into taking intellectual persuades.
Gargi, Metriya are the great examples.
13. • The texts mentions the study of subjects at that time- Chandyoga
Upanishads mentions such subjects as the study of Veda,
Mathematics, Mineralogy, logic, ethics, military science, astronomy,
science dealing with positions, fine arts and crafts, music and
medical science.
• The Mundaka Upanishad classified all the subject of study under
‘Apar Vidya’ i.e extreme knowledge. It reserves the term Para Vidya
for the highest knowledge i.e knowledge of Atma which involves
knowledge of life, death, god etc.
• Religion and Philosophy
• The Brahmans record the growth of ritualism and ceremonial
religion and consequent growth of priesthood. From simple
sacrifices occupying one day or couple of days there were now
many lasting from 12 days to a year or even more.
• While the Rig Veda knows only of 7 priests and two chief priests,
the large ceremonies required 17 priests. There were domestic rights
and sacraments which embraced the entire life span of a man from
his birth to death or even beyond it.
14. The numbers of Upanishad are about 2000. The oldest
among these are the Brihat Aranyaka and Chandyoga which
contains bold speculation about the eternal problems of
human thought concerning god, men and the universe etc.
The Upanishad is justly regarded as the most important
contribution of India towards the world stock of spiritual
thought.
The great philosophical schopera after reading the Latin
translation of Persian translation of Upanishad writes “from
every sentence deep original and sublime thoughts are arise
and the whole is pervaded by high and holy and earnest
spirit. Indian air surrounded us and rigid thought of kindred
spirits”.
15. • Science and Technology
• Veda, Brahmanas and Upanishads provide enough idea about
science during the later Vedic period. Mathematics has been
called by the general name Ganita which includes Arithmetic
(Anka ganita), Geometry (Rekha ganita), Algebra (Bija
ganita), Astronomy and Astrology (Jyolish).
• Vedic people knew the method of making squares, equal in
area to triangles, circles and calculate the sum and differences
of the squares.
• The zero is known in the Rig Veda title itself and due to this
large numbers could also be recorded.
16. In the Vedic period, the Astronomy was well developed.
They knew the movement of heavenly bodies and calculate
about the positioned at different times.
It helps them in preparing accurate calendar and predicting
the time of solar and lunar eclipse. They also knew that the
earth moves on its own axis and around the sun.
The moon moved around the earth. They also tried to
calculate the time period taken for revolving and distancing
among the heavenly bodies from the sun.
It is surprisingly that the result of these calculation are
almost the same as the once done by modern methods.
