The document is a summer training report submitted by Dhruv Atal to fulfill the requirements for a Bachelor of Technology degree in Civil Engineering. It discusses a summer training project conducted at the Public Works Department in Chaksu, India on road construction and renewal projects. The report includes an introduction, chapters on state highway construction and the highway planning process, and will conclude with a case study and conclusions from the summer training experience.

1. [6]
A
SUMMER TRAINING REPORT ON ROAD CONSTRUCTION
P.W.D CHAKSU (MANJI RENWAL)
Submitted in partial fulfillment of the
Requirements for the award of the degree
Of
BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
In
CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
By
DHRUV ATAL
Roll No.: 14EVJCE030
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
VIVEKANANDA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
SISYAWAS, SECTOR-36, NRI ROAD, JAGATPURA,

2. [i]
VIVEKANANDA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
SISYAWAS, SECTOR-36, NRI ROAD, JAGATPURA,
JAIPUR- 303012,
CANDIDATE DECLARATION
It is here declared that the work, which is being presented in the summer training report
titled “STATE HIGHWAY CONSTRUSTION” in partial fulfillment of the award
of B.tech. and submitted in the department of CIVIL ENGINEERING of
“Vivekananda Institute Of Technology”, Jaipur is an authentic record of the work under
the supervision and valuable guidance of “………..DEEPAK SHARMA ……….”,
Assistant Professor, Dept. of Civil Engineering.
The matter presented in the report embodies the result of the studies carried out
by the student and has not been submitted for the award of any other degree in this or
any other institute.
NAME OF CANDIDATE: DHRUV ATAL
RTU ROLL NO :- 14EVJCE030

3. [ii]
VIVEKANANDA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
SISYAWAS, SECTOR-36, NRI ROAD, JAGATPURA,
JAIPUR- 303012, RAJASTHAN, INDIA
CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that MR. DHRUV ATAL Roll No. 14EVJCE030 has submitted
the summer training report “STATE HIGHWAY CONSTRUCTION” in partial
fulfillment for the award of the degree of Bachelor of Technology (Civil
Engineering). The report has been prepared as per the prescribed format and is
approved for submission and presentation.
Dr. Mala Mathur
Professor & Head
Dept. of Civil Engg.
VIT, Jaipur-302012

4. [iii]

5. [iv]
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Firstly, I would like to express my deepest thanks to Mr. DEEPAK
SHARMA, Assistant Professor at Vivekananda Institute of Technology
(East), Jaipur and also assign as my supervisor who had guided be a lot of task
during preparation of report. I also want to thanks the lecturers and staffs of
Department of Civil Engineering, VIT (East), Jaipur for their cooperation and
guidance in the compilation and preparation this project report. I would also
like to thanks Dr. MALA MATHUR, HOD of Civil Engineering for her
support and guidance in the preparation of this report.
Deepest thanks and appreciation to my parents, family, special mate of mine,
and others for their cooperation, encouragement, constructive suggestion and
full of support for the report completion, from the beginning till the end. Also
thanks to all of my friends and everyone, that has been contributed by
supporting my work.
I express my deep gratitude to words the management of “
” which always encouraged completing this training and permission given
by
Date- Name: DHRUV ATAL
Roll N: 14EVJCE030
Final B. Tech. (civil)

6. [v]
ABSTRACT
The seventh largest and second most populous country in the world, India has long been
considered a country of unrealized potential. A new spirit of economic freedom is now
stirring in the country, bringing sweeping changes in its wake.
It is well recognized that the current road infrastructure is a serious constraint to the
economic growth of a country as a large and diversified as India. The Government of
India has accordingly, decided to embark on an ambitious and aggressive program of
improvement/construction.
The development of National and State Highways is the responsibility of the
Government of India. The Government of India has launched major initiatives to
upgrade and strengthen National Highways through various phases of National
Highways Development project (NHDP). For the development of Nation’s growth,
National Highway Authority of India is encouraging Private Sector to take up major
highway Projects on the basis of BOT Model (Build, operate and transfer) system.

7. [vi]
CONTENTS
CHAPTER
NO
TITLE PAGE
1 PUBLIC WORK DEPARTMENT
1.1 PUBLIC WORK DEPARTMENT: AN
OVERVIEW
1.1.1 PWD Objective:
1.1.2 PROJECT OVERVIEW
1
2 State Highway Construction
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Importance of Highway
2.3 State Highway
2.4 Highway planning
2.4.1 Introduction
2.4.2 Demand for Highway
2.4.3 Highway planning strategies
2.4.4 Transportation studies
3 The decision-making process in highway and
transport planning
3.1Introduction
3.2 Economic assessment
3.3 Environmental assessment
3.4 Public consultation
3.5 Overall view
4 About Project
4.1 Project Features
4.2 Methodology
4.2.1 Project Quality Plan
.2.2 Clearing And Grubbing
5 Case study
CONCLUSION

8. [vii]
LIST OF FIGURES
FIG. NO. TITLE PAGE
4.1 JCB 12
4.2 Typical Cut and Fill Sections 15
4.3 Preparation of subgrade
layer
16
4.4 bitumen paver 19
4.5 compact bitumen 19

9. [1]
CHAPTER: 1
INTRODUCTION:
1.1 PUBLIC WORK DEPARTMENT: AN OVERVIEW
The UIT was established by the Government in the year 1970 to achieve its objectives
under Rajasthan Urban Improvement Act 1959. It is responsible for overall
development of mahwa tensile. The trust has been headed by the Public Chairman as
well as District Collector with a secretary as executive officer. It consist govt. officials
& nominated public persons as trustees.
1.1.1PWD Objective:
* Design Urban Pattern
* Plan the Future of the City
* Improve the existing situation in planned manner
* Utilize the urban land in the best manner
* Acquire the land for urban development
* Plan residential and commercial schemes
1.1.2 PROJECT OVERVIEW
Development of a country depends on the connectivity of various places with adequate
road network. Roads are the major channel of transportation for carrying goods and
passengers. They play a significant role in improving the socio-economic standards of
a region. Roads constitute the most important mode of communication in areas where
railways have not developed much and form the basic infra-structure for the
development and economic growth of the country. The benefits from the investment in
road sector are indirect, long-term and not immediately visible. Roads are important
assets for any nation. However, merely creating these assets is not enough, it has to be
planned carefully and a pavement which is not designed properly deteriorates fast. India
is a large country having huge resource of materials. If these local materials are used
properly, the cost of construction can be reduced. There are various type of pavements
which differ in their suitability in different environments. Each type of pavement has
its own merits and demerits. Despite a large number of seminars and conference, still
in India, 98% roads are having flexible pavements. A lot of research has been made on
use of Waste materials but the role of these materials is still limited. So there is need to
take a holistic approach and mark the areas where these are most suitable. India has one
of the largest road networks in the world (over 3 million km at present).For the purpose
of management and administration, roads in India are divided into the following five
categories:

10. [2]
National Highways (NH)
State Highways (SH)
Major District Roads (MDR)
Other District Roads (ODR)
Village Roads (VR)
The National Highways are intended to facilitate medium and long distance inter-city
passenger and freight traffic across the country.
The State Highways are supposed to carry the traffic along major centers within the
State. Other District Roads and Village Roads provide villages accessibility to meet
their social needs as also the means to transport agriculture produce from village to
nearby markets. Major District Roads provide the secondary function of linkage
between main roads and rural roads

11. [1]
State Highway Construction Chapter 2
2.1 Introduction
In order to maintain, construct, rehabilitate or upgrade any road network, large
quantities of gravel are required. The report presents the knowledge of experienced,
practising prospectors in the state so that everyone can be aware of the best practice
available. It has been compiled by combining the technological approach of engineers
with the hard won experience of long-time prospectors.
The art of prospecting involves looking for clues to the occurrence of useful materials
and then digging to see what may be there. Learning to identify features that indicate
the presence of gravel from the interpretation of maps. However, the most important
parts are the desk study followed by the field survey and pit evaluation, the latter being
a mechanical process that depends on the prospector’s experience and the quality and
thoroughness of preparatory work.
Construction materials are a non-renewable resource and in view of the increasing
importance attached to protecting the natural environment, it is important to make the
best use of a source, once found. This implies mapping it and describing it accurately
so that it can be correctly classified and therefore correctly applied to a specification.
Ideally, a record of extraction should also be kept so that reserves can be utilized
economically.
2.2 Importance of Highway
Highways are vitally important to a country’s economic development. The construction
of a high quality road network directly increases a nation’s economic output by
reducing journey times and costs, making a region more attractive economically. The
actual construction process will have the added effect of stimulating the construction
market.
The administration of highway schemes
The administration of highway projects differs from one country to another, depending
upon social, political and economic factors. The design, construction and maintenance
of major national primary routes such as motorways or dual carriageways are generally

12. [2]
the responsibility of a designated government department or an agency of it, with
funding, in the main, coming from central government. Those of secondary importance,
feeding into the national routes, together with local roads, tend to be the responsibility
of local authorities. Central government or an agency of it will usually take
responsibility for the development of national standards.
The Highways Agency is an executive organization with responsibility for the
maintenance and improvement of the motorway/trunk road network. It operates on
behalf of the relevant government minister who still retains responsibility for overall
policy, determines the framework within which the Agency is permitted to operate and
establishes its goals and objectives and the time frame within which these should take
place.
2.3 State Highway
Each state government has a department of transportation that occupies a pivotal
position in the development of road projects. Each has responsibility for the planning,
design, construction, maintenance and operation of its federally funded highway
system. In most states, its highway agency has responsibility for developing routes
within the state-designated system. These involve roads of both primary and secondary
state-wide importance. The state department also allocates funds to local government.
At city/county level, the local government in question sets design standards for local
roadways as well as having responsibility for maintaining and operating them.
2.4 Highway planning
2.4.1 Introduction
The process of transportation planning entails developing a transportation plan for an
urban region. It is an ongoing process that seeks to address the transport needs of the
inhabitants of the area, and with the aid of a process of consultation with all relevant
groups, strives to identify and implement an appropriate plan to meet these needs.
The process takes place at a number of levels. At an administrative/political level, a
transportation policy is formulated and politicians must decide on the general location
of the transport corridors/networks to be prioritized for development, on the level of

13. [3]
funding to be allocated to the different schemes and on the mode or modes of transport
to be used within them.
Below this level, professional planners and engineers undertake a process to define in
some detail the corridors/networks that comprise each of the given systems selected for
development at the higher political level. This is the level at which what is commonly
termed a ‘transportation study’ takes place. It defines the links and networks and
involves forecasting future population and economic growth, predicting the level of
potential movement within the area and describing both the physical nature and modal
mix of the system required to cope with the region’s transport needs, be they road, rail,
cycling or pedestrian-based.
At the lowest planning level, each project within a given system is defined in detail in
terms of its physical extent and layout. In the case of road schemes, these functions are
the remit of the design engineer, usually employed by the roads authority within which
the project is located. This chapter concentrates on systems planning process, in
particular the travel data required to initiate the process, the future planning strategy
assumed for the region which will dictate the nature and extent of the network derived.
2.4.2 Demand for Highway
The planning process commences with the collection of historical traffic data covering
the geographical area of interest. Growth levels in past years act as a strong indicator
regarding the volumes one can expect over the chosen future time, be it 15, 20 or 30
years. If these figures indicate the need for new/upgraded transportation facilities, the
process then begins of considering what type of transportation scheme or suite of
schemes is most appropriate, together with the scale and location of the scheme or group
of schemes in question.
The demand for highway schemes stems from the requirements of people to travel from
one location to another in order to perform the activities that make up their everyday
lives. The level of this demand for travel depends on a number of factors:
 The location of people’s work, shopping and leisure facilities relative to their
homes
 The type of transport available to those making the journey

14. [4]
 The demographic and socio-economic characteristics of the population in
question.
Characteristics such as population size and structure, number of cars owned per
household and income of the main economic earner within each household tend to be
the demographic/socio-economic characteristics having the most direct effect on traffic
demand. These act together in a complex manner to influence the demand for highway
space.
High levels of residential and employment growth will inevitably result in increased
traffic demand as more people link up to greater employment opportunities, with the
higher levels of prosperity being reflected in higher levels of car ownership. Increasing
numbers of jobs, homes, shopping facilities and schools will inevitably increase the
demand for traffic movement both within and between centre’s of population.
On the assumption that a road scheme is selected to cater for this increased future
demand, the design process requires that the traffic volumes for some year in the future,
termed the design year, can be estimated. (The design year is generally taken as 10–15
years after the highway has commenced operation.)
The basic building block of this process is the current level of traffic using the section
of highway at present. Onto this figure must be added an estimate for the normal traffic
growth, i.e. that which is due to the year-on-year annual increases in the number of
vehicles using the highway between now and the design year.
2.4.3 Highway planning strategies
When the highway planning process takes place within a large urban area and other
transport options such as rail may be under consideration alongside car-based ones, the
procedure can become quite complex and the workload involved in data collection can
become immense. In such circumstances, before a comprehensive study can be
undertaken, one of a number of broad strategy options must be chosen:
 The land use transportation approach
 The demand management approach
 The car-centered approach
 The public transport-centered approach

15. [5]
2.4.4 Transportation studies
Whatever the nature of the proposed highway system under consideration, be it a new
motorway to link two cities or a network of highway improvements within an urban
centre, and whatever planning strategy the decision-makers are adopting (assuming that
the strategy involves, to some extent, the construction of new/upgraded roadways), a
study must be carried out to determine the necessity or appropriateness of the proposal.
This process will tend to be divided into two subsections:
 A transportation survey to establish trip-making patterns
 The production and use of mathematical models both to predict future transport
requirements and to evaluate alternative highway proposals.

16. [6]
Chapter 3
The decision-making process in highway and transport planning
3.1 Introduction
Highway and transportation planning can be described as a process of making decisions
which concerns the future of a given transport system. The decision relate to the
determination of future demand; the relationships and interactions which exist between
the different modes of transport; the effect of the proposed system on both existing land
uses and those proposed for the future; the economic, environmental, social and
political impacts of the proposed system and the institutional structures in place to
implement the proposal put forward. Transport planning is generally regarded as a
rational process, i.e. a rational and orderly system for choosing between competing
proposals at the planning stage of a project. It involves a combined process of
information gathering and decision-making.
The five steps in the rational planning process are summarized in Table
In the main, transport professionals and administrators subscribe to the values
underlying rational planning and utilize this process in the form detailed below. The
rational process is, however, a subset of the wider political decision making system,
and interacts directly with it both at the goal-setting stage and at the point in the process
at which the preferred option is selected. In both situations, inputs from politicians and
political/community groupings representing those with a direct interest in the transport

17. [7]
proposal under scrutiny are essential in order to maximize the level of acceptance of
the proposal under scrutiny.
3.2 Economic assessment
Both economic and environmental evaluations form a central part of the regional
transportation planning process.
Cost-benefit analysis is the most widely used method of project appraisal throughout
the world.
Any evaluation of a given development option must take explicit account of navigation
benefits arising from the proposal, and these should be set against project costs,
3.3 Environmental assessment
Any economic evaluation for a highway project must be viewed alongside its
environmental and social consequences. This area of evaluation takes place within the
environmental impact assessment (EIA) for the proposal.
Interest in EIA is the response to the perceived deficiencies of the then existing
procedures for appraising the environmental consequences of major development
projects.
Its overall purpose was to ensure that a mechanism was in place for ensuring that the
environmental dimension is properly considered within a formal framework alongside
the economic and technical aspects of the proposal at its planning stage. The
environmental assessment for a highway proposal requires 12 basic impacts to be
assessed, including air, water and noise quality, landscape, ecology and land use effects,
and impacts on culture and local communities, together with the disruption the scheme
will cause during its construction. The relative importance of the impacts will vary from
one project to another.
3.4 Public consultation
For major trunk road schemes, public hearings are held in order to give interested
parties an opportunity to take part in the process of determining both the basic need for
the highway and its optimum location.

18. [8]
Once the need for the scheme has been established, the consultation process centres on
selecting the preferred route from the alternatives under scrutiny. In situations where
only one feasible route can be identified, public consultation will still be undertaken in
order to assess the proposal relative to the ‘do-minimum’ option. As part of the public
participation process, a consultation document explaining the scheme and giving a
broad outline of its cost and environmental/social consequences, is distributed to all
those with a legitimate interest in the proposal.
3.5 Overall view
Highway engineering involves the application of scientific principles to the planning,
design, maintenance and operation of a highway project or system of projects. The aim
of report is an understanding of the analysis and design techniques that are fundamental
to the topic.

19. [9]
About Project Chater 4
4.1 Project Features
Project Title: Design, Construction, Development, Finance, Operation and
Maintenance of 2/4 Chaksu to Phagi section from Km.54.00 to Km.90.00 on SH-2 in
the state of RAJASTHAN.
Scope of the Project: The Project Highway from km.54.00 to km.90.00 is to be
widened to 2 lane divided carriageway. 8 inch thickness after 6 inch place.
Project Details:
Source of Fund: Design, Build, Finance, Operate and Transfer (DBFOT) basis.
Total Project cost: Rs.29 Crore 49 lac
Client/Employer: State Highway Authority of India.
Contractor: HS. Mehta Infrastructure Private Limited.
Construction Period: 12 Months.
Tender premium: 28% below
4.2 Methodology
4.2.1 Project Quality Plan:
A. Road Works:
1. Site Clearance
2. True and Proper setting out layout of Work.
3. Construction of Road in urban and rural areas including excavation, construction of
high embankment and subgrade, construction of carriageway, service road, shoulders
and medians, provision of drainage, turfing etc.
4. Construction of New culverts including widening/dismantling of existing RCC
pipe/RCC slab/Arch culverts.
5. Construction of way side amenities and kerbs.

20. [10]
6. Construction and providing road junctions, improvement of existing junctions.
7. Provision of road signs, markings. Delineators,etc. on road and bridges.
8. Maintenance of existing works.
Others-General:
1. All aspects of Quality Control and Quality Assurance of works including
documentation.
2. Providing measures for prevention or migration of negative environmental impacts
due to construction activities as per the approved Environmental Compliance Plan.
3. Provision of health and safety measures as per the approved project HSE plan.
4. Provision of laboratory for testing including the supply of equipment and
consumables.
5. Handing over the works on completion after site clearance.
6. Submission of as built drawings and other related documents.
Project Quality Statement:
To strive for Quality Excellence, in order to achieve Customer Satisfaction by
Providing goods and services to the standards set by the customer and to contribute to
increase the company‟s competitiveness.
Quality Policy:
We aspire to fulfill the expectations of our customer by a dedicated and organized
approach, which is amendable to skill and knowledge enhancement.
We shall improve the competence of our Quality management System continually.
Our focus to accomplish this aim shall be on:
Effective design
Effective implementation of planning and methodology

21. [11]
Effective Supplier Management
Proficient Management of workforce
Training and development of Human Resource
Quality System:
The Quality System has been designed to ensure that the Quality policy, objectives and
the requirements of ISO 9001:2008 are implemented. The system has been determined
in terms of the following main processes.
Estimation, costing and tendering
Design and Engineering
Quality planning and Control
Planning, monitoring and Control
Plant and machinery Provision
Project Operation
Commercial, contract and Procurement
Personnel and training
4.2.2 Clearing And Grubbing
Procedure:
The work shall commence soon after mobilization at the site has been completed to the
extent that this activity can be taken up.
Clearing and grubbing shall be carried out using bull dozers to generally scrap off the
top crest of the formation bed with the main aim to clear the proposed road corridor of
major bushes, unwanted waste materials and vegetations and roots so as to enable field
survey works to be carried out up to reasonable precision and accuracy besides

22. [12]
conducting soil sampling and testing, visual or laboratory, on the existing ground
materials to enable decision on further course of action on mode of road construction.
During this course of such clearance unwanted materials shall be disposed off to the
designated places as directed, by using tippers. At the same time all that soil which is
found reusable in terms of execution of this project shall be stock piled along the work
stretches.
Equipment Required:
1. Dozer
2. Excavators
3. Tippers
Fig.4.1 JCB
EARTHWORK EXCAVATION
Procedure:
1) Before the earthwork is started, the whole area where the work is to be done should
be cleared of grass, roots of trees and unwanted debris.
2) Excavation should be carried out exactly in accordance with the dimensions shown
on the drawings or any other dimension, as decided by the Site-in-Charge.

23. [13]
3) Sides of the trenches shall be vertical and it's bottom shall be perfectly leveled, both
longitudinally and transversely. Where the soil is soft, loose or slushy, the trench shall
be widened for allowing steps on either side or the sides sloped or shored up.
4) During excavation if rocks or rocky soils are found, they shall be leveled as far as
possible and the small spaces which are difficult to level shall be filled in with concrete.
5) If the excavation is in earth, the bottom of the trenches shall be sprinkled with a little
water and rammed.
6) No material excavated from the foundation trenches shall be placed nearer than one
metre to the outer edges of the excavation. 7) Water in trenches must be bailed or
pumped out and where it is apprehended that the sides may fall down or cave in,
arrangement shall be made for adequate timber shoring. 8) When it is specified that the
work is to be carried out without removing cables, pipes, sewers etc. all of them shall
be temporarily shored and saved from any damage. 9)The cost of all materials and
labour required for fencing/barricading in and protection against risk of accidents due
to open excavation should be provided.
EMBANKMENT CONSTRUCTION
Procedure:
1. The toe line and center line are marked and pegs will be driven.
2. The material shall be dumped in site at respective location.
3. The material shall be spread in layers of uniform thickness not exceeding 200mm
compacted thicknesses over the entire width of the embankment by mechanical means
and will be graded with motor grader to the required camber.
4. Moisture content of the material shall be checked and extra required will be added.
5. The moisture content of each layer shall be checked and it should be within the range
of OMC +1% to OMC -2%. If moisture content is found out of these limits the same
will be brought within the limits by addition of water or by aeration as the case may be.

24. [14]
6. The compaction shall be done with the help of vibratory roller of 8 to 10 ton static
weight. Each layer shall be thoroughly compacted to the densities specified.
7. Loose pockets if any will be removed and replaced with approved material.
8. The above stages shall be repeated till the top level of the embankment is reached to
the specified levels and grades. The top levels are checked and shall be within the
+20mm and -25mm of the designed level.
Drainage and Channel Excavation
During construction, ditches are required to be maintained to ensure proper drainage at
all times. Any necessary ditches and channels should be constructed and maintained to
ensure there is no damage to the roadway section. All existing ditches, or drainage
channels, which the road crosses, need to be closed at the edge of the embankment,
unless pipes or structures are to be constructed and, where necessary, alternative
outfalls are to be provided. Any canals and channels which are located within the
embankment area need to be cleaned up and then back filled with sand. The sand fill
should reach a level of 500 mm above the water level.
SUBGRADE CONSTRUCTION
SUBGRADE:
Subgrade is one of the most crucial part of embankment fills or natural surface just
below the sub-base or lower sub-base of road pavement and shoulder. The surface
above the subgrade is known as the formation level or finishing level. Subgrade is the
in situ material upon which the pavement structure is placed or constructed at selected
location.
 All subgrade material must be free from vegetable matter.
 The subgrade must be shaped to the required profile.
 The subgrade should be of an appropriate material and at a moisture content that
it can be compacted to form a stable layer, for the full width of the embankment.
 When specified, subgrade drains should be constructed to the edge of the
embankment.

25. [15]
 The compacted subgrade layer requires to be approved with any soft areas being
rectified, before work can start on the pavement.
Formation level is defined as the final level of soil surface after completion of
earthworks and when trough the process of compaction, stabilization and reinforced.
The subgrade main function is to withstand the loading of road pavement (sub-base, base,
etc.) above it.
4.2: Typical Cut and Fill Sections
Procedure:
1. The toe line and center line are marked and pegs will be driven.
2. The material shall be dumped in site at respective location.
3. The material shall be spread in layers of uniform thickness not exceeding 200mm
compacted thicknesses over the entire width of the subgrade by mechanical means and
will be graded to the required camber.
4. Moisture content of the material shall be checked and extra required will be added.
5. The moisture content of each layer shall be checked and it should be within the range
of OMC +1% to OMC -2%. If moisture content is found out of these limits the same
will be brought within the limits by addition of water or by aeration as the case may be.

26. [16]
6. The compaction shall be done with the help of vibratory roller of 8 to 10 ton static
weight. Each layer shall be thoroughly compacted to the densities specified.
7. Loose pockets if any will be removed and replaced with approved material.
8. The above stages shall be repeated till the top level of the embankment is reached to
the specified levels and grades. The top levels are checked and shall be within the
+20mm and -25mm of the designed level.
Performance of Subgrade
The subgrade‟s performance generally depends on two interrelated characteristics:
Load Bearing Capacity The subgrade must be able to sustain loads transmitted from the
pavement structure. The load bearing capacity is frequently affected by the types of
soil, moisture content, and degree of compaction. A subgrade that can sustain a highly
sum of loading without an excessive deformation was considered good quality.
The types of soil especially from gravel type considered the best and from peat type
considered as the worst material. Moisture content of soil is also important and
determine by conducting the soil compaction test at lab as to find out which type
contains more water. The degree of compaction normally reflect to the method of
compaction used at construction site, by means of machinery and the numbers of passes.
Fig 4.3: Preparation of subgrade layer
PAVEMENT LAYERS

27. [17]
At least seven days before a proposed material's use a sample of the material along with
laboratory test results have to be submitted by the contractor to the Engineer for
approval. Fresh approval is required if the material is changed. The material for sub
base and base must be graded, with sufficient fines that they can be properly compacted.
All areas of segregated coarse or fine material must be corrected, or removed and
replaced with complying material.
Continued checks on materials must be carried out throughout the contract period. If
the materials’ tests indicate changes have occurred the contractor and the Engineer must
be immediately informed. The moisture content of the material at the time of
compaction must be appropriate to produce a dense compacted layer. If a pavement
layer, does not conform with the thickness or tolerance required, the layer must be
corrected. Once the correction is completed the area should be rechecked to ensure it
conforms to the correct depth, cross fall and degree of compaction.
·Each layer should be tested for compaction (3 tests for each
1000 square metres). If the test results show that the required density is not achieved,
further compaction must be undertaken. Each layer of pavement must be shaped,
compacted and approved ahead of the placing of subsequent material.
Materials
Improved Subgrade –
Material for improved subgrade should be locally available material which is a natural
or artificial mixture of sand or other mineral aggregate, free from vegetable matter. The
material should not be greater than 5 mm and should not contain clay or soft particles.
Sub-Base - Sub base is the secondary load spreading layer of the pavement. The
material should be a natural or artificial aggregate (or a combination) with no vegetable
matter, soft particles or clay. The material requires to have varying sizes of material
(well graded) with sufficient fine material so that it can be compacted to produce a close
and tight surface texture. The coarse aggregates should not appear particularly flaky or
elongated
Construction Methods of Pavements

28. [18]
The grading and quality of the materials need to be monitored throughout the works.
Samples of the materials brought to site should be regularly taken for testing (see table
at back of this report for frequency) to ensure that the materials continue to conform
with the specification. If the tests indicate changes have occurred the contractor is to be
notified of the noncompliance and the Engineer must be informed immediately.
Each layer needs to be inspected and be acceptable immediately prior to laying the next
layer. If the previous layer is acceptable material should be spread in layers of nearly
equal thickness up to 150mm un-compacted thickness. Where sand and aggregates are
combined together to meet the specified grading, care should be taken to prevent
separation into fine and coarse parts (segregation). If separation occurs, this either needs
to be corrected, or the material should be removed and replaced.
When the shoulder construction is the same as for the road, the material should be
spread, for the full width of the pavement and shoulders at the same time.

29. [19]
The moisture content at the time of spreading requires to be appropriate to produce a
dense compacted layer. This requires that the material contains a moisture content close
to optimum throughout the layer. Additional water, or time to allow the pavement
material to dry, prior to, or during compaction may be required. This is the contractor’s
responsibility and no additional payment be made.
After spreading, each layer requires to be compacted with suitable and adequate
compaction equipment. Rolling should begin from the outer edge of the placed material
and gradually progress towards the centre, rolling in generally a longitudinal direction.
However, on super-elevated curves, the rolling should begin at the low side and
progress towards the high side.

30. [20]
Fig 4.4: bitumen paver
Fig 4.5: compact bitumen
BITUMINOUS LAYERS AND MIXES
At least 14 days in advance of a proposed material’s use, samples of the material along
with laboratory test results should be submitted to the Engineer. If approved, the
contractor should then carry out trial mixes.
The surface upon which the bitumen or bituminous mixture is to be placed must be
thoroughly cleaned immediately before the bitumen or mixture is placed.
Bituminous materials should be placed only when the surface is dry, when rain does
not appear imminent and when the prepared roadbed is in a satisfactory condition.
The entire surface to be primed must be covered evenly. Prior to any spraying, the
nozzles on the spray bar of the distributor should be checked to ensure that they are all
working. Where appropriate the distributor should be calibrated to ensure the required

31. [21]
rate of spray is achieved. Depending on the nature of the surface to be primed a light
application of water just prior to priming may be beneficial to aid penetration of the
bituminous material. No bituminous mixtures should be placed until the prime coat has
dried. Tack coat may need to be applied to make the road surface sticky prior to the
bituminous carpeting layer being placed.
For Primer Seals and Bitumen Surface Treatments the aggregate must be spread and
rolled into bitumen immediately after spraying, preferably rolling should be by multi
tyre rollers.
BITUMINOUS LAYERS AND MIXES PROCEDURE MANUAL
No dense bituminous surfacing can occur until both the job mix formula and the trial
sections have been approved. Thereafter all asphalt work is required to follow the
approved Job Mix formula and the procedures established by the approved trials.
Samples to be collected from either the plant or the laid mat, as directed by the Engineer.
Samples should also be taken each day to determine the mix composition (Extraction
of bitumen test and grading, STP 10.4.72).
All equipment proposed to be used by the Contractor requires to be in good condition
and operated by competent and experienced operatives. Dense bituminous surfacing
must be thoroughly compacted as soon as the material will support the roller without
undue displacement or cracking. Excess use of water on the roller drums is to be avoid
as this cools the asphalt mat. The surface of the mixture after compaction must be close
and tight, and free from dragging cracks. Any mixture that is defective should be
removed and replaced with fresh hot material, which should be compacted immediately.
After final rolling, samples should be cut from areas of bituminous surfacing for density
and thickness measurement at 50m intervals. Where samples have been taken, fresh
material must be placed and thoroughly compacted.
Finishing, Compaction and Tolerances
If more than one layer of asphalt is laid the longitudinal joints in successive courses
should be staggered by a minimum of 250 mm, with the joint in the top course being in
the centre of the road. Transverse joints should be staggered by a minimum of 1m.

32. [22]
Before placing mixtures against them, all contact surfaces of kerbs, gutters, headers,
manholes etc. should be given a thin uniform coating of hot bitumen. In locations where
the use of rollers adjacent to these fixtures is not possible hot hand or mechanical
tampers, which will give an equivalent compaction to rollers, should be used. After
final rolling full depth samples should be cut for each 50m of completed surfacing to
check the density and the thickness of the layer by an approved coring machine. Where
samples have been taken, fresh material must be placed, and thoroughly compacted.
The density shall not be less than 97% core shall not be less than the specified thickness
by more than 5 mm. The average thickness of the mat shall not be less than the specified
thickness.
After compaction the surface of the road should appear to be impervious and to be free
from any dragging cracks or other surface blemishes. The surface should also be
checked at intervals not exceeding 10 m by a 3m straight edge and a crown template.
The variation between two contacts should not exceed 5 millimetres.
Any asphalt area that is defective, including any areas where petroleum products have
been dropped or spilled, must be removed and replaced with fresh hot mixture. This
asphalt requires to be compacted immediately and re-tested as appropriate.
Lastly, ideally sections of the newly laid surfacing should be protected from traffic until
the mixture has cooled to ambient air temperature (about 6 hours). However, in many
cases it will not be possible to allow all this time to elapse.

33. [23]

34. [24]

35. [25]

36. [26]

37. [27]
Case study CHAPTER 5
CONCLUSION
Highways are vitally important to a country’s economic development. The construction
of a high quality road network directly increases a nation’s economic output by
reducing journey times and costs, making a region more attractive economically. The
actual construction process will have the added effect of stimulating the construction
market.