Summer Training Report on CC ROAD Construction

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PUBLIC WORKS DEPARTMENT
SANTKABIRNAGAR

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CONTENT
 PWD OVERVIEW
 INTRODUCTION
 ROAD AND PAVEMENT
 TYPES OF PAVEMENT
 TYPES OF CONCRETE PAVEMENT
 USEDMATERIAL
 CEMENT
 SAND
 AGGREGATE
 CONCRETE
 PROPORTIONING
 TEST
 PROCEDURE OF CONSTRUCT THE PAVEMENT
 PREPARATIONOF BASE
 FORM WORKING
 PREPARATIONOF SUBGRADE
 WATERING OF BASE
 JOINTS
 MATERIAL MIX & PLACING
 COMPACTION
 FINISHING
 FLOATING
 BELTING
 BROOMING
 CURING
 JOINT FILLING
 EDGING
 OPEN TO TRAFFIC
 ROAD VERGE
 COST ANALYSIS OF RIGID PAVEMENT
 CONCLUSION

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A
SUMMER TRAINING REPORT
ON
CONSTRUCTION OF CEMENT CONCRETE ROAD
AT
U.P.P.W.D. SANTKABIR NAGAR
SUBMITTED FOR PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF
BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
CIVIL ENGINEERING
SUBMITTEDTO:- SUBMITTEDBY:-
Mr. V.K.SRIVASTAVA Vikas Kumar Mishra
(HOD of Civil Engg.Department.) B.Tech- 4th yr (Civil Engg)
Mr. PUNEET SHUKLA
(Faculty ofCivil Engg.Department)
GuidedBy:-
Er. V.P. Singh
Executive Engineer (PUBLIC WORKS DEPARTMENT)
INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT
AL-1 Sector-7, GIDA , Gorakhpur
Batch:- 2016-2017

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Name of Work :-- Construction of CC Road
Agreement no. :-- 04/CR/CE-III/2016-2017
Name of Contractor :-- Roshan real estate pvt ltd.
Plot size :-- 59845 Sqm Area
Estimated Cost :--
 civil work 60147287
 Elec.Work 2475332
 Total Cost 62622609
Tendered cost :--
 Civil work 65788182
 Elec. Work 2869490
Date of Start :-- May 29, 2016
Stipulated date of completion :-- May 26, 2017
Actual Date of Completion :-- work is under process
Time Allowed :-- 365 days

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Acknowledgement
It is indeed a great pleasure and privilege to present this report on training at
PUBLIC WORKS DEPARTMENT.
I am extremely grateful to my training and placement officer for issuing a training
letter, which made my training possible at PUBLIC WORKS DEPARTMENT
Gorakhpur.
I would like to express my gratitude to Er. V.P.SINGH for his invaluable
suggestions, motivation, guidance and support throughout the training. His
methodology to start from simple ant then deepen through made me to bring out
this project report without anxiety.
Thanks to all other PUBLIC WORKS DEPARTMENT officials, operators and
all other members of PUBLIC WORKS DEPARTMENT, yet uncounted for their
help in completing the project and see the light of success.
I am very thankful to my friend, collegues and all other persons who rendred their
assistance directly or indirectly to complete this project work successfully..
Dated :- July 8,2016

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PUBLIC WORKS DEPARTMENT : AN OVERVIEW
PUBLIC WORKS DEPARTMENT under the ministry of PUBLIC WORKS
DEPARTMENT is the pioneer in construction arena of UTTAR P RADESH.
Over about four centuries, PUBLIC WORKS DEPARTMENT could successfully
set the trend and standard the state’s infrastructure development. It plays a
pivotal role in the implementation of govt. construction project. It also undertakes
project for autonomous bodies as deposit works. PUBLIC WORKS
DEPARTMENT has highly qualified and experienced professionals forming a
multi-disciplinary team of civil, electrical and mechanical engineers who work
alongside architects from the Department of Architecture. With its base of
standards and professionals developed over the years. PUBLIC WORKS
DEPARTMENT is the repository of expertise and hence the first choices among
discerning clients for any type of construction project in Uttar Pradesh. Besides
being the construction agency of the govt. it performs regulatory function in setting
the pace and managing project for the country’s construction industry under the
close supervision of the ministry of housing and public works..

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 Planning of PUBLIC WORKS DEPARTMENT project mainly includes:---
 Pre requisites for execution of works
 Deposite of works
 Preparation of estimates
 Execution of original works
 Expeniture on survey, exhibition
 Register of buildings
 Green building norms
 Preparation and accounting of standard measurement book
 Preparation and passing bills for payment
 Documentation of accounts
 General departmental charges
 Contracts and forms
 Preparation of tender documents
 Publicity of tenders
 Sale of documents
 Earnest of money
 Issue of material to contractors
 Issue of tool and plant
 Payment to contractors
 Insurance
 Losses and damages
 Budgeting
 Quality assurance and technical audit wing
 Inspection and audit by chief controller
 Public accounts committee..

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INTRODUCTION
Point of view geographic and population of the state is the nation’s largest state.
State industrial , economic and social development of the state and the population
of each village is absolutely necessary to reconnect to the main roads. In addition
to state important national roads, state roads and district roads and their proper
broad be made to improve the quality of traffic point of view is of particular
importance. PUBLIC WORKS DEPARTMENT to build roads and improve
connectivity in rural zones, other district roads and state broad and improvement
of rural roads and main routes narrow construction of zones and depleted bridges
reconstruction of the bases and transacted on a priority basis. Also under Pradhan
mantri Gram Sadak Yojna and pre fabricated construction of rural roads linking
the work of other district roads broad Suddikrn the scale bases are edited.
Successful operation of various schemes for the PUBLIC WORKS
DEPARTMENT engineers and supervisory boards in different districts of the
engineer’s office has been settled. Activities by planning, execution and quality
control etc. remove impediments find joy in relation to the supervision over the
activities and focused. Various schemes operated by the department of the office of
the regional chief engineers and chief engineers’ office..

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Road
The Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) defines a
road as "a line of communication (travelled way) using a stabilized base other than
rails or air strips open to public traffic, primarily for the use of road motor vehicles
running on their own wheels," which includes "bridges, tunnels, supporting
structures, junctions, crossings, interchanges, and toll roads, but not cycle paths.
Construction
Road surfaceor pavementis the durable surface material laid down on an area
intended to sustain vehicular or foot traffic, such as aroad or walkway. In the
past, gravel road surfaces, cobblestone and granite setts were extensively used, but
these surfaces have mostly been replaced by asphalt or concrete laid on a
compacted base course. Road surfaces are frequently marked to guide traffic.
Today,permeable paving methods are beginning to be used for low-impact roadways
and walkways.

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Types of Pavements :--
There are various type of pavements depending upon the materials used. A briefs
description of all types is given here.
Flexible Pavements
a) Bitumen has been widely used in the construction of flexible pavements for a
long time. This is the most convenient and simple type of construction. The
cost of construction of single lane bituminous pavement varies from 20 to 30
lakhs per km in plain areas. In summer season, due to high temperature, the
bitumen becomes soft resulting in bleeding, rutting and segregation finally
leading to failure of pavement.
b) In Winter season, due to low temperature, the bitumen becomes brittle
resulting in cracking, raveling and unevenness which makes the pavement
unsuitable for use.
c) In rainy season, water enters the pavement resulting into pot holes and
sometimes total removal of bituminous layer.
d) In hilly areas, due to sub zero temperature, the freeze thaw and heave cycle
takes place. Due to freezing and melting of ice in bituminous voids, volume
expansion and contraction occur. This leads to pavements failure.
e) The cost of bitumen has been rising continuously. In near future, there will
be scarcity of bitumen and it will be impossible to procure bitumen at very
high costs.

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Semi Rigid Pavements
The pavements constructed using the waste materials, which are more strong the
traditional aggregates may be treated as Semi-Rigid Pavement.
Rigid Pavements
i. Rigid pavements, though costly in initial investment, are cheap in long run
because of low maintenance costs. There are various merits in the use of
Rigid pavements (Concrete pavements) are summarized below:
ii. Bitumen is derived from petroleum crude, which is in short supply globally
and the price of which has been rising steeply. India imports nearly 70% of
the petroleum crude. The demand for bitumen in the coming years is likely to
grow steeply, far outstripping the availability. Hence it will be in India's
interest to explore alternative binders. Cement is available in sufficient
quantity in India, and its availability in the future is also assured. Thus
cement concrete roads should be the obvious choice in future road
programmes.
iii. Besides the easy available of cement, concrete roads have a long life and are
practically maintenance-free.
iv. Another major advantage of concrete roads is the savings in fuel by
commercial vehicles to an extent of 14-20%. The fuel savings themselves can
support a large programme of concreting.
v. Cement concrete roads save a substantial quantity of stone aggregates and
this factor must be considered when a choice pavements is made,

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vi. Concrete roads can withstand extreme weather conditions – wide ranging
temperatures, heavy rainfall and water logging.
vii. Though cement concrete roads may cost slightly more than a flexible
pavement initially, they are economical when whole-life-costing is
considered.
viii. Reduction in the cost of concrete pavements can be brought about by
developing semi-self-compacting concrete techniques and the use of closely
spaced thin joints. R&D efforts should be initiated in this area.
Water
Water used for mixing of the cement concrete, and also that used for curing of the
cement concrete road construction shall be clean and portable. The water should be
free from salt, acid, oil and other organic matter.
Admixture in Cement Concrete Road Construction
Commonly used chemical admixture in the cement concrete road construction are:
i. To improve the workability of the concrete; a suitable air entraining agent
may be used.
ii. To provide an adequate extension of setting time of the concrete mix without
adversely affecting the other desirable properties of the concrete; super-
plasticizers which retard the setting time may be used. The total quality of
chemical admixture used is limited to a maximum of 2.0 %by weight of the
cement or used.

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Steel
Steel dowel bars with yield strength 2400 kg/sq. cm or 240 Mpa is used for the
load transfer across in the expansion joints and construction joints of cement
concrete roads. Plan or twisted steel bars are used as tie bars at longitudinal joints.
All steel rods shall be coated with epoxy paint for protection against corrosion.
Concrete
Concrete is a composite material composed of coarse aggregate bonded together with
a fluid cement which hardens over time. Most concretes used are lime-based
concretes such as Portland cement concrete or concretes made with other hydraulic
cements, such asciment fondu. However, asphalt concrete which is very frequently
used for road surfaces is also a type of concrete, where the cement material
is bitumen, and polymer concretes are sometimes used where the cementing material
is a polymer.
In Portland cement concrete (and other hydraulic cement concretes), when the
aggregate is mixed together with the dry cement and water, they form a fluid mass
that is easily molded into shape. The cement reacts chemically with the water and
other ingredients to form a hard matrix which binds all the materials together into
a durable stone-like material that has many uses.[2] Often, additives (such
as pozzolans orsuperplasticizers) are included in the mixture to improve the
physical properties of the wet mix or the finished material. Most concrete is poured
with reinforcing materials (such as rebar) embedded to provide tensile strength,
yielding reinforced concrete.

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Composition of concrete
There are many types of concrete available, created by varying the proportions of
the main ingredients below. In this way or by substitution for the cementitious and
aggregate phases, the finished product can be tailored to its application with
varying strength, density, or chemical and thermal resistance properties.
Aggregate consists of large chunks of material in a concrete mix, generally a coarse
gravel or crushed rocks such as limestone, or granite, along with finer materials
such as sand.
Cement, most commonly Portland cement, is associated with the general term
"concrete." A range of materials can be used as the cement in concrete. One of the
most familiar of these alternative cements is asphalt concrete. Other cementitious
materials such as fly ash and slag cement, are sometimes added as mineral
admixtures (see below) - either pre-blended with the cement or directly as a concrete
component - and become a part of the binder for the aggregate.
To produce concrete from most cements (excluding asphalt), water is mixed with the
dry powder and aggregate, which produces a semi-liquid that workers can shape,
typically by pouring it into a form. The concrete solidifies and hardens through
a chemical process called hydration. The water reacts with the cement, which bonds
the other components together, creating a robust stone-like material.
Chemical admixtures are added to achieve varied properties. These ingredients may
accelerate or slow down the rate at which the concrete hardens, and impart many
other useful properties including increased tensile strength, entrainment of air,
and/or water resistance.
Reinforcement is often included in concrete. Concrete can be formulated with
high compressive strength, but always has lower tensile strength. For this reason it
is usually reinforced with materials that are strong in tension, often steel.

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Mineral admixtures are becoming more popular in recent decades. The use of
recycled materials as concrete ingredients has been gaining popularity because of
increasingly stringent environmental legislation, and the discovery that such
materials often have complementary and valuable properties. The most conspicuous
of these are fly ash, a by-product of coal-fired power plants, ground granulated
blast furnace slag, and silica fume, a byproduct of industrial electric arc furnaces.
The use of these materials in concrete reduces the amount of resources required, as
the mineral admixtures act as a partial cement replacement. This displaces some
cement production, an energetically expensive and environmentally problematic
process, while reducing the amount of industrial waste that must be disposed of.
Mineral admixtures can be pre-blended with the cement during its production for
sale and use as a blended cement, or mixed directly with other components when
the concrete is produced.
Cement
Portland cement is the most common type of cement in general usage. It is a basic
ingredient of concrete, mortar and many plasters. English masonry worker Joseph
Aspdin patented Portland cement in 1824. It was named because of the similarity
of its color to Portland limestone, quarried from the English Isle of Portland and
used extensively in London architecture. It consists of a mixture of calcium
silicates (alite, belite), aluminates and ferrites - compounds which combine calcium,
silicon, aluminium and iron in forms which will react with water. Portland cement
and similar materials are made by heating limestone (a source of calcium) with clay
and/or shale (a source of silicon, aluminium and iron) and grinding this product
(called clinker) with a source of sulfate (most commonly gypsum).

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In modern cement kilns many advanced features are used to lower the fuel
consumption per ton of clinker produced. Cement kilns are extremely large, complex,
and inherently dusty industrial installations, and have emissions which must be
controlled. Even complex and efficient kilns require 3.3 to 3.6 gigajoules of energy
to produce a ton of clinker and then grind it into cement. Many kilns can be fueled
with difficult-to-dispose-of wastes, the most common being used tires. The
extremely high temperatures and long periods of time at those temperatures allows
cement kilns to efficiently and completely burn even difficult-to-use fuels.
Water
Combining water with a cementitious material forms a cement paste by the process
of hydration. The cement paste glues the aggregate together, fills voids within it,
and makes it flow more freely.[24]
A lower water-to-cement ratio yields a stronger, more durable concrete, whereas
more water gives a freer-flowing concrete with a higher slump.[25] Impure water
used to make concrete can cause problems when setting or in causing premature
failure of the structure.[26]
Hydration involves many different reactions, often occurring at the same time. As
the reactions proceed, the products of the cement hydration process gradually bond
together the individual sand and gravel particles and other components of the
concrete to form a solid mass.[27]
Reaction:
Cement chemist notation: C3S + H → C-S-H + CH
Standard notation: Ca3SiO5 + H2O → (CaO)·(SiO2)·(H2O)(gel) + Ca(OH)2
Balanced: 2Ca3SiO5 + 7H2O → 3(CaO)·2(SiO2)·4(H2O)(gel) +
3Ca(OH)2 (approximately; the exact ratios of the CaO, SiO2 and H2O in C-S-H can
vary)

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Reinforcement
Concrete is strong in compression, as the aggregate efficiently carries the
compression load. However, it is weak in tension as the cement holding the
aggregate in place can crack, allowing the structure to fail. Reinforced
concrete adds either steel reinforcing bars, steel fibers, to carry tensile load
Fly ash: Aby-product of coal-fired electric generating plants, it is used to partially
replace Portland cement (by up to 60% by mass). The properties of fly ash depend
on the type of coal burnt. In general, siliceous fly ash is pozzolanic,
while calcareous fly ash has latent hydraulic properties.
Ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBFS or GGBS): A by-product of steel
production is used to partially replace Portland cement (by up to 80% by mass). It
has latent hydraulic properties.[
Silica fume: Abyproduct of the production of silicon and ferrosilicon alloys. Silica
fume is similar to fly ash, but has a particle size 100 times smaller. This results in a
higher surface-to-volume ratio and a much faster pozzolanic reaction. Silica fume is
used to increase strength and durability of concrete, but generally requires the use
of super plasticizers for workability.
High reactivity Met kaolin (HRM):Met kaolin produces concrete with strength
and durability similar to concrete made with silica fume. While silica fume is
usually dark gray or black in color, high-reactivity met kaolin is usually bright
white in color, making it the preferred choice for architectural concrete where
appearance is important.
Carbon nanofibres can be added to concrete to enhance compressive strength and
higher Young’s modulus, and also to improve the electrical properties required for
strain monitoring, damage evaluation and self-health monitoring of concrete. has
many advantages in terms of mechanical and electrical properties (e.g. higher
strength ) and self-monitoring behavior due to the high tensile strength and high
conductivity.

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Workability
Workability is the ability of a fresh (plastic) concrete mix to fill the form/mold
properly with the desired work (vibration) and without reducing the concrete's
quality. Workability depends on water content, aggregate (shape and size
distribution), cementitious content and age (level of hydration) and can be modified
by adding chemical admixtures, like superplasticizer. Raising the water content or
adding chemical admixtures increases concrete workability. Excessive water leads
to increased bleeding and/or segregation of aggregates (when the cement and
aggregates start to separate), with the resulting concrete having reduced quality.
The use of an aggregate with an undesirable gradation[clarification needed] can result in a
very harsh mix design with a very low slump, which cannot readily be made more
workable by addition of reasonable amounts of water.
Workability can be measured by the concrete slump test, a simplistic measure
of the plasticity of a fresh batch of concrete following theASTM C 143 or EN
12350-2 test standards. Slump is normally measured by filling an "Abrams cone"
with a sample from a fresh batch of concrete. The cone is placed with the wide end
down onto a level, non-absorptive surface. It is then filled in three layers of equal
volume, with each layer being tamped with a steel rod to consolidate the layer.
When the cone is carefully lifted off, the enclosed material slumps a certain
amount, owing to gravity. A relatively dry sample slumps very little, having a
slump value of one or two inches (25 or 50 mm) out of one foot (305 mm). A
relatively wet concrete sample may slump as much as eight inches. Workability can
also be measured by the flow table test.

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Curing
A common misconception is that concrete dries as it sets, but the opposite is true -
damp concrete sets better than dry concrete. In other words, cement is "hydraulic":
water allows it to gain strength. Too much water is counterproductive, but too
little water is deleterious. Curing allows concrete to achieve optimal strength and
hardness.[47] Curing is the hydration process that occurs after the concrete has been
placed. In chemical terms, curing allows calcium-silicate hydrate (C-S-H) to form.
To gain strength and harden fully, concrete curing requires time. In around 4
weeks, typically over 90% of the final strength is reached, although strengthening
may continue for decades.[48]The conversion of calcium hydroxide in the concrete
into calcium carbonate from absorption of CO2 over several decades further
strengthens the concrete and makes it more resistant to damage.
This carbonation reaction, however, lowers the pH of the cement pore solution and
can corrode the reinforcement bars.
Hydration and hardening of concrete during the first three days is critical.
Abnormally fast drying and shrinkage due to factors such as evaporation from
wind during placement may lead to increased tensile stresses at a time when it has
not yet gained sufficient strength, resulting in greater shrinkage cracking. The early
strength of the concrete can be increased if it is kept damp during the curing
process. Minimizing stress prior to curing minimizes cracking. High-early-strength
concrete is designed to hydrate faster, often by increased use of cement that
increases shrinkage and cracking. The strength of concrete changes (increases) for
up to three years. It depends on cross-section dimension of elements and conditions
of structure exploitation.[49]
Properly curing concrete leads to increased strength and lower permeability and
avoids cracking where the surface dries out prematurely. Care must also be taken to
avoid freezing or overheating due to the exothermic setting of cement. Improper
curing can cause scaling, reduced strength, poor abrasion resistance and cracking.

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Surface finishes
Black basalt polished concrete floorRaw concrete surfaces tend to be porous, and
have a relatively uninteresting appearance. Many different finishes can be applied
to improve the appearance and preserve the surface against staining, water
penetration, and freezing.
The proper treatment of the surface of concrete, and therefore its characteristics, is
an important stage in the construction and renovation of architectural structure
Concrete roads
Concrete roads are more fuel efficient to drive on,[64] more reflective and last
significantly longer than other paving surfaces, yet have a much smaller market
share than other paving solutions. Modern paving methods and design practices
have changed the economics of concrete paving, so that a well designed and placed
concrete pavement will be less expensive on initial costs and significantly less
expensive over the life cycle. Another major benefit is that pervious concrete can be
used, which eliminates the need to place storm drainsnear the road, and reducing
the need for slightly sloped roadway to help rainwater to run off. No longer
requiring to discard the rainwater using drains also means that less electricity is
needed (more pumping is otherwise needed in the water distribution system), and no
rainwater gets polluted as it no longer mixes with polluted water; rather it is
immediately absorbed by the ground.
Fire safety
Concrete buildings are more resistant to fire than those constructed using steel
frames, since concrete has lower heat conductivity than steel and can thus last
longer under the same fire conditions. Concrete is sometimes used as a fire
protection for steel frames, for the same effect as above.

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Concrete also provides good resistance against externally applied forces such as high
winds, hurricanes, and tornadoes owing to its lateral stiffness, which results in
minimal horizontal movement.
Earthquake safety
As discussed above, concrete is very strong in compression, but weak in tension.
Larger earthquakes can generate very large shear loads on structures. These shear
loads subject the structure to both tensile and compressional loads. Concrete
structures without reinforcement, like other unreinforced masonry structures, can
fail during severe earthquake shaking. Unreinforced masonry structures constitute
one of the largest earthquake risks globally. These risks can be reduced through
seismic retrofitting of at-risk buildings,
Concrete is used to create hard surfaces that contribute to surface runoff, which
can cause heavy soil erosion, water pollution, and flooding, but conversely can be
used to divert, dam, and control flooding.
Concrete is a contributor to the urban heat island effect, though less so than
asphalt.
Workers who cut, grind or polish concrete are at risk of inhaling airborne silica,
which can lead to silicosis.[82] Concrete dust released by building demolition and
natural disasters can be a major source of dangerous air pollution.
The presence of some substances in concrete, including useful and unwanted
additives, can cause health concerns due to toxicity and radioactivity. Fresh
concrete (before curing is complete) is highly alkaline and must be handled with
proper protective equipment

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PROPORTIONING
Cement, sand and coarse aggregates should be measure according to their fixed
proportions. Make a standard measuring box according to the volume of one
cement bag. Volume of one cement bag is 1.25 cubic foot.
Bulking of sand should be under consideration while measuring sand proportion.
Consider dry sand while calculation of proportioning. Measure the moisture
content in sand and add extra volume of sand. Continuously measure moisture
content during construction work and add extra volume of sand according to the
amount of moisture. Don’t compact coarse aggregates while proportioning.
Particle Shape and Surface Texture – the particle shape and surface texture of both
coarse and fine aggregates have a significant influence on the properties of the
plastic concrete. Rough textured, angular, or elongated particles require more water
to produce workable concrete than smooth, rounded, compact aggregates, and as a
result, these aggregates require more cementing materials to maintain the same
water-cement ratio. Angular or poorly graded aggregates may result in the
production of concrete that is more difficult to pump and also may be more difficult
to finish. The hardened concrete strength will generally increase with increasing
coarse aggregate angularity, and flat or elongated coarse aggregate particles should
be avoided Rounded fine aggregate particles are more desirable because of their
positive effect on plastic concrete workability.
Durability – resistance to freezing and thawing is necessary for concrete
aggregates, and is related to the aggregate porosity, absorption, permeability, and
pore structure.
Deleterious Materials – aggregates should be free of potentially deleterious
materials such as clay lumps, shales, or other friable particles, and other materials
that could affect its chemical stability, weathering resistance, or volumetric
stability.

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Concrete Slump Test
The concrete slump test is used for the measurement of a property of fresh concrete.
The test is an empirical test that measures the workability of fresh concrete. More
specifically, it measures consistency between batches. The test is popular due to the
simplicity of apparatus used and simple procedure.
Principle
The slump test result is a measure of the behavior of a compacted inverted cone of
concrete under the action of gravity. It measures the consistency or the wetness of
concrete.
Apparatus
i. Slump cone
ii. Scale for measurement
iii. Temping rod (steel)

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Procedure of Concrete Slump test:
a) The mold for the slump test is a frustum of a cone, 300 mm (12 in) of height.
The base is 200 mm (8in) in diameter and it has a smaller opening at the top
of 100 mm (4 in).
b) The base is placed on a smooth surface and the container is filled with
concrete in three layers, whose workability is to be tested .
c) Each layer is temped 25 times with a standard 16 mm (5/8 in) diameter steel
rod, rounded at the end.
d) When the mold is completely filled with concrete, the top surface is struck
off (leveled with mould top opening) by means of screening and rolling
motion of the temping rod.
e) The mould must be firmly held against its base during the entire operation so
that it could not move due to the pouring of concrete and this can be done by
means of handles or foot - rests brazed to the mould.
f) Immediately after filling is completed and the concrete is leveled, the cone is
slowly and carefully lifted vertically, an unsupported concrete will now
slump.
g) The decrease in the height of the center of the slumped concrete is called
slump.
h) The slump is measured by placing the cone just besides the slump concrete
and the temping rod is placed over the cone so that it should also come over
the area of slumped concrete.
i) The decrease in height of concrete to that of mould is noted with scale.
(usually measured to the nearest 5 mm (1/4 in).

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Precautions
In order to reduce the influence on slump of the variation in the surface friction,
the inside of the mould and its base should be moistened at the beginning of every
test, and prior to lifting of the mould the area immediately around the base of the
cone should be cleaned from concrete which may have dropped accidentally.

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Types Of Slump
The slumped concrete takes various shapes, and according to the profile of slumped
concrete, the slump is termed as;
a) Collapse Slum
b) Shear Slump
c) True Slump
Collapse Slump
In a collapse slump the concrete collapses completely. A collapse slump will
generally mean that the mix is too wet or that it is a high workability mix, for
which slump test is not appropriate.
Shear Slump
In a shear slump the top portion of the concrete shears off and slips sideways. OR
If one-half of the cone slides down an inclined plane, the slump is said to be a shear
slump.
If a shear or collapse slump is achieved, a fresh sample should be taken and the test
is repeated.
If the shear slump persists, as may the case with harsh mixes, this is an indication
of lack of cohesion of the mix.

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True Slump
In a true slump the concrete simply subsides, keeping more or less to shape
This is the only slump which is used in various tests.
Mixes of stiff consistence have a Zero slump, so that in the rather dry range no
variation can be detected between mixes of different workiability.
However , in a lean mix with a tendency to harshness, a true slump can easily
change to the shear slump type or even to collapse, and widely different values of
slump can be obtained in different samples from the same mix; thus, the slump test
is unreliable for lean mixes.

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SUBGRADES
Using information from a deliberate soil survey as outlined in Chapter 2 of FM 5-
530, consider the following factors when determining the suitability of a subgrade:
General characteristics of the subgrade soils.
Depth to bedrock.
Depth to the water table.
Compaction that can be attained in the subgrade.
CBR values of uncompacted and compacted subgrades.
Presence of weak or soft layers or organics in the subsoil.
Susceptibility to detrimental frost action or excessive swell.
COMPACTION
Compaction normally increases the strength of subgrade soils. A specification block
should be used to determine limits for density and moisture content.
Compaction is relatively simple in fill sections because all the layers are subjected to
construction processes and can be compacted during construction. Compaction is
more difficult in cut sections. Compaction must be obtained during construction to
a depth at which the natural density of the material will resist further
consolidation under traffic

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SELECTION OF BASE COURSE
Selection of the type of base-course construction depends on the materials and
equipment available and the anticipated weather conditions during construction. A
complete investigation should be made to determine the location and characteristics
of all natural materials suitable for base-course construction. Base courses of
untreated natural materials are less affected by adverse weather and normally
require less technical control. Untreated bases are relatively easy and fast to build
and are preferable to bituminous or cement-stabilized types. This is true even where
suitable admixture materials for such construction are readily available, which is
not true in many areas of the world.
Fine Grading
The subgrade is fine graded to achieve the desired cross section established by final
grade stakes. Before placing select material, subbase, and base course, the subgrade
should be compacted to attain the required density, and ruts and other soft spots
should be corrected.
Hauling, Placing, and Spreading
Placing and spreading material on the prepared subgrade may begin at the point
nearest the borrow source or at the point farthest from the source. The advantage
of working from the point nearest the source is that the haul vehicles can be routed
over the spread material, which compacts the base and avoids damage to the
subgrade. An advantage of working from the point farthest from the source is that
hauling equipment will further compact the subgrade. Also, this practice will not
overwork the base course, which can cause unwanted segregation. This method also
reveals any weak spots in the subgrade so that they can be corrected prior to
placement of the base courses, and interferes less with spreading and compaction
equipment.

30. - 30 -
The self-propelled aggregate spreader is the preferred piece of equipment for placing
a base course. If a self-propelled spreader is not available, base-course material can
be spread using towed spreaders, scrapers, or dump trucks. If equipment capable of
spreading the aggregate in even lifts is not available, the material can be initially
dumped in long windrows and subsequently spread with graders, dozers, or front-
end loaders.
Lift thickness should be based on the ability to compact the material to the required
density. A good rule of thumb is to initially place the base course in 6-inch lifts.
After testing the compacted density, increase or decrease the lift thickness as
necessary to meet the project requirements.
Blending and Mixing
Materials to be blended and mixed should be spread on the road, runway, or
taxiway in correct proportions, with the finer material on top. Fold the fine
material into the coarser aggregate with the grader blade. If available, dry-mix the
material using blades, disks, harrows, or rototillers, leaving the material in
windrows. When a grader is used, thoroughly mix the materials by blading the
windrows of materials from one side of the area to the other, with the blade of the
grader set to give a rolling action to the material. The coarse and fine aggregates
can also be mixed in mechanical plants (mobile or stationary) or on a paved area
with graders and bucket loaders. Proportionally distribute the coarse and fine
aggregates by weight or volume in quantities so that the specified gradation, LL,
and PI requirements are attained after the base has been placed and compacted.
Mixing operations should produce uniform blending.
When mechanical mixing is used, place the coarse and fine aggregates in separate
stockpiles or adjacent windrows to permit easy proportioning. When bucket loaders
are used, place the fine-and coarse-aggregate portions in adjacent windrows on a
paved area. Blade the windrows together to meet the requirements specified for the
project.

31. - 31 -
Watering Base Materials
As in subgrade-compaction operations, obtaining the specified compacted density
requires that the material be placed and compacted at a moisture content inside the
specification block. The moisture content of the base material at the site can be
obtained by a nuclear densometer, a speedy moisture tester, or by expedient
methods. Given the on-site moisture content, the engineer in charge can calculate
exactly how much water is to be added or if the base needs to be aerated to achieve
the specified moisture content range.
Controlled watering can be done with a truck-mounted water distributor. Asphalt
distributors should not be used because the pump lubrication system is not designed
for water. Any container capable of movement and gravity discharge of water may
be used as an expedient water distributor.
Compacting
Base-course compacting must produce a uniformly dense layer that conforms to the
specification block. Compact base-course material with vibratory or heavy, rubber-
tired rollers. Maintain moisture content during the compaction procedure within
the specified moisture-content range. Compact each layer through the full depth to
the required density. Measure field densities on the total sample. Use a test strip to
determine which rollers are most effective and how many roller passes are necessary
to achieve the desired compaction. The care and judgment used when constructing
the base course will directly reflect on the quality of the finished flexible pavement.
Base-course layers that contain gravel and soil-binder material may be compacted
initially with a sheepsfoot roller and rubber-tired rollers. Rubber-tired rollers are
particularly effective in compacting base materials if a kneading motion is required
to adjust and pack the particles. Base courses of crushed rock, lime rock, and shell
are compacted with vibratory, steel-wheeled, or rubber-tired rollers. Select the
equipment and methods on each job to suit the characteristics of the base material.
When using rollers, begin compaction on the outside edges and work inward,
overlapping passes by one-half of a roller width.

32. - 32 -
Finishing
Finishing operations must closely follow compaction to furnish a crowned, light,
water-shedding surface free of ruts and depressions that would inhibit runoff. Use
the grader for finishing compacted aggregate bases. Blade the material from one
side of the runway, taxiway, or road to the middle and back to the edge until the
required lines and grades are obtained. Before final rolling, the bladed material
must be within the specified moisture-content range so it will consolidate with the
underlying material to form a dense, unyielding mass. If this is not done, thin
layers of the material will not be bound to the base, and peeling and scabbing may
result. Final rolling is done with rubber-tired and steel-wheeled rollers.
Preparing Subgrade
If a macadam base course is constructed on a material with high plasticity, there
may be base infiltration. This can be prevented with a blanket course of fine
material such as crusher screenings or 3 to 4 inches of sand. The blanket course
should be lightly moistened and rolled to a smooth surface before spreading the
coarse macadam aggregate. A membrane or a geotextile fabric may be used in lieu of
the blanket course.
Spreading
Macadam aggregate must be placed and spread carefully to ensure that hauling
vehicles do not add objectionable material to the aggregate. Care is particularly
necessary when placing the aggregate at the point nearest to the source and routing
hauling vehicles over the spread material. If the compacted thickness of the lift is 4
inches or less, spread the loose macadam aggregate in a uniform layer of sufficient
depth to meet requirements. For greater compacted thickness, apply the aggregate
successively in two or more layers. Spreading should be from dump boards, towed
aggregate spreaders, or moving vehicles that distribute the material in a uniform
layer. When more than one layer is required, construction procedures are identical
for all layers.

33. - 33 -
Compacting
Immediately following spreading, compact the coarse aggregate the full width of
the strip by rolling it with a steel-wheeled roller. Rolling should progress gradually
from the sides to the middle of each strip in a crown section, and from the low side
to the high side where there is a transverse slope across the road, runway, or
taxiway. Continue rolling until the absence of creep or wave movement of the
aggregate ahead of the roller indicates that the aggregate is stable. Do not attempt
rolling when the subgrade is softened by rain.
Finished Surfaces
The base-course surface determines the smoothness of the finished pavement. If the
finished base dots not conform to the specified grade when tested with a 12-foot
straightedge, the finished pavement also will not conform. The base surface should
be smooth and conform to specified design requirements.
When tested with a 12-foot straightedge applied parallel and perpendicular to the
centerline of the paved area, the surface of the base course should not show any
deviation in excess of 3/4 inch for roads and airfields Correct any deviation in
excess of these figures, and remove material to the total depth of the lift, replacing
with new material and compacting as specified above.
Applying Water
Wet rolling does not require the large amount of water demanded for slush rolling,
and the base course does not need to go through the curing period required by the
slush-rolling method. Apply enough water to the base course to raise the moisture
content of the upper 1 to 2 inches of the base course to approximately 2 percentage
points above the minimum moisture content. The percent of moisture will vary with
the type of material and is a matter of judgement by the project's quality control
manager

34. - 34 -
Finishing
Finish the surface by having the grader blade lightly cut the final surface. The light
blading will loosen the fines; the coarser particles of the base course will be carried
along by the blade to form a windrow at the edge of the section being finished. This
coarse aggregate can be evenly distributed over the area and incorporated into the
surface of the base by a steel-wheeled roller closely following the grader. Additional
water may be required, and rolling by the steel-wheeled and pneumatic-tired rollers
must be continued until a smooth, dense surface is obtained. This method can also
be used for correcting minor surface irregularities in the base coursen
Soil Stabilization
Soil Stabilization is the alteration of soils to enhance their physical
properties. Stabilization can increase the shear strength of a soil and/or control the
shrink-swell properties of a soil, thus improving the load bearing capacity of a
subgrade to support pavements and foundation.

35. - 35 -
Edging and Kerbs
Kerbs (raise or flat edging) are typically used on the edge of roads and side-
walks. The profile (shape) and height of kerbs vary according to the application.
Kerbing is a versatile product that provides both a neat finish as well as practical
uses. The most obvious function of kerbs is to guide storm water to catchment
structures and precision measurements are required to ensure that no puddles are
formed.
Two construction methods are used for the installation of kerbs and edging; in-situ
casting or packing pre-manufactured blocks (pre-cast).
Using pre-cast kerbs
For pre-cast kerbs a foundation is dug, filled with a suitable stabilized mixture and
then the kerbing blocks are positioned carefully according to horizontal and vertical
measurements. Every block is individually aligned and secured into position with
the stabilized mixture before the openings between the blocks are filled with
cement by experienced masons to create a neatly finished product. This
construction method is very labor-intensive creating jobs for a vast array of skilled,
semi-skilled and unskilled laborers.
Casting kerbs in-situ
In-situ kerbing is most cost-effective where long stretches of edging are
required. With in-situ (on site casting) the kerbing strip is cast with a “moving
mould” (kerbing machine) in the correct position and finished by hand. Although
the concrete mixture for this process may vary according to application, every
mixture requires specific ratios of the various materials (typically coarse gravel,
river stone, sand, water and cement) to achieve the neat, yet strong final product..

36. - 36 -
Conclusions
Based on the above discussion, following conclusions are made:
Concrete roads are good roads but not cheaper roads. These roads should be
considered only if sufficient funds are available. The thickness of the pavement and
the reinforcement should not be compromised.
Semi Rigid pavements should be constructed in nearby areas of steel plants where
these materials are available free of cost. In this regard, Government may pass an
ordinance for compulsory use of these materials in such areas.
Bitumen is going to more costly in future. So it should be used very judiciously.
Modification like CR, EVA and SBS may be used to reduce the susceptibility of
the bitumen. It will reduce the quantity of bitumen also.